5

The historians of the 19th century Orissa have- written

the political and administrative history
.....
of Orissa
^
and more or
less neglected to depict the socio-economic life . They have -
analysed revenue and administrative experiments of the last
India Company and later oh of the British Crown. Thereby they
ignored to present a clear socio-economic picture of the 19th
century Orissa. From their studies the modern scholars will tie
tempted to conclude that the causes of traditional poverty of
the Orissa people and decline of the agrarian economy of Orissa
f

was the result of the British colonial rule. The British Raj,
being a commercial power, created a girdle of underdeveloped
economies round the metropolis of Ingland to maintain the
prosperity of her own market economy at the cost of the under-
2
developed colonies , But the present scholar, confronted with
a massive literary and historical evidences, hesitates to blame
the British Rule for the socio-economic backwardness of the
19th century Orissa.

While discussing the socio-economic history of Orissa

of the 19th century the present scholar is confronted chiefly
with two problems which demand- a thorough probing., The first
problem is to analyse the causes of the socio-economic decline
of Orissa despite the welfare measures introduced by the
British Raj even though they had the intention to.maximise the
revenue collection through peremptory experimental land revenue
settlements^, The second problem is to find out why the
 6

traditional leaders of Orissa like-the Zamihdars and Rajas

failed to modernise the socio-economic life of Orissa* Even
the educated middle class could neither retard the decline in
her’agrarian economy nor could develop Orissa id.th an indus­
trially developed economy*

In this context it is not correct to conclude that the

British Government was responsible in dismembering the socio-
/ 4
economic frame-work of Orissa * But the present study starts
with the assumption that the decline both in the social and
economic sectors started right from the beginning of the Muslim
rule* The process of,decline was accelerated during the
Maratha. rule (1?51-1803). During the British rule inclement
weather, natural calamities like droughts and famines also
contributed their quota besides British revenue experiments to
aggravate the declining agrarian economy* The present scholar
is also inclined.to explain the constraints on the way to
leadership .formation for a possible, socio-economic degeneration
in Orissa .in the ,19th century.

The frontier of ancient Orissa is difficult to ascertain

for the existence in the past of numerous ethnic settlements and
political units like Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, and Koshala, which
later on constituted modern Orissa* Modern Orissa emerged when k
the Bhonsle on November 2, 1803 (Map No.l)^ ifter 1803 direct
rule was introduced in Cuttack, Puri and Balasore, the three
Mughalbandi districts of Orissa* In addition there were also
the Garhjat rulers called the Rajas who accepted the suzerainty
of the Company’s Government* The Sambalpur Group of states was
 7

restored to Raghu^i II^the Bhonsle of Nagpur after negotiations

6
in 1806 , In 1816 the Oardat states of Western Orissa were
brought under the South West Frontier Agency which had its
headquarters at Hazaribag, In 1849 Sambalpur was brought under
the direct administration of the British in the absence of a
legitimate heir to the local ruler. The language agitation in
1895 in Sambalpur ultimately, led to the transfer of Sambalpur
district with its native states from the Central Provinces to
Orissa division (Map Nq,2). The amalgamation of these states
resulted in the formation of the feudatory states of Orissa,
In the present,study the Mughalbandi areas and the native states
as well as the Southern Orissa which was separated virtually
from the main stream of the Orissan life, and culture^Jol w«ar$
amalgamated in 1936 to form the modern state of Orissa, have been
taken for study, The present Orissa extends from I4°99f N to
20°34* N latitude and S’/* 29* E to 87°29' E longitude. It is
bounded by the states of West Bengal on the north-east, Bihar
in the North, Madhya Pradesh in the West, Andhra Pradesh in the
South and the Bay of Bengal in the East (Map No,3).

The exact area of British Orissa in the 19th century

consisted of 2390? square miles out of which the tributary Mahals
occupied 16184 square miles. The population in 1815 was estimated
at 1,162,000 persons which fose to 3,280,54? in the year 1872,
By the Census of 1872 the population of Orissa and the tributary
9
states was estimated at 4,981,842 persons , According to the
Census of 1971, 21,93 million men lived in 01,41? villages and
81 towns Spreading over 156,000 square kilometers. The total area
 8

of the state comprises 4,9# of the Indian Union and it accommo-

dates 4.01# of her total population compared to the area (Map Ho.4).

