TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE Page No

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 31

3. WORKING PRINCIPLE 33

4. METHODOLOGY 34

5. APPLICATIONS 36

6. ADVANTAGES 37

7. DISADVANTAGES 38

8. CONCLUSION 39

9. REFERENCES 40

1
 ABSTRACT

This paper is to discuss to design and fabrication of a manual spring

rolling machine by a simple mechanism arrangement for the production of

closed and open coil helical springs. This machine is operated by manual

method. This machine produces closed coil helical spring of different diameter

and different length. Rolling is the process of bending metal wire to a curved

form. The article in the shape of round is made by spring roller shaft. Rolling

operation can be done on hand or power operated rolling machine. It can make a

spring from a shaft. A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to

transmit power from one place to another. A bearing is machine element which

supports another moving machine element. Guider is used to guide the raw

material (spring wire). This guider moves on the shaft automatically. This self-

movement is achieved by the lead of spring. Handle is used to operate the

rolling machine manually, without electric power frame is carries an all parts of

the machine, it is made up of mild steel. A work holding mechanism is used to

hold the mandrel; it is attached to the main shaft of machine. Mandrel is fitting

in the work holding mechanism, the mandrel’s outer diameter is known as

internal diameter of the spring. Keywords: Spring rolling, Helical spring,

Mandrel, Spring wire

2
 1. INTRODUCTION

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SPRING MAKING IN

MANUAL ROLLING

This paper is to discuss to design and fabrication of a manual

spring rolling machine by a simple mechanism arrangement for the production
of closed and open coil helical springs. This machine is operated by manual
method. This machine produces closed coil helical spring of different diameter
and different length. Rolling is the process of bending metal wire to a curved
form. The article in the shape of round is made by spring roller shaft. Rolling
operation can be done on hand or power operated rolling machine. It can make a
spring from a shaft. A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to
transmit power from one place to another. A bearing is machine element
which supports another moving machine element. Guider is used to guide the
raw material (spring wire). This guider moves on the shaft automatically. This
self-movement is achieved by the lead of spring. Handle is used to operate the
rolling machine manually, without electric power frame is carries an all parts of
the machine, it is made up of mild steel. A work holding mechanism is used to
hold the mandrel; it is attached to the main shaft of machine. Mandrel is fitting
in the work holding mechanism, the mandrel’s outer diameter is known as
internal diameter of the spring

A spring is a device that changes its shape in response to an external

force, returning to its original shape when the force is removed. The energy
expended in deforming the spring is stored in it and can be recovered when the
spring returns to its original shape. The amount of deformation is directly
proportional to force exerted. Spring rolling industry is a large and growing
industry. There are many special purpose machines used in this industry to-day.
The proper selection of the machines depends upon the type of the work under –

3
taken by the particular industry. There are many examples of spring rolling
work include iron, copper, tin, aluminum, stainless and brass. This project the
“SPRING ROLLING MACHINE” finds huge application in all spring rolling
industry. Rolling is the process of bending metal wire to a curved form. The
article in the shape of round is made by spring roller shaft. Rolling operation
can be done on hand or power operated rolling machine. In forming round
spring shapes a gradual curve is to be put in the metal rather than sharp bends.
The gap between the springs can be regulated by proper arrangement. Spring is
elastic bodies (generally metal) that can be twisted, pulled or stretched by some
force. They can Return to their original shape when the force is released. In
other words it is also termed as a resilient member. A spring is defined as an
elastic machine element, which deflects under the action of the load & returns to
its original shape when the load is removed. Mechanical springs are used in
machine designs to exert force, provide flexibility, and to store or absorb
energy. Springs are manufactured for many different applications such as
compression, extension, torsion, power, and constant force. Depending on the
application, a spring may be in a static, cyclic or dynamic operating mode. A
spring is usually considered to be static if a change in deflection or load occurs
only a few times, such as less than 10,000 cycles during the expected life of the
spring. A static spring may remain loaded for very long periods of time. The
failure modes of interest for static springs include spring relaxation, set and
creep.

The goal of this project is to design and fabrication of a manual spring

rolling machine by a RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Kurian
Seby.et.al. Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application www.ijera.com
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 6, Issue 10, ( Part -1) October 2016, pp.48-51
www.ijera.com 49 | P a g e simple mechanism arrangement for the production
of closed and open coil helical springs. The specific characteristics being

4
variable spring diameters, variable spring coil diameters of various materials by
manual rolling process. The scope of this project is the application of this
“MANUAL SPRING ROLLING MACHINE” in small scale industries for the
production of open and closed helical springs of varying spring coil diameters
and varying spring diameter, without much expense in a small scale level. The
importance of this study was that to know about the different springs that are
used in many automobile parts and other mechanisms, and the crucial role that
they play in different mechanisms. The spring machine is made by a very
simple arrangement. This machine is operated by manual method.

This machine produces closed coil helical spring of different diameter

and different length. In our project is the spring rolling machine. Rolling is the
process of bending metal wire to a curved form. IV. WORKING PRINCIPLE
When the hand wheel is rotated, the shaft will run. The main shaft is coupled to
the bearing with the help of mild steel plate arrangement. The main shaft is
rotated with help of hand wheel rotation. Before the hand wheel rotation, the
spring wire locked to the lock nut in the spring mandrel.

The spring wire is supplied by applying the load through a guide which
is fixed in the frame stand. The guide will rotate freely according to the speed of
the spring rolling shaft. The main shafts one end is coupled to the chuck and
other end is coupled to the hand wheel. A spindle shaft or mandrel (various
diameters) is attached to the chuck and it rotates. The spring rolling shaft is
rotated when the hand wheel is rotates. The spring is rolled with the spring
rolling shaft. The change in the length of spring due to the rotation of the spring
is decided by the operator. After making the required length of the spring the
hand wheel is rotation is stopped. After producing the finished product of
spring, the procedure is repeated for mass production.

