576607

research-article2015
HPQ0010.1177/1359105315576607Journal of Health PsychologyBrindal et al.

Article

Journal of Health Psychology

Eating in groups: Do multiple

2015, Vol. 20(5) 483­–489
© The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/1359105315576607
in a fast-food restaurant? hpq.sagepub.com

Emily Brindal1,3, Carlene Wilson2, Philip Mohr3

and Gary Wittert3

Abstract
This study investigated multiple social influences to determine whether they affect amount eaten at a fast-food
environment. Using observational methods, data on meal duration, foods eaten and personal characteristics
were collected for 157 McDonald’s patrons. Analysis of covariance revealed that female diners ate less
kilojoules when eating in mixed- versus same-sex groups (adjusted difference = 967 kJ, p < .05), while male
diners eating in mixed-sex company ate more in groups compared to pairs (adjusted difference = 1067 kJ,
p = .019). Influences to increase and restrict the amount eaten can operate simultaneously in an eating
environment with gender a critical factor for consideration.

Keywords
fast food, groups, minimal eating, norms, social influence

Many consumers remain uncertain about how
much and what to eat. It has been hypothesised
that uncertainty surrounding ‘appropriate’ con-
sumption (biologically and socially) drives con-
sumers to search for contextual norms to guide
their behaviour and makes them susceptible to a
variety of social influences when eating in
social contexts. Three key areas of social influ-
ence that could affect eating behaviour are min-
imal eating norms, matching norms and social
facilitation (Herman et al., 2003).
In one of the first studies to describe minimal
eating, Chaiken and Pliner (1987) observed that
females described as eating smaller meals were
rated as more feminine by both males and females.
This result was interpreted as indicative of mini-
Chaiken, 1990). In contrast, matching norms dic-
tate changing intake (increasing or decreasing)
relative to that of a co-eater (Roth et al., 2001).
Across multiple experimental studies, a confeder-
ate (i.e. an actor following the instructions of the
experimenters) who alters the amount of snack
items (such as cookies or candies) they consume
has been able to alter the amount a subject con-
sumes regardless of gender effects (e.g. De Luca
and Spigelman, 1979). Finally, social facilitation is
the documented tendency for the presence of other
people to increase the amount eaten. De Castro
1CSIRO, Australia
2FlindersUniversity, Australia
3University of Adelaide, Australia