The starting and terminating points of the present study

are 1805 and 1900 covering the whole of the 19th century. The

year 1803 marks a period of major political transition as

10
observed by the scholars * It was a transition leading to the

end of the Maratha rule and the beginning of the Pax Britanniea

which resulted ultimately in the clash between the traditional

ideas, life style and socio-economic value system and those of

the modern world, The period is also significant as the creeping

degeneration since the Muslim rule of the agrarian economy with

its villager-based salt and textile industries despite various

preventive measures taken by the British Government reached its

climacteric point. The study ends in 19Q0? the last year of the
19th century which witnessed the final settlement of land

revenue system in 1897 and the growth of the spirit of economic

nationalism under the emerging middle class. This phenomenon
ultimately led to the creation of a separate province of Orissa

in 1936, But that is a separate story beyond the scope of the

present study.

It is true that while assessing the socio-economic life

of a particular region within a. limited time-frame it is diffi­

cult to trace the suitable germinating and terminating points
as socio-economic history is a continuous process of development.

However, during the period between 1803 and 1900 it is possible

to notice the discernible process of changes and continuity

which in the end led to the emergence of socio-economic tension

 9

giving way to the capitalist formation in the socio-economic

sector of the 20th century Orissa,

Bespite considerable studies made on the 19th century

Orissa, the sociO'-economic life of Orissa remains unexplored,
The scholars hare probed the causes of the socio-economic
11
backwardness of the people of Orissa in the 19th century ,
They concluded that the British rule restored law and order
which accelerated the process of regeneration in terms of
socio-economic and cultural modernisation, The Raj responded
to the resistance in terms of revolts, both from the tribal and
the traditional societies. Inadequate investment for the
improvement of agriculture and industry led to the economic
backwardness of Orissa while Bengal, Bombay and other provinces
developed economically. There was the stunted growth in the
middle class leadership on the one hand while the traditional
aristocratic leadership on the. other failed to appreciate and
respond to the challenging socio-economic problems arising out
of the modernisation measures of the British Raj, The scholars
failed to answer the significant question, which the present
scholar tijould like to pose • why modernisation of the administra­
tive and socio-economic framework of Orissa could not end the
crisis in leadership formation in the 19th century society ?

According to the Marxist historians the backwardness in

the socio-economic life of India in the 19th century was due to
the colonial exploitation which checked the natural growth of
middle class leadership for a possible socio-economic regenera­
tion and the problem was further hightened by the natural
calamities But it''would be unhistorical to explain the
socio-economic backwardness of Orissa in terms of colonial
exploitation or Industrial Revolution in England or the
capitalistic challenge of an affluent western culture*

Therefore, in the present work some fundamental prob­

lems have been raised and some arguments to explain the
problems have been offered* These are ♦

a) Why,;the forces,of degeneration could not be arrested

despite modernisation measures adopted by the
British Ra55• and
b) Why there could not emerge a forceful process of
regeneration to respond adequately to the modernisa­
tion measures through the formation of a potential
.national.leadership ?

The emerging nationalist middle, class, coming in contact

with the modern, education system sang the, glory of the past
but they had no economic programme to. revive that, utopian
golden past-. They, refused to analyse either, the real cause of
poverty and economic backwardness or the remedial, measures
for removing poverty by modernising agriculture and industry
in Orissa.