5
DRAWING FOR COIL WINDING MACHINE:

PARTS

1. BASE
2. THREAD ROD
3. NUT
4. COLLECT VAN

BASE
The base of the machine withstands the total weight of the body.
Generally the base is made of Mild Steel Grade EN8. These are hammered,
rolled, and machined to get the required shape.
Raw Materials
India is endowed with abundant Iron ore resources, the basic input for
steel making. Of late, large scale exports of iron ore have raised concerns about
future availability of iron ore resources to meet the fast rising domestic steel
demand. Large quantities of iron ore fines are exported due to mismatch
between domestic production and consumption and also lack of adequate
sintering and pelletisation facilities for steel making. Steel industry confronts

6
the problem of depletion of high grade ore deposits and lack of domestic
technological capabilities to process low grade iron ores. In the larger national
interest of conservation of natural resources and environment, efforts are being
made to preserve and utilize the precious Iron ore fines for domestic production
of steel and at the same time the Ministry has taken measures to discourage
export by imposing higher tariffs and special levies etc. The domestic
availability of Coking coal, a critical raw material required by steel industry is
limited and therefore the Indian Steel industry has to depend heavily on
imported coking coal to meet its needs. Currently, domestic steel makers meet
70% of their coking coal requirement through imports. The quantum of imports
may go up significantly in the 12th plan as steel production in a large number of
new projects is likely to be through the BF-BOF route. To ensure raw material
security and minimize the impact of volatility in coal prices, it is desirable to
acquire overseas coking coal assets. International Coal Ventures Limited
(ICVL), a Joint Venture company promoted by SAIL in 2008-09 and consisting
of RINL, NMDC, CIL and NTPC to achieve the above objective has not made
much progress so far but it is imperative to make this venture more effective. 17
In view of the limited availability of coking coal in the global market and the
fact that its supply is controlled by a few large companies, it will be extremely
important to increase the domestic production of coking coal and upgrade its
quality to meet the requirements of steel making. Technologies which require
less of coking coal and lower grades of it will need to be encouraged. Non-
coking coal used for production of sponge iron is also increasingly becoming
scarce in the country. With the demand for non-coking coal from priority
sectors like power, Fertilizers etc going up further, its availability for steel
making is likely to be limited during the 12th plan. While sponge iron producers
may opt for import of coal, the economic viability of this sector may be under
pressure due to higher prices of imported coal. Moreover, the gas based DRI
units face restricted supply of CNG, largely due to priority allocation of gas to

7
power and fertilizer sectors. Supply of CNG to this sector is a major concern for
its growth and these units may have to depend more on imported source of fuel
supply. Many existing and new producers propose to create additional capacity
manifold under gas based route in Twelfth plan period.
Infrastructure
Development and growth of Infrastructure sector is critical for rapid
growth of domestic steel industry in the country. Steel industry is a major user
of infrastructural facilities especially of Railways, roads, power, and ports.
Besides, the competitiveness of domestic steel industry depends heavily on the
expansion and provision of efficient infrastructural facilities. As per the
working group projections, the steel production in the country will nearly
double within the next five years. This requires rapid growth of railways, roads,
ports and power facilities. The existing infrastructural facilities are not
adequate. The domestic steel industry meets 70% of its coking coal requirement
from imported sources and if the same trend is maintained, nearly 50 million
tonnes of coking coal will have to be imported by 2016-17. There is urgent need
for expansion of port capacity to handle the raw materials and finished goods of
steel sector. The steel plants which are likely to come on stream in Twelfth plan
period will need to transport 85 to 90 million tonnes of iron ore from the mines
and also deliver 45 to 50 million tonnes of finished steel from steel plants to
distribution centres. Therefore, there is immediate need for substantial up
gradation of infrastructural facilities to meet the increasing steel requirements of
the steel industry. Investments to the tune of US $ 1 Trillion are proposed in the
infrastructure sector in the 12th plan. An investment of this scale and size is
likely to generate higher domestic demand for steel and at the same time help
build necessary infrastructure required for the steel industry. Large investments
of this nature suffer from gestation lags, constraints in mobilization of financial
resources, land acquisition issues and hurdles in obtaining statutory clearances
in case of mega infrastructural projects. These need to be sorted out since the
8
development of infrastructure sector has strong forward and backward linkages
and contributes significantly to overall growth and development of the
economy.
Leadscrews
Leadscrews are threaded rods used to lead a component on, for example
the X-axis assembly on the Z-axis. For most RepRaps a common (straight!)
threaded rod is sufficient, but for higher precision and reduced wobble you
might want to use real leadscrews.There are two main thread profiles for leadscrews,
both of which are trapezoidal: Trapezoidal and Acme. The important but subtle
difference is the angle of the thread flank. Be sure to get matching nuts.

PRELOADING

A common way to reduce leadscrew backlash is to preload: ensure the nut

is in contact with the thread at all times. You can do this using two nuts with a
spring in between. This keeps each nut pressed against the thread, reducing
backlash. However, it will also make the rod harder to turn. More information
and pictures in the article

THREAD ROD
A threaded rod is a metal rod with threads welded on or rolled out. It is
usually used as a frame construction part and as lead screws for the Z-axis. The
most commonly used type of threaded rod in a RepRap or a RepStrap is a steel
M8 (8 mm diameter) one

A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to

convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a
ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former
being called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. A screw
thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener.