mal eating norms – women were expected to eat

Corresponding author:
less than men to convey a feminine image. Emily Brindal, CSIRO, Food and Nutrition, P.O. Box
Experimental studies have subsequently supported 10041, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia.
the existence of minimal eating norms (Pliner and Email: emily.brindal@csiro.au
484 Journal of Health Psychology 20(5)
(1990) and De Castro and Brewer (1992) have
repeatedly shown a positive relationship between
the number of people present and calorie con-
sumption using diet diaries. They have suggested
that this occurs due to time-extension – eating in
the presence of other people extends meal dura-
tion, which then increases the amount eaten (De
Castro, 1994).
Despite empirical support for these various
social influences, how these effects may occur
simultaneously in a real-world eating environ-
ment is less clear. This is particularly true for
women who may experience conflicting norma-
tive pressures. A female eating in a group with
male companions may (1) eat minimally in
order to create a feminine impression (minimal
eating), (2) increase her intake to match that of
her male companions to make a good impres-
sion (matching) or (3) simply eat more than she
would alone because she is in a group and eat-
ing for longer (social facilitation). Matching or
minimal eating norms could guide behaviour
depending on the individual, their eating con-
text and the salience of environmental cues
(Salvy et al., 2007). Yet, it has also been sug-
gested that the effects of social facilitation are
pervasive across a variety of situations and
interactions (De Castro, 1994).
Chronic overconsumption and restrictive
eating behaviours (which augmentation and
inhibition norms promote) could lead to out-
comes such as weight gain and eating disorders,
in the long term. Furthermore, a more in-depth
knowledge of when, why and how norms oper-
ate in eating environments is required because
adherence and violation to norms can result in
positive (i.e. reinforcing self-concept) and neg-
ative outcomes (i.e. judgements of poor inter-
personal characteristics), respectively, for an
individual (Wood et al., 1997; Yantcheva and
Brindal, 2013).
Fast-food restaurants provide a unique oppor-
tunity for observational research because of
their standardised menus and set portion sizes.
These styles of food are also the target of many
public health campaigns. One previous study
has attempted to understand social influences on
eating behaviour in a real-world fast-food envi-
ronment (Klesges et al., 1984), but this research
was published prior to articles on social facilita-
tion and the expansion of fast-food restaurants
which now provide a wider variety of food
choices that people can use to alter their intake.
In various types of restaurants, these authors
observed and recorded group size, gender com-
position and foods of the people eating. In fast-
food restaurants, people were observed eating
more when eating in a mixed-sex group com-
pared to same-sex and opposite-sex groups.
Consistent with social facilitation, the people
eating in groups ate more. Finally, observations
supported minimal eating norms; women ate a
similar amount to the men when in a small group,
but when in larger groups, females ate signifi-
cantly less than males.
The objective of the current study was to
investigate whether multiple social influences
on eating behaviour alter intake in a fast-food
environment while assessing interactions
between sex of the eater and co-eaters and
group size which may all alter eating behaviour
according to various social influence theories.
Method
The Human Research Ethics Committee at the
School of Psychology in the University of
Adelaide approved this study.
Sampling
McDonald’s restaurants were selected for
observation due to their large market share and
menu diversity. All patrons who entered the res-
taurant during an observation session and sat
with at least one other person at one of the
tables in a targeted area were observed, and
information about their behaviour was recorded.
Data were recorded for one representative who
sat at a predetermined seat at the table with
other diners. Piloting was used to identify which
seat the observer could occupy to achieve the
most privacy and best view of other seats. Any
group with a child member was excluded from
observation because the focus of the study was
on normative influences on adult behaviour.
People who started eating alone but finished in
a group were also excluded from observation.
Brindal et al. 485
For this study, a restaurant in the Central
Business District of Adelaide, South Australia,
was chosen because initial piloting of several
locations revealed this to be the busiest.
Approximately 10 eligible people ate in the tar-
geted area of this restaurant during a 60-minute
period, while at some of the outer suburban res-
taurants, as little as one or two observations
were recorded during the same period.
Procedure
A researcher sat in the restaurant between 4 and
7 p.m. during weekdays in Autumn 2007 and
unobtrusively entered data directly into a per-
sonal digital assistant (PDA). Categories of data
tested and refined in previous research (Brindal
et al., 2011) included the following: the sex of
the nominated individual; their age group (‘15–
25’, ‘26–35’, ‘36–45’ and ‘46+’ years); their esti-
mated weight status (‘overweight/obese’ or
‘not’); the characteristics of others present in the
group (including their sex, age group and weight
status); the time eating started (from the moment
the person started eating at their table); the time
the eating occasion ended (recorded when a per-
son left the table) and the foods eaten according
to their trade names (e.g. Big Mac® and small
fries). Consistent with previous observational
research, if members left or joined the group
before all members had left the table during an
observation, the group size was adjusted accord-
ingly (Bell and Pliner, 2003). While data were
recorded, the researcher consumed purchased
items to justify prolonged occupation of a seat.
Menu items were easily identifiable through
unique packaging. A guide including photo-
graphs and descriptions of all packaging and
sizes was produced and included in the PDA to
aid in the identification of products. A visual
guide was also developed to assist in the classifi-
cation of body size categories. For nine initial
sessions, two observers recorded data until
100 per cent agreement between recorders was
reached. Where differences arose, coders delib-
erated and adjusted these data for inclusion in the
final analyses. After this, all data were taken
from observations recorded by a single observer.
In a very small percentage of cases (six
observations), people returned to the counter
during their eating occasion to order another
item. All returned to their table to consume their
items. Five returned with dessert items and one
returned with a drink and wrap. These items
were added to respective order data, and the
time taken to order was subtracted from the final
meal duration. In seven cases, people left with
incomplete soft drinks. Sharing items was docu-
mented in 13 cases (12 fries; 1 Nuggets). In
these instances, we divided amounts equally by
the number of people sharing. Three people did
not complete their foods – order adjustments
were made to estimations of intakes based on
the notes made during the observation.
Analysis
Item descriptions of foods eaten were used to
calculate the total kilojoules consumed accord-
ing to nutrition information from McDonalds’
website (McDonald’s Corporation, 2006). Soft
drinks were recorded but not included in this
calculation due to the inability to reliably distin-
guish diet and non-diet soft drinks. This also
resulted in the exclusion of 8 of the initial 165
observations as these people consumed only a
drink. Item customisations (e.g. the removal of
cheese or a pickle) were not accounted for as
these also could not be observed.
A 2 (male or female) × 2 (same-sex or mixed-
sex group) × 2 (pair or larger group) analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA) of energy intake from
fast-food items controlling for age (under
25 years or not) and weight (overweight or not)
was performed. Observation time encompassed
two possible eating occasions (afternoon snack
and dinner) and a variable describing ‘time of
day’ (started at 4–5:30 p.m. vs 5:31–7 p.m.) was
created for inclusion in the model as a covari-
ate. Group size was categorised into two levels
in order to optimise cell sizes for the factorial
analysis. All statistical analyses were performed
using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
Version 15 using an alpha level of p < .05. In the
absence of ad hoc predictions, significant main
and interaction effects were followed up with
486 Journal of Health Psychology 20(5)

Table 1.  Means and standard deviations for energy consumed (in kJ) by participant sex, group
composition and group size.