The present scholar would like to analyse somevsignifi~

eant research Works already done to trace the history of Orissa,
in the 19th century which may be categorised into- four
specific groups. The first effort was made by the British
civilian administrators in India like John Beams;, Andrew Stirling,
 11

W*W* Hunter and George Toynbee* The second category of

historical evidences could be. derived from the official
despatches, by the British rulers, till the last phase of the
19 th century *

Following in the foot steps of the British orientalists

some historians in India,tried to trace the revenue and the
general administration of Orissa in the EOth century like
B,G,Roy, P, Mukherjee and Harekrishna Mahatab, In the last tw
decades of the century some scholars like K,C. lena, K#M. Patra,
Samal, P*K. Mishra and B.S, Bas have attempted to reveal the
revenue and.administrative history of modern Orissa*

The fourth category of writers are mainly litterateurs

who have undertaken studies to.unveil the socio-economic life
of Orissa in the 19th century. The most notable among them are
Mayadhar Mansingh, Sudhakar Pattanaik, Kata bar Samant Roy,
Bansidhar Mohamty, Kunj a Bihari Bas, Suryanarayan Bas,
Kiiakantha ©as and Gopal Oh. Mishra*

The British historians were foreigners and had no

acquaintance with the traditional, culture and heritage of the
people of Orissa. They studied mainly the historical traditions,
anecdotes to trace the ancient history of Orissa, They also,
studied the experiments in the revenue and general administra­
tion of the Raj, They suffered from a sense of whiteman's
superiority complex and tried to glorify their rule in Orissa.
Therefore, an impartial assessment may not be expected of their
studies on the socio-economic life of the 19th century Orissa*
The second category of historians from Orissa and outside
mainly depicted the revenue and general administration under
the East India Company and the Crown. But a, very few of them
have attempted to depict the socio-economic history of Orissa*

The prominent Oriya litterateurs succeeded only in

depicting the literary and social aspects of the 19th century
Orissa by editing different Oriya periodicals and followed the
beaten tracks of the British-oriental historians*.

The problems stated above and the limitations underlying

the studies of the historians prompted the present scholar to
make an attempt to throw light on the socio-economic life of
Orissa in the 19th century collected from1 the archival and ■
court documentsj private papers, despatches as well as from
the contemporary Oriya literatures and periodicals to restruc­
ture the socio-economic life of Orissa,

As a student of the Oriya literature he feels that one

cannot confine one’s study only to the contemporary newspaper
and literary sources to assess the socio-economic life of the
people for depicting the dynamics of socio-economic changes.
Thus he has studied all the available archival and oral history
farther with special emphasis on the Oriya literature*

In the present work the scholar has tried to examine

the following hypotheses t

a) The British rule in Orissa had a beneficial character,

but not in commensurate with the socio-economic necessities of
 13

the period* This is evident from their policy of investment

which failed to achieve adequate capital formation for the
regeneration of the . 19th century Orissa*

b) 19th century Orissa may be regarded backward not only

in terms of socio-economic and administrative but also in terms
of cultural and religious backwardness at a time when the
neighbouring provinces are developing rapidly* The frequent
invasions from outside the province* inclement geographical
conditions leading to natural calamities' decline in the
agrarian economy, social superstitions based on the pull of
traditionalism culminated in arresting the. process of economic
growth which was.possible after 1803*

The significant features of the socio-economic degenera­

tion is that the middle class leadership failed to guide the
emerging force of nationalism due to their inherent class
conflict and their dual character in embracing modernism on
the one hand and safeguarding their respect for the old socle-
religious values on the other, This .ultimately checked the
growth of the middle class potentiality to accelerate the
regenerative process.

In the ultimate analysis, backwardness in the socio­

economic life of Orissa was partly the result of deepening
degeneration in the socio-economic framework and partly the
result of the colonial exploitation. It is also due to the
failure Of the national leadership of the middle class to stem
the tide,of the degenerating process as they had no economic
programme to tackle the age-old. problems*
 n
To answer the research, questions raised by the present
scholar research data and materials hare been collected both
from the archival and non-archival sources* While collecting
data the scholar had to give special emphasis on the Criya
literature kept at different libraries and Record Rooms within
and outside Orissa including some unpublished private papers*

To focus light on the revenue and administrative

measures adopted by the British Raj materials have been collec­
ted from different record rooms. To picturise the socio-economic
environment in the last century and to trace the genesis and
growth of the middle class* contemporary literary works of the
last century including the contemporary and present generation
periodicals have been consulted. To explain and visualise the
leadership crisis in the 19th century, autobiographies of the
contemporary litterateurs* Government officials in the native
states, have been studied.