9
 The mechanical advantage of a screw thread depends on its lead, which is
the linear distance the screw travels in one revolution.[1] In most applications,
the lead of a screw thread is chosen so that friction is sufficient to prevent linear
motion being converted to rotary, that is so the screw does not slip even when
linear force is applied, as long as no external rotational force is present. This
characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses. The tightening of a
fastener's screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks
fast through friction and slight elastic deformation.

Applications

Screw threads have several applications:

1. Fastening:
2. Fasteners such as wood screws, machine screws, nuts, and bolts.
3. Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps and fixtures.
4. Gear reduction via worm drives

Gender

Every matched pair of threads, external and internal, can be described as

male and female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole
(whether in nut or substrate) has female threads. This property is called gender.

Handedness

The helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known
as handedness. Most threads are oriented so that the threaded item, when seen
from a point of view on the axis through the center of the helix, moves away
from the viewer when it is turned in a clockwise direction, and moves towards the
viewer when it is turned counterclockwise. This is known as a right-handed

10
(RH) thread, because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the
opposite direction are known as left-handed (LH).

Form

The cross-sectional shape of a thread is often called its form or thread

form (also spelled thread form). It may be square, triangular, trapezoidal, or other
shapes. The terms form and thread form sometimes refer to all design aspects
taken together.

Most triangular thread forms are based on an isosceles triangle. These are
usually called V-threads or vee-threads because of the shape of the letter V. For
60° V-threads, the isosceles triangle is, more specifically, equilateral. For buttress
threads, the triangle is scalene.

The theoretical triangle is usually truncated to varying degrees (that is, the
tip of the triangle is cut short). A V-thread in which there is no truncation (or a
minuscule amount considered negligible) is called a sharp V-thread. Truncation
occurs (and is codified in standards) for practical reasons—the thread-cutting or
thread-forming tool cannot practically have a perfectly sharp point, and
truncation is desirable anyway, because otherwise:

 The cutting or forming tool's edge will break too easily;

 The part or fastener's thread crests will have burrs upon cutting, and will
be too susceptible to additional future burring resulting from dents
(nicks);
 The roots and crests of mating male and female threads need clearance to
ensure that the sloped sides of the V meet properly despite (a) error in
pitch diameter and (b) dirt and nick-induced burrs.
 The point of the thread form adds little strength to the thread.

11
In ball screws, the male-female pairs have bearing balls in between. Roller screws
use conventional thread forms and threaded rollers instead of balls.

Angle

The included angle characteristic of the cross-sectional shape is often

called the thread angle. For most V-threads, this is standardized as 60 degrees,
but any angle can be used. The cross section to measure this angle lies on a
plane which includes the axis of the cylinder or cone on which the thread is
produced.

Coarse versus fine

Coarse threads are those with larger pitch (fewer threads per axial
distance), and fine threads are those with smaller pitch (more threads per axial
distance). Coarse threads have a larger threadform relative to screw diameter,
where fine threads have a smaller threadform relative to screw diameter. This
distinction is analogous to that between coarse teeth and fine teeth on a saw or
file, or between coarse grit and fine grit on sandpaper.

The common V-thread standards (ISO 261 and Unified Thread Standard)
include a coarse pitch and a fine pitch for each major diameter. For example, 1⁄2-
13 belongs to the UNC series (Unified National Coarse) and 1⁄2-20 belongs to
the UNF series (Unified National Fine). Similarly, ISO261 M10 (10mm (398
thou) nominal outer diameter) has a coarse thread version at 1.25mm pitch (49
thou) and a fine thread version at 1 mm (39 thou) pitch.

The term coarse here does not mean lower quality, nor does the term fine
imply higher quality. The terms when used in reference to screw thread pitch
have nothing to do with the tolerances used (degree of precision) or the amount

12
of craftsmanship, quality, or cost. They simply refer to the size of the threads
relative to the screw diameter.

Coarse threads are more resistant to stripping and cross threading because
they have greater flank engagement. Coarse threads install much faster as they
require fewer turns per unit length. Finer threads are stronger as they have a
larger stress area for the same diameter thread. Fine threads are less likely to
vibrate loose as they have a smaller helix angle and allow finer adjustment.
Finer threads develop greater preload with less tightening torque.[5]

Diameters

The three diameters that characterize threads

There are three characteristic diameters of threads: major diameter, minor

diameter, and pitch diameter: Industry standards specify minimum (min.) and
maximum (max.) limits for each of these, for all recognized thread sizes. The
minimum limits for external (or bolt, in ISO terminology), and the maximum
limits for internal (nut), thread sizes are there to ensure that threads do not strip
at the tensile strength limits for the parent material. The minimum limits for
internal, and maximum limits for external, threads are there to ensure that the
threads fit together.

13
Major diameter

The major diameter of threads is the larger of two extreme diameters

delimiting the height of the thread profile, as a cross-sectional view is taken in a
plane containing the axis of the threads. For a screw, this is its outside diameter
(OD). The major diameter of a nut may not be directly measured, but it may be
tested with go/no-go gauges.

The major diameter of external threads is normally smaller than the major
diameter of the internal threads, if the threads are designed to fit together. But
this requirement alone does not guarantee that a bolt and a nut of the same pitch
would fit together: the same requirement must separately be made for the minor
and pitch diameters of the threads. Besides providing for a clearance between
the crest of the bolt threads and the root of the nut threads, one must also ensure
that the clearances are not so excessive as to cause the fasteners to fail.

Minor diameter

The basic profile of all UTS threads is the same as that of all ISO metric

screw threads. Only the commonly used values for Dmaj and P differ between the
two standards.