Male Female All

  n M SD n M SD n M SD
Same sex Pair 25 3513 1290.3 22 3005 1137.9 47 3276 1235.1
Group (3+) 16 3700 772.4 12 3651 1593.3 28 3679 1168.9
Total 41 3586 1109.6 34 3233b 1329.7 75 3426 1218.7
Mixed Pair 36 3438a 1399.2 23 2933 899.7 59 3241 1245.1
sex Group (3+) 9 4500a 1482.8 14 2672 805.2 23 3388 1419.5
Total 45 3650 1463.5 37 2834b 863.3 82 3282 1289.1
Overall Pair 61 3469 1345.1 45 2968 1012.0 106 3256 1234.9
Group (3+) 25 3988d 1122.4 26 3124d 1304.4 51 3547 1282.9
Total 86 3620c 1299.7 71 3025c 1121.2 157 3351 1254.0

SD: standard deviation.

Mean values are not adjusted for part of day, age and weight status. Values with a shared superscript are significantly
different at p < .05.

post hoc pairwise comparisons using Bonferroni
adjustments.
Results
The final sample (n = 157) comprised slightly
more males (54.8%) than females. Most people
were rated as ‘not overweight/obese’ (82.3%) and
‘15–25’ years old (83.4%). A total of 7.6 per cent
of the sample were ‘26–35’ years old, while 4.5 per
cent were in either the ‘36–45’ or ‘45+’ years age
group. The mean time spent dining was 15.45 min-
utes (standard deviation (SD) = 7.20 minutes). The
mean energy consumed was 3351 kJ (SD = 1254 kJ,
range = 582–7500 kJ). Most people ate in a dyad
(67.5%), with a further 19.7 per cent eating in a
group of three, 9.6 per cent in a group of four and
3.4 per cent eating in groups with five or more
people. Energy consumed was positively associ-
ated with the amount of time spent eating
(Spearman’s ρ = .257, p = .001) but not with the
total others present.
Means for kilojoules consumed are pre-
sented by participant sex, sex composition of
the group and group size in Table 1. ANCOVA
revealed no main effects for the sex composi-
tion of the group (F(1, 156) = 0.21, p = .650) or
group size (F(1, 156) = 3.27, p = .073) for energy
intake from fast-food items. There was a main
effect for participant sex (F(1, 156) = 13.47,
p < .001), signifying that males consumed sig-
nificantly more than females. There were two
higher order effects for participant sex: a two-
way interaction between participant sex and
group composition (F(3, 153) = 4.05, p = .046),
which was qualified by a three-way interaction
between participant sex, group composition and
group size (F(7, 147) = 4.75, p = .031).
The three-way interaction is shown in Figure 1.
Post hoc pairwise comparisons revealed that
group size had a significant effect for males in
mixed company, with intake higher in groups ver-
sus dyads (mean difference = 1067.1, p = .019).
Group composition was significantly associated
with the energy intake of the females observed,
with those in the presence of mixed-sex company
eating less than those with same-sex company
(mean difference = 966.9, p = .043). Finally, sex
differences were only observed in mixed-sex
groups with males consuming more than females
(mean difference = 1869.6, p < .001).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to explore whether
multiple social influences may operate in a fast-
food eating environment. Our results provided
support for potential social influences on food
Brindal et al. 487

Figure 1.  Mean energy (kJ) consumed at an eating occasion controlling for part of day, age and weight
status displayed to represent the three-way interaction between participant sex (male/female), gender
composition of the group (same/mixed sex) and group size (pair/group).
a: male/mixed sex/group versus male/mixed sex/pair (p < .05); b: male/mixed/group versus female/mixed/group (p < .001);
c: female/mixed sex/group versus female/same sex/group (p < .05).
Error bars indicate ±1 standard error.