The non-archival materials are derived from Kanika

library at Ravemshaw College, Cuttack, Btkala Gaurav Madhusudan
Granthagara at Sriramchandra Bhaban, Cuttack, Padhihari
Pathagar, Cuttack, University libraries of Bant fihar,
Bhubaneswar, Jyoti Yihar, Sambalpur of Orissa* From these
places Qriya periodicals, Journals and many valuable books
of the 19th century, at present out of print, revealed that
the contemporary litterateur which formed the backbone of
the middle class society contributed immensly to the regenera­
tion of the Oriya society*
 The private papers from the native states of Kalahandi,
Khariar and Bamanda have also been taken into consideration*
The Durbar literature of the Garjat princes of Bamanda and
Khariar focussed light on the endeavour of the propertied class
to remove the prevalent social evils,.

But the i§th century Oriya literature has virtually

failed to provide sufficient socio-economic data as the elite
section of the last century engaged itself in reviving the
lost glory of Orissa forgetting the hard facts, of life of the
, common people*. But the ■writers like Fakir' Mohan, and Hamsankar
Hoy and ^agaraohan, Bala and several .notable periodicals did
provide us with data concerning socio-economic life of the
■ people,

In this dissertation the first chapter deals with the

political and economic background of Orissa upto 1803* -Attempts
have been made to analyse the process of creeping degeneration
in the economic life of the people since the early Mughal rule
which was further hightened by the short Maratha rule (1751-1803)
The process reached its climax in the early periods of the
British rule in Orissa by the,administrative and revenue
experiments'adopted by the. GpmpaijyVs Government which proved
disastrous to the short term settlements. The objective of the
Raj was to modernise ,the Government 'machinery that resulted in
sporadic peasant revolts.. Many welfare, measures were introduced
by the Raj' which led, to the restoration Of law and, order, The
Hal undertook public; works like construction of roads* railways*
embankments and introduction'of commercial agriculture* and
conservation of forests which created an environment of
economic development^3. The native rulers also tried to
implement the modernization measures that led to the emergence
of an elite middle class. They were loyal to the-alien rulers
although leadership provided by them in the 19th century
failed disastrously in its efforts to stem the tide of socio­
economic degradation. The chapter also explains how the
backward pull of the traditional values stood on the way to
economic development necessary for the growth of an indigenous
entrepreneurship for a sustained socio-economic growth.

In the second chapter, discussion has been made to study

measures of modernisation adopted by the British Raj in the
form of revenue and general administration that subsequently
led to the outbreak of sporadic peasant revolts resulting in
socio-economic tension owing to the loss of land holdings and
control of the tribal and peasant economy by men coming from
outside in order to bring about necessary reforms in agricul­
tural process.

To some social historians, peasant resistance movements

are no more than tribal movements. Systematic analysis has been'
made to study the leadership crisis in the traditional economy
consequent to loss of land by peremptory land settlements and
also to the negative response of the peasantry to the moderni­
sing process. The study reveals that the peasant revolts are
a part of defence mechanism of the tribal peasantry against
the process of modernisation. The revolts ultimately collapsed
owing to the superior military might of the British army and
the indifference of the middle class leadership as the loyal
middle class, reaped the maximum benefit out of the situation*

The third.chapter, deals with the nature of response to

modernisation measures and of the leadership crisis in Orissa,
It deals-, with the features of regeneration in Orissa in
comparison with Etenaissanee in Italy .and Bengal, The scholar
has also dealt with the spread.of western education, its
objects and consciences. Spread of education in'Orissa
resulted, in establishing schools and colleges, led to the
emergence of an elite middle class who excelled in the field
of literature, served under the Government as teachers, lawyers
and Dewans, set up printing press to propagate their ideas and
to make money out of their economic persuits,. But their role
in the economy could not pave way to capital formation.