The minor diameter is the lower extreme diameter of the thread. Major
diameter minus minor diameter, divided by two, equals the height of the thread.
The minor diameter of a nut is its inside diameter. The minor diameter of a bolt
can be measured with go/no-go gauges or, directly, with an optical comparator.

14
 As shown in the figure at right, threads of equal pitch and angle that have
matching minor diameters, with differing major and pitch diameters, may
appear to fit snugly, but only do so radially; threads that have only major
diameters matching (not shown) could also be visualized as not allowing radial
movement. The reduced material condition, due to the unused spaces between
the threads, must be minimized so as not to overly weaken the fasteners.

Pitch diameter

The pitch diameter (PD, or D2) of a particular thread, internal or external,

is the diameter of a cylindrical surface, axially concentric to the thread, which
intersects the thread flanks at equidistant points, when viewed in a cross-
sectional plane containing the axis of the thread, the distance between these
points being exactly one half the pitch distance. Equivalently, a line running
parallel to the axis and a distance D2 away from it, the "PD line," slices the
sharp-V form of the thread, having flanks coincident with the flanks of the
thread under test, at exactly 50% of its height. We have assumed that the flanks
have the proper shape, angle, and pitch for the specified thread standard. It is
generally unrelated to the major (D) and minor (D1) diameters, especially if the
crest and root truncations of the sharp-V form at these diameters are unknown.
Everything else being ideal, D2, D, & D1, together, would fully describe the
thread form. Knowledge of PD determines the position of the sharp-V thread
form, the sides of which coincide with the straight sides of the thread flanks:
e.g., the crest of the external thread would truncate these sides a radial
displacement D − D2 away from the position of the PD line.
15
 Provided that there are moderate non-negative clearances between the
root and crest of the opposing threads, and everything else is ideal, if the pitch
diameters of a screw and nut are exactly matched, there should be no play at all
between the two as assembled, even in the presence of positive root-crest
clearances. This is the case when the flanks of the threads come into intimate
contact with one another, before the roots and crests do, if at all.

However, this ideal condition would in practice only be approximated

and would generally require wrench-assisted assembly, possibly causing the
galling of the threads. For this reason, some allowance, or minimum difference,
between the PDs of the internal and external threads has to generally be
provided for, to eliminate the possibility of deviations from the ideal thread
form causing interference and to expedite hand assembly up to the length of
engagement. Such allowances, or fundamental deviations, as ISO standards call
them, are provided for in various degrees in corresponding classes of fit for
ranges of thread sizes. At one extreme, no allowance is provided by a class, but
the maximum PD of the external thread is specified to be the same as the
minimum PD of the internal thread, within specified tolerances, ensuring that
the two can be assembled, with some looseness of fit still possible due to the
margin of tolerance. A class called interference fit may even provide for
negative allowances, where the PD of the screw is greater than the PD of the nut
by at least the amount of the allowance.

The pitch diameter of external threads is measured by various methods:

 A dedicated type of micrometer, called a thread mic or pitch mic, which has
a V-anvil and a conical spindle tip, contacts the thread flanks for a direct
reading.
 A general-purpose micrometer (flat anvil and spindle) is used over a set
of three wires that rest on the thread flanks, and a known constant is

16
 subtracted from the reading. (The wires are truly gauge pins, being
ground to precise size, although "wires" is their common name.) This
method is called the 3-wire method. Sometimes grease is used to hold the
wires in place, helping the user to juggle the part, mic, and wires into
position.
 An optical comparator may also be used to determine PD graphically.

Classes of fit

The way in which male and female fit together, including play and friction, is
classified (categorized) in thread standards. Achieving a certain class of fit
requires the ability to work within tolerance ranges for dimension (size) and
surface finish. Defining and achieving classes of fit are important for

interchangeability. Classes include 1, 2, 3 (loose to tight); A (external) and B

(internal); and various systems such as H and D limits.

Tolerance classes

Thread limit

Thread limit or pitch diameter limit is a standard used for classifying the
tolerance of the thread pitch diameter for taps. For imperial, H or L limits are
used which designate how many units of 5 ten thousandths of an inch over or
undersized the pitch diameter is from its basic value, respectively. Thus a tap
designated with an H limit of 3, denoted H3, would have a pitch diameter 5 ten
thousandths × 3 = 1.5 thousandths of an inch larger than base pitch diameter and
would thus result in cutting an internal thread with a looser fit than say an H2
tap. Metric uses D or DU limits which is the same system as imperial, but uses
D or DU designators for over and undersized respectively, and goes by units of
0.013 mm (0.51 mils).[6] Generally taps come in the range of H1 to H5 and
rarely L1.
17
 The pitch diameter of a thread is measured where the radial cross section
of a single thread equals 0.5 × pitch example: 16 pitch thread = 1/16 in =
0.0625 in the pitch actual pitch diameter of the thread is measured at the radial
cross section measures 0.03125 in.

Standardization and interchangeability

To achieve a predictably successful mating of male and female threads

and assured interchangeability between males and between females, standards
for form, size, and finish must exist and be followed. Standardization of threads is
discussed below.

Thread depth

Screw threads are almost never made perfectly sharp (no truncation at the
crest or root), but instead are truncated, yielding a final thread depth that can be
expressed as a fraction of the pitch value. The UTS and ISO standards codify
the amount of truncation, including tolerance ranges.

A perfectly sharp 60° V-thread will have a depth of thread ("height" from
root to crest) equal to 0.866 of the pitch. This fact is intrinsic to the geometry of
an equilateral triangle — a direct result of the basic trigonometric functions. It is
independent of measurement units (inch vs mm). However, UTS and ISO
threads are not sharp threads. The major and minor diameters delimit
truncations on either side of the sharp V.