consumption, but these effects were qualified
by both group size and sex. In a larger group,
females ate less when a male was present rela-
tive to when eating with same-sex companions.
Simultaneously, it appeared that males were
influenced by social facilitation, as those males
in mixed-sex company consumed more energy
when in larger groups relative to pairs.
It was interesting that all of the effects were
witnessed when groups were mixed sex. For
example, it appeared that males ate more than
females when considering the main effect of sex,
but intake was actually only significantly differ-
ent between males and females in large, mixed-
sex groups when factors of group size and gender
composition were also accounted for.
When in larger groups, the intake of female
diners supported the presence of a minimal eat-
ing norm – females ate less in the presence of
mixed-sex company compared to those females
eating in same-sex company. If matching norms
were being adhered to, one would reasonably
expect the presence of a male to increase intake
in females (as males have higher kilojoule
requirements). Our observations, contrary to
this, are in line with previous suggestions that
minimal eating is more likely to occur than
matching in the presence of competing norma-
tive cues (Roth et al., 2001). This is also in line
with the description of injunctive norms which
account for the way one would be expected to
behave versus descriptive norms which simply
guide behaviour in a given situation (Reno
et al., 1993). Given the negative judgements
that have been associated with consuming fast
foods (Dunn et al., 2008), a fast-food environ-
ment may trigger heightened self-presentational
concerns and a female eater’s motivation to
assert their femininity through reduced intake.
This could also satisfy injunctive norms con-
cerning how women ‘should’ behave when eat-
ing. It is important to note that minimal eating
488 Journal of Health Psychology 20(5)
was only observed in large-sized groups and not
in dyads. In larger groups, there may be more
pressure to adhere to eating norms. Alternatively,
familiarity may have been an important moder-
ator for those in pairs as there may have been
higher levels of familiarity between compan-
ions in smaller groups which reduced norma-
tive demands (Leary et al., 1994).
A social facilitation effect was witnessed but
only for males and again only in the presence of
mixed-sex company. Males in same-sex com-
pany ate similar amounts regardless of group
size. Therefore, it is likely that there is more to
social facilitation effects than the mere presence
of others. For example, it is possible a norm
opposite to minimal eating exists for males –
one where males increase their intake to assert
their masculinity. Differences between males
eating in same versus mixed company failed to
reach significance, reducing the plausibility of
this idea; however, sparse research on the
effects of social influence on males offers little
insight. Given minimal suggestion of social
facilitation, we did not explore the time-exten-
sion hypothesis in depth. Our sample size
necessitated the categorisation of group size
which may have limited the ability to determine
linear effects of social facilitation. However,
preliminary correlations revealed limited direct
relationship between the number of people pre-
sent and the amount eaten. Structural equation
modelling in a larger sample would be needed
to assess if this is the result of the mediating
effect of time or the absence of an effect
(Feunekes et al., 1995).
Theorising about social influence has been
largely on the basis of studies that have created
artificial scenarios by offering subjects ‘snacks’
in a laboratory (Pliner and Chaiken, 1990; Roth
et al., 2001) or through the use of diet diaries
(De Castro, 1990) which fail to capture the
amount a person chooses to serve themselves
and then actually consumes. In the ‘real-world’,
social influences may affect food selection
behaviour rather than intake behaviour at the
time of eating. We observed that most people
consumed all of their items and few returned for
additional items. Therefore, these effects may
operate much earlier than during the actual eat-
ing occasion. The demonstration of social influ-
ence in shopping behaviour also supports this
suggestion (Sommer et al., 1992). If these effects
reliably occur before eating, we could be more
confident that social influences are a result of
adherence to wider normative social cues rather
than micro-level situational demands.
In the current research, the use of observa-
tional methods, although not as controlled as
methods used in experimental settings, allowed
different social influences to be witnessed
simultaneously in a natural environment.
Observational methods provide an ecologically
valid ‘snapshot’ data but are limited by the
scope of the information that can be recorded
and limit generalisability to other contexts. For
example, despite approximately 80 per cent of
the sample ordering a soft drink, these could not
be accurately identified as diet or non-diet and
were consequently excluded from kilojoule cal-
culations to provide a conservative estimation
of energy intake and focus discussion on eating
behaviour. Furthermore, during piloting, it was
revealed that it may be the case that the CBD
restaurant attracted less families and more
young adults as it is located within walking dis-
tance of a university.
The current results are important for under-
standing how social influences on eating
behaviour interact in eating environments.
They suggest that when eating in a social con-
text, interactions between the sex composition
of the group and the sex of the eater warrant
consideration. This study also suggests that
collection of more detailed diet diary data may
be required to further assess evidence of social
influences, in what circumstances they may be
witnessed (e.g. when eating with certain types
of people or when eating certain types of food)
and whether social influences are more potent
at the time of consumption or at the food selec-
tion stage.
Acknowledgements
This study was performed in partial requirement for
a PhD at CSIRO Animal, Food and Health Sciences
and The University of Adelaide.
Brindal et al. 489
Funding
The PhD scholarship was funded by a Linkage Grant
from the Australian Research Council with industry
partners the South Australian Health Department and
McDonald’s Australia. Neither industry partner had
a role in the designing, analysing or interpreting the
data or in the drafting, review or approval of the
manuscript.
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