The role of the Missionaries for establishing press and

schools in order to educate the people., to denounce the
traditional beliefs and old social values have also been
discussed. Although the Christian Missionaries from England
came to Orissa to spread Christianity in this land of idolatry,
their advent to Orissa was a blessing in disguise*

The fourth chapter in the thesis aims at studying the

process of regeneration,, It deals with the social content of
the Oriya literature to depict the class structure and socio-
religious values of .the people. Within 1870’s and 1890*s
literature flourished in the Garjat areas and.the native rulers
patronised litterateurs. The kings resorted to the development
 18

©f their native states,:But their failure to invest their

surplus income generously both in the agrarian and industrial
sectors lost the opportunity to Capital formation for removing
the age-old poverty of the people. Baring this period a new
intellectual movement spread like wild fire in Orissa popularly
known as the Brahmo-movement by the efforts of Keshab Chandra
Sen* Haranath Bhattacharjee, Fakir Mohan Senapati and Biswanath
Kar,

The. fifth chapter deals with the language agitation, a

movement for the amalgamation of the Oriya speaking tracts for
a separate Orissa province .and emergence of .different political
associations, fhe question has been posed as to why this middle
class intelligentia confined itself to nationalist movements
without making concerted efforts for achieving economic, nationa­
lism in Orissa. They were also handicapped by their class
interest which prompted them to collaborate with the British;
Government as their civil servants to rule the country.

.. . With all these, chapters and a', conclusion the present

scholar has tried to analyse the changes and continuity in the
socio-economic life of Orissa,, the pull of traditional ideas
and the signs of seed-time.:

In conclusion, it may. be said that the last phase of the

19th century , was the formative period of the British rule in
Orissa, which resulted,, in the national. awakening and- the: conse­
quent •nationalist , movement and. subseguent, socio-economic
regeneration in. the. 20th century * .
References

1. K.C, Jena, Land Revenue "Administration in Orissa, during

.. the; Nineteenth Century, NewB'plhi, 1968, and .
century. Delhi, 1978#
. , R.M.. Patra, Orissa under the last India.. Company . New Delhi,
1971.
2» B.S, Bas,- Studies in the Economic History of Orissa from
■ * ancient times to 1833. Calcutta, 1978.
S, -S.L, Maddox, Final Report on~ Survey and Settlement of the
tevinceJjfOrislaT^noiarilSettle.d area)..
1890-1900, Jols.1-11, Calcutta, 1900,
4. K.C. -Jena, on.cit.. Land Revenue'Administration etc..
' New'Bethi', 19 68, pjj, '
5. Mgs^l^ti£8^o_tM.Latg^ransaatian§„iiL.tM^Matlia.
Empire.. 1804. p. 148, Home Miscellaneous,
?ol. 623, pp.86, 103, 111? Proclamationst
9 January, 1804, Bengal Secret Persian
..................... Correspondence (trans) Letters sent, 1804, No.l,
vide B.G.Roy, Foundations of British Orissa,
Cuttack;, I960, pp.44-45. ~
6. L.E.B. Cobden Ramsay, Feudatory States of Orissa. Calcutta,
1910, pp,89-91.
7. L.E.B. Cobden Ramsay, ibid, pp*89-91*
8. B.N, Sinlia, • Land and People of Orissa*, Souvenir. Indian
History Congress. Bhubaneswar Session, 1977,
PP.1-2. ;
9* L.S.S* 0*Malley, Census,of India, 1911, Fol.T, Part III,
Calcutta, 1913, p.6,
10, Andrew Sterling, *An Account Geographical, Statistical and
Historical of Orissa proper, or Cuttack*,

K.Mo Patra, Orissa under the East India. Company. New Belli!,
1971, pp.1-2.
11, K.C. Jena, op.cit., Socio-economic condition etc.. pp.54-55
•J.K. Samal, Orissa under the British Crown. New Delhi , 1978
^ ’ pp,,362-64,:. '
 20

12* Bipan Chandra, The Rise and growth of Economic Nationalism

in India. Delhi, 1969, pp*40-54*.
Levfeovsky, 1*1*» Capitalism in India* lew Delhi, 1972,
pp*54-56„
Pavlov, 7*1. *-■-Indian Middle Class . ; Its Origin and
Moscow, 1964, pp.102-103.

13* Report, of_;.the,. Royal Commission in Agriculture inJLndia

(In .abridged Report), Bombay, 1928, ps75.