The nominal diameter of Metric (e.g. M8) and Unified (e.g. 5/16")
threads is the theoretical major diameter of the male thread, which is truncated
(diametrically) by 0.866/4 of the pitch from the dimension over the tips of the
"fundamental" (sharp cornered) triangles. The resulting flats on the crests of the
male thread are theoretically one eighth of the pitch wide (expressed with the

18
notation 1⁄8p or 0.125p), although the actual geometry definition has more
variables than that. A full (100%) UTS or ISO thread has a height of around
0.65p.

Threads can be (and often are) truncated a bit more, yielding thread
depths of 60% to 75% of the 0.65p value. For example, a 75% thread sacrifices
only a small amount of strength in exchange for a significant reduction in the
force required to cut the thread. The result is that tap and die wear is reduced, the
likelihood of breakage is lessened and higher cutting speeds can often be
employed.

This additional truncation is achieved by using a slightly larger tap drill in

the case of female threads, or by slightly reducing the diameter of the threaded
area of workpiece in the case of male threads, the latter effectively reducing the
thread's major diameter. In the case of female threads, tap drill charts typically
specify sizes that will produce an approximate 75% thread. A 60% thread may
be appropriate in cases where high tensile loading will not be expected. In both
cases, the pitch diameter is not affected. The balancing of truncation versus thread
strength is similar to many engineering decisions involving the strength, weight
and cost of material, as well as the cost to machine it.

Taper

Tapered threads are used on fasteners and pipe. A common example of a

fastener with a tapered thread is a wood screw.

The threaded pipes used in some plumbing installations for the delivery of
fluids under pressure have a threaded section that is slightly conical. Examples are
the NPT and BSP series. The seal provided by a threaded pipe joint is created
when a tapered externally threaded end is tightened into an end with internal
threads. Normally a good seal requires the application of a separate sealant into
19
the joint, such as thread seal tape, or a liquid or paste pipe sealant such as pipe
dope, however some threaded pipe joints do not require a separate sealant.

Standardization

An example of M16, ISO metric screw thread

Standardization of screw threads has evolved since the early nineteenth

century to facilitate compatibility between different manufacturers and users.

The standardization process is still ongoing; in particular there are still
(otherwise identical) competing metric and inch-sized thread standards widely
used.[7] Standard threads are commonly identified by short letter codes (M,
UNC, etc.) which also form the prefix of the standardized designations of
individual threads.

Additional product standards identify preferred thread sizes for screws

and nuts, as well as corresponding bolt head and nut sizes, to facilitate
compatibility between spanners (wrenches) and other tools.

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ISO standard threads

The most common threads in use are the ISO metric screw threads (M) for
most purposes and BSP threads (R, G) for pipes.

These were standardized by the International Organization for Standardization

(ISO) in 1947. Although metric threads were mostly unified in 1898 by the
International Congress for the standardization of screw threads, separate metric
thread standards were used in France, Germany, and Japan, and the Swiss had a
set of threads for watches.

History of standardization
A good summary of screw thread standards in current use in 1914 was
given in Colvin FH, Stanley FA (eds) (1914): American Machinists' Handbook, 2nd ed,

New York and London, McGraw-Hill, pp. 16–22. USS, metric, Whitworth, and
BA standards are discussed. The SAE series was not mentioned—at the time this
edition of the Handbook was being compiled, they were either still in
development or just newly introduced.

A table of standard sizes for machine screws as provided by the American

Screw Company of Providence, Rhode Island, USA, and published in a
Mechanical Engineers' Handbook of 1916. Standards seen here overlap with
those found elsewhere marked as ASME and SAE standards and with the later
Unified Thread Standard (UTS) of 1949 and afterward. One can see the theme
of how later standards reflect a degree of continuation from earlier standards,
sometimes with hints of long-ago intracompany origins. For example, compare
the 6–32, 8–32, 10–24, and 10–32 options in this table with the UTS versions of
those sizes, which are not identical but are so close that interchange would
work.

21
 The first historically important intra-company standardization of screw
threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when the modern screw-cutting
lathe made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity.[11]

During the next 40 years, standardization continued to occur on the intra- and
inter-company levels.[12] No doubt many mechanics of the era participated in
this zeitgeist; Joseph Clement was one of those whom history has noted. In 1841,
Joseph Whitworth created a design that, through its adoption by many British

railroad companies, became a national standard for the United Kingdom called
British Standard Whitworth. During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was

often used in the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra-
and inter-company standards. In April 1864, William Sellers presented a paper to
the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, proposing a new standard to replace the US'
poorly standardized screw thread practice. Sellers simplified the Whitworth
design by adopting a thread profile of 60° and a flattened tip (in contrast to
Whitworth's 55° angle and rounded tip).[13][14] The 60° angle was already in
common use in America,[15] but Sellers's system promised to make it and all
other details of threadform consistent.

The Sellers thread, easier for ordinary machinists to produce, became an

important standard in the U.S. during the late 1860s and early 1870s, when it
was chosen as a standard for work done under U.S. government contracts, and it
was also adopted as a standard by highly influential railroad industry
corporations such as the Baldwin Locomotive Works and the Pennsylvania Railroad.
Other firms adopted it, and it soon became a national standard for the U.S., [15]
later becoming generally known as the United States Standard thread (USS thread).
Over the next 30 years the standard was further defined and extended and
evolved into a set of standards including National Coarse (NC), National Fine
(NF), and National Pipe Taper (NPT). Meanwhile, in Britain, the British
Association screw threads were also developed and refined.

22
 During this era, in continental Europe, the British and American
threadforms were well known, but also various metric thread standards were
evolving, which usually employed 60° profiles. Some of these evolved into
national or quasi-national standards. They were mostly unified in 1898 by the
International Congress for the standardization of screw threads at Zurich, which
defined the new international metric thread standards as having the same profile
as the Sellers thread, but with metric sizes. Efforts were made in the early 20th
century to convince the governments of the U.S., UK, and Canada to adopt
these international thread standards and the metric system in general, but they
were defeated with arguments that the capital cost of the necessary retooling
would drive some firms from profit to loss and hamper the economy. (The
mixed use of dueling inch and metric standards has since cost much, much
more, but the bearing of these costs has been more distributed across national
and global economies rather than being borne up front by particular
governments or corporations, which helps explain the lobbying efforts.)

Sometime between 1912 and 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE)
created an "SAE series" of screw thread sizes reflecting parentage from earlier
USS and ASME standards.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, engineers found that
ensuring the reliable interchangeability of screw threads was a multi-faceted and
challenging task that was not as simple as just standardizing the major diameter
and pitch for a certain thread. It was during this era that more complicated
analyses made clear the importance of variables such as pitch diameter and
surface finish.

A tremendous amount of engineering work was done throughout World

War I and the following interwar period in pursuit of reliable interchangeability.

Classes of fit were standardized, and new ways of generating and inspecting

23
screw threads were developed (such as production thread-grinding machines and
optical comparators). Therefore, in theory, one might expect that by the start of

World War II, the problem of screw thread interchangeability would have
already been completely solved.

Unfortunately, this proved to be false. Intranational interchangeability

was widespread, but international interchangeability was less so. Problems with
lack of interchangeability among American, Canadian, and British parts during
World War II led to an effort to unify the inch-based standards among these
closely allied nations, and the Unified Thread Standard was adopted by the Screw
Thread Standardization Committees of Canada, the United Kingdom, and the
United States on November 18, 1949 in Washington, D.C., with the hope that they
would be adopted universally. (The original UTS standard may be found in
ASA (now ANSI) publication, Vol. 1, 1949.) UTS consists of Unified Coarse
(UNC), Unified Fine (UNF), Unified Extra Fine (UNEF) and Unified Special
(UNS). The standard was widely taken up in the UK, although a small number
of companies continued to use the UK's own British standards for Whitworth
(BSW), British Standard Fine (BSF) and British Association (BA) micro-
screws.

However, internationally, the metric system was eclipsing inch-based

measurement units. In 1947, the ISO was founded; and in 1960, the metric-based

International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système

International) was created. With continental Europe and much of the rest of the
world turning to SI and ISO metric screw thread, the UK gradually leaned in the
same direction. The ISO metric screw thread is now the standard that has been
adopted worldwide and is slowly displacing all former standards, including
UTS. In the U.S., where UTS is still prevalent, over 40% of products contain at
least some ISO metric screw threads. The UK has completely abandoned its
commitment to UTS in favour of ISO metric threads, and Canada is in between.
24
Globalization of industries produces market pressure in favor of phasing out

minority standards. A good example is the automotive industry; U.S. auto parts
factories long ago developed the ability to conform to the ISO standards, and
today very few parts for new cars retain inch-based sizes, regardless of being
made in the U.S.

Even today, over a half century since the UTS superseded the USS and
SAE series, companies still sell hardware with designations such as "USS" and
"SAE" to convey that it is of inch sizes as opposed to metric. Most of this
hardware is in fact made to the UTS, but the labeling and cataloging
terminology is not always precise.

NUT

A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used
in conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten multiple parts together. The two
partners are kept together by a combination of their threads' friction (with
slight elastic deformation), a slight stretching of the bolt, and compression of the parts
to be held together.

In applications where vibration or rotation may work a nut loose, various

locking mechanisms may be employed: lock washers, jam nuts, specialist
adhesive thread-locking fluid such as Loctite, safety pins (split pins) or lockwire in
conjunction with castellated nuts, nylon inserts (nyloc nut), or slightly oval-shaped
threads.

Square nuts, as well as bolt heads, were the first shape made and used to
be the most common largely because they were much easier to manufacture,
especially by hand. While rare today[when?] due to the reasons stated below for the
preference of hexagonal nuts, they are occasionally used in some situations
when a maximum amount of torque and grip is needed for a given size: the

25
greater length of each side allows a spanner to be applied with a larger surface
area and more leverage at the nut.

The most common shape today is hexagonal, for similar reasons as the bolt
head: six sides give a good granularity of angles for a tool to approach from
(good in tight spots), but more (and smaller) corners would be vulnerable to
being rounded off. It takes only one sixth of a rotation to obtain the next side of
the hexagon and grip is optimal. However, polygons with more than six sides do
not give the requisite grip and polygons with fewer than six sides take more
time to be given a complete rotation. Other specialized shapes exist for certain
needs, such as wingnuts for finger adjustment and captive nuts (e.g. cage nuts) for
inaccessible areas.

A wide variety of nuts exists, from household hardware versions to

specialized industry-specific designs that are engineered to meet various technical
standards. Fasteners used in automotive, engineering, and industrial applications

usually need to be tightened to a specific torque setting, using a torque wrench.

Nuts are graded with strength ratings compatible with their respective bolts

SPRING MATERIALS

This section will tell you about the different kinds of material that
springs are made out of. It will also tell you where to get your wire -- make
sure you read the Safety section so you know how to handle it safely once
you've got it.

Types of Wire

Springs are usually made from alloys of steel. The most common
spring steels are music wire, oil tempered wire, chrome silicon, chrome
vanadium, and 302 and 17-7 stainless. Other materials can also be formed
into springs, depending on the characteristics needed. Some of the more

26
common of these exotic metals include beryllium copper, phosphor
bronze, Inconel, Monel, and titanium. The following table summarizes the
more important properties of each material:

1. Music Wire
2. Oil Tempered Wire (OT)
3. Chrome silicon
4. Chrome vanadium
5. Stainless Steel
6. Copper
WIRE SAFETY

General Safety

Springs under load want to return to their original shape. The same goes
for spring wire. Spring wire will try to straighten itself out if given the chance:
don't let your body get in its way.

Small wire

Small wire (diameter less than about .025") will not hurt you if it hits
you. On the other hand, small wire is nothing more than an edge, waiting for
something to cut. Don't use your hand to try to stop wire that's moving,
especially if it's moving under power (like being pulled by a lathe). Instead,
wait till it stops moving. Gloves are an excellent idea, too.

Medium wire

Medium wire (diameter from about .025" - .312") is too wide to act as
an edge, and usually not massive enough to break bones, but it can raise quite a
knot if you get in its way. Again, always keep track of where the ends of the
wire are, and if they start to move, get out of the way.

27
Heavy wire

Heavy wire (diameter greater than about .312") needs respect. If it

gets loose, it can EASILY break bones, or worse.

Stainless steel

Stainless steel is a lot softer than other types of wire. When cut, the
end of the wire is like a knife edge. Always keep track of where the end of
the wire is, and keep your hands away from it while it's moving.

Handling Wire

The two most dangerous times are when you're breaking open a coil of
wire and when you're actually winding a spring.

Breaking open coils

Once you have your wire, you'll need to take it out of its coil. The coil
may be wrapped in paper -- take that off first.

Under the paper, the wire will be tied. Light wire will be tied with string.
Medium wire will be tied with tie wire. Large wire will be tied with metal
bands. Whatever size wire you have, remember that the coil should have only
two ends. One will be on the inside of the coil, and the other will be on the
outside. You'll normally use wire from the inside, to avoid tangling. Always
make a hook on the "inside" end so it's easy to find again:

Handling Small Wire in Coils

To break open a coil of small (up to about .125") wire, cut all the ties
except two. Don't cut the closest tie holding the outside end of the wire, and
the tie most directly opposite to that one.

28
 To remove wire from the coil, start with the end on the inside of the
coil: this will keep the coil from tangling. Grab the end of the wire and cut off
the hook. Pull it slightly, until you can see the gap between it and the rest of
the coil. Grab the wire at the gap and pull the end free from the tie holding it.
Repeat this process, working around the coil, until you have the length you
need.

Medium-sized wire

(.125 - .312") can be handled the same way, except that you should keep
three ties instead of two. When uncoiling wire larger than .250", you should
lay the coil flat on the ground and always stand in the center of the coil, for
safety.

Large wire

(.312 - .625") needs special handling. First of all, you'll probably be

using a hoist or forklift to move the coil, because of the weight. Lay the coil
on top of something (a 2x4 or a pipe works great) to keep one end off the
ground so that you can pick it up when you're done. Stand inside the coil from
now on!

Then, take a length of tie wire and double it over. Loop it twice around
the coil, right next to the second tie holding the inside end of the wire. Pull it
tight and twist it so that you have a "pigtail" and the tie wire is too tight to
move by hand. Then, cut the first two original ties. Grab the end of the wire
and flip it over the coil, so that it sticks out.

29
Coiling

If you're using a lathe to make your springs, you'll be standing there,

letting the lathe pull the wire. The lathe will do what you want, but it will not
know to stop if things get out of control. So, before you start the lathe, figure
out what you're going to do if things go haywire. Know how to stop the lathe,
and know which way you can safely run.

Never reach over the wire to get to your lathe controls, especially
when working with heavy wire. Reach under it and avoid injury if your wire
guide breaks.

Keep the lathe speed DEAD SLOW: with heavy wire, 10 rpm is about
right.

Don't grab onto wire that's being fed into the lathe. Stop the lathe and back it
off until there's no tension in the wire before you put your hands near.
NEVER try to guide wire by hand. Use tooling.

When you're done

After you've removed wire from a coil, the coil will be looser than it
was before. Before you put it away, retie it so that it doesn't tangle up or
uncoil by itself. For light wire, use string. For medium size wire, use tie wire.
For heavy wire, use tie wire doubled over, looped around the coil twice, and
tied in a "pigtail":

Storing Wire

Common sense second: keep your wire dry. Steel wire will rust if it gets
wet.More common sense: keep your wire tight. When you're finished working
with a coil of wire, make a hook in the inside end (so you can find it again
easily) and tie the coil securely.

30
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

• Abdul Rahim Abu Talib, Aidy Ali, G. Goudah, Nur Azida Che Lah, A.F.
Golestaneh, in this study, finite element models were developed to optimize
the material and geometry of the composite elliptical spring based on the
spring rate, log life and shear stress parameters. The influence of the
ellipticity ratio on the performance of woven roving–wrapped composite
elliptical springs was investigated both experimentally and numerically. The
study demonstrated that composite elliptical springs can be used for light and
heavy trucks with substantial weight reduction.

• Y. Prawoto, M. Ikeda, S.K. Manville, A. Nishikawa, NHK International,

this paper is a discussion about automotive suspension coil springs, their
fundamental stress distribution, materials characteristic, manufacturing and
common failures. An in depth discussion on the parameters influencing the
quality of coil springs is also presented. Failure analyses of suspension coil
springs were performed and summarized in this paper.

• Heikki martikka ilkka pöllänen, the aim of this paper is to present results
of using fundamental machine element design principles into re-designing
optimally heavy duty springs used in terrain machinery and in industry.
Background for this study is observation that conventionally designed helical
springs did not have the expected long fatigue life time promised by
standards.

• Koutaro Watanabe, Hideo Yamamoto, Yuichi Ito, Hisao Isobe, in order to

solve this problem, a simplified calculation formula and a chart of the
maximum shear stress and maximum principal stress that take initial pitch
angles into consideration were devised using the design of experiments and

31
FEM analysis. This paper is a summary of activities in the collaboration
research committee of the Japan Society of Spring Engineers. • Reza
Mirzaeifar a, Reginald DesRoches b, Arash Yavari b,a George W, In this
paper, the pseudoelastic response of shape memory alloy (SMA) helical
springs under axial force is studied both analytically and numerically. In the
analytical solution two different approximations are considered.

32
 3. WORKING PRINCIPLE

When the hand wheel is rotated, the shaft will run. The main shaft is
coupled to the bearing with the help of mild steel plate arrangement. The
main shaft is rotated with help of hand wheel rotation. Before the hand wheel
rotation, the spring wire locked to the lock nut in the spring mandrel. The
spring wire is supplied by applying the load through a guide which is fixed in
the frame stand. The guide will rotate freely according to the speed of the
spring rolling shaft. The main shafts one end is coupled to the chuck and
other end is coupled to the hand wheel.

A spindle shaft or mandrel (various diameters) is attached to the chuck

and it rotates. The spring rolling shaft is rotated when the hand wheel is
rotates. The spring is rolled with the spring rolling shaft. The change in the
length of spring due to the rotation of the spring is decided by the operator.
After making the required length of the spring the hand wheel is rotation is
stopped. After producing the finished product of spring, the procedure is
repeated for mass production.

33
 4. METHODOLOGY

 THREADED ROD
 WINDING MACHINE

THREADED ROD

This paper is to discuss to design and fabrication of a manual spring

rolling machine by a simple mechanism arrangement for the production of
closed and open coil helical springs. This machine is operated by manual
method. This machine produces closed coil helical spring of different
diameter and different length. Rolling is the process of bending metal wire to
a curved form. The article in the shape of round is made by spring roller
shaft. Rolling operation can be done on hand or power operated rolling
machine. It can make a spring from a shaft.

A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power

from one place to another. A bearing is machine element which supports
another moving machine element. Guider is used to guide the raw material
(spring wire). This guider moves on the shaft automatically. This self-
movement is achieved by the lead of spring. Handle is used to operate the
rolling machine manually, without electric power frame is carries an all parts
of the machine, it is made up of mild steel. A work holding mechanism is
used to hold the mandrel; it is attached to the main shaft of machine. Mandrel
is fitting in the work holding mechanism, the mandrel’s outer diameter is
known as internal diameter of the spring

34
WINDING MACHINE

In spring working industry a wide range of power and hand operated

machines are used. As the industry is a large and growing industry different
types of machines are used for different operations. Our project the spring
rolling machine is very simple in operation by using gear arrangement which
is coupled with motor.

35
 5. APPLICATIONS

1. It is very useful in Transformer manufacturing Company, to wind the

transformer quickly.
2. To wind the stator or rotor in motor or submersible pump company.
3. To wind the condensers coil and fan coils quickly.
4. It is very useful in small scale industries where ever winding coils are
used.
5. Little Scale ventures, for example, were moving, belt moving and so
forth.

6. Wire moving ventures

7. All spring moving ventures

36
 6. ADVANTAGES

1. Simple in Construction and Working Principle

2. Labor necessity is less

3. High generation

4. Length of the spring fluctuates

5. Generation cost is lessened

6. Minimal effort

7. Upkeep cost is low.

8. The unit is minimal so less space is required

9. Time utilization is less

10.Less exertion and beneficial

11.Simple to introduce at any were

12.Gifted specialists are not required

13.Advantageous for large-scale manufacturing

14.Less in weight

37
 7. DISADVANTAGES

1. This machine is pertinent for specific measurement of the spring

2. This machine is utilized to deliver delicate spring wire as it were

38
 8. CONCLUSION

After completing the work, it is concluded that work is simple in

construction and compact in size for use. Even in the absence of power
supply it can be operated manually, and also manufacturing of machine is
easy and cost of the machine is less .This machine can fabricate spring up to
3mm wire diameter of spring with less production time with ease by mass or
batch production. This work can be implemented in small scale industries.

39
 9. REFERENCES

[1]. Mr. Chetan P. Sable , prof. P.D.Kamble , Mr. Dhiraj D. Dube review on”
Paper Plate Making Machines” International Journal of Research in
Aeronautical and Mechanical Engineering /vol.2 issue.2,february 2014.
pgs:105-111.

[2]. Supriya Burgul review on “Design and Fatigue Life of a Mechanical

Spring” International Journal of Research in Aeronautical and Mechanical
Engineering / vol.2 issue 7, july 2014 pgs:76-83

[3]. Mr. Niranjan Singh review article on “General Review of Mechanical

Spring used in Automobile Suspension System” International Journal of
Advanced Engineering Research and Studies/ December 2013 ,vol.1

[4]. Mr. Desheng Li review on “Vibration of a Tapered Roller Bearing with

Localized defect on Multiple Rollers” International Congress on Sound and
Vibration/ July 2015

[5]. O.Vahid – Araghi and F. Golnaraghi ”Frictional Induced Vibration in

Lead Screw Drives” chapter 2 february 2011

40