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Romantic Criticism : Shelley : "Defence of Poetry"

"The Defence of Poetry" : Its Occasion—Peacock's Attack on Poetry

The immediate occasion for Shelley's pamphlet was provided by Thomas Love
Peacock's attack on poetry in his Four Ages of Poetry, published in 1820. Peacock
divided all poetic productions into four ages, the iron age, the gold age, the silver age and
the brass age. Poetry originates in the iron age, the golden age is the age of noblest poetic
productions, then sets in the artificial silver age which in its turn is followed by an age of
decay and decline, the age of brass. Their own age, was the brass age of poetry. To quote
his own words, "A poet in our times is a semi-barbarian in a civilized community. He
livesjn the days that are past...The march of his intellect is like that of a crab, backward.
The brighter the the light diffused around him by the progress of reason, the thicker is the
darkness of antiquated barbarism in which he buries himself like a mole, to throw up the
barren hillocks of his Cimmerian labours."

Peacock concluded his treatise by maintaining that the poet is useless and that the
honour of society will more and more be given to those who promote uitility: Poetry is
essentially the most ijeortMeas of all intellectual exercises : "It can never make a
philosopher nor a statesman, nor in any class of life a useful or a rational man. It
cannot claim the slightest share in any of the comforts and utilities of life, of which we
have witnessed so many and so rapid advances... But though not useful, it may be said, it
is highly ornamental and deserves to be cultivated for the pleasure it yields. Even if this be
granted, it does not follow that a writer of poetry in the present state of society is not a
waster of his own time and a robber of that of others. In whatever degree poetry is
cultivated it must necessarily be to the neglect of some branch of useful study."

Poetry is thus condemned as a mere frivolous amusement, a mere waste of time and
energy, and the superemacy of reasan over imagination is asserted. It is such a view Of
poetry which Shelley controverts, anbHKeiThe proceeds to establish the nobility and
dignity of poetry, as well as its social utility. Thus what began as a mere pamphlet in a
controversy soon grew into a noble defence of poetry.

Parallel with Sidney's 'Apology*—Plan of Shelley's Defence

In its title and occasion, in its purpose, and in its general plan and outline, Shelley's
Defence of Poetry puts in mind Sidney's Apology of poetry which was a reply to
Stephen Gosson’s attack on poetry. Shelley’s is a repIy to Peacock's attack. Their aim is
the same, i.e. to assert the nobility.dignity and usefulness of poetry. Their general plan
and outline is identical. Both the treatises are easily divisible into three parts. In the first
part, poetry is defined and its true nature is studied and elaborated in the most abstract
and comprehensive manner. In the second part, the noble nature of poetry, and its moral
and ethical significance to society is examined and elaborated. This provides them with an
occasion for a critical review of poetry. Since knowledge of literature in Sidney's day was
confined and limited, he could evaluate only Chaucer's works, and the ballad of Chevy
Chase. Shelley, on the other hand, examines poetry from Homer down to his own day, and
his examination though necessarily brief, as covering such a wide field, is very

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illuminating and suggestive. "Shelley's criticism suffers as much from a range too
extensive as Sidney's does from one too narrow." Even then Shelley's review of poetry is
one of the glories of English literary criticism. In the third part, both Shelley and Sidney
defend poetry against the charges that have been brought against it by its detractors.
Shelley adds a fourth part by way of a brief resume of the whole discussion, and ends his
treatise with a rhapsodic eulogy on poets and poetry. "The general resemblance between
the two treatises is very striking; and Shelley has obviously followed his predecessor in
the main outline ; but he is altogether deeper and more philosophic, and he embodies
some of the best results of the romantic criticism of his own time ; the 'Defence' may be
described as an 'Apologie' transferred from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth."
Throughout the study of Shelley's Defence, it is, therefore, desirable to keep in mind
Sidney's Apology.

Definition of Poetry : Imagination and Its Role


Sidney begins by declaring that poetry is the highest of all human powers because
more directly creative than any other art ; all the other arts and sciences depend upon
nature ; the poet alone is not limited to study or imitation, but can improve upon nature
and create better than she. Shelley interprets the function of the poet altogether more
finely than Sidney. He defines poetry as the expression of imagination, and considers that
all are poets who express imagination in life ; sculptors, artists, musicians, even law
givers and the founders of religions. AH the arts are poetry because they render
imagination ; but rhythmical language provide the highest kind of poetry, since language
is itself created by the imagination and is a medium in its substance intellectual, which is
not true of any other. 1 Like Sidney, Shelley considers poetry as something better than
nature, though for a different reason.

Plato's Objection to Poetry : Shelley's Reply; Platonism against Plato


Sidney has to face the difficulty that Plato, whom he considers the most admirable of
philosophers, banished poetry and poets from his Republic : "and he can only meet it
indirectly and lamely ; he replies by bringing an accusation against Plato, i.e. that, since
The Republic admits community of goods and women, it is itself immoral." Shelley agrees
with Sidney that poetry is better than nature, "and at the same time overcomes the
Platonic objection by a weapon ingeniously selected from Plato's own armoury."
Plato objects to the poet on the ground that he is thrice removed from reality ; the
actual world is made up of things which are only copies of divine ideas ; the painter and
the poet copy these copies and are thus thrice removed from reality ; similarly, they copy
images of virtue and the like but do not understand their true nature. Poets are thus the
abettors of falseness and encourage men in deceits.

Shelley accepts Plato's theory that all things in the world are only copies of divine
ideas, but he claims that poetry gets behind the copy and, images directly the divine idea
; it is the revelation or expression of the idea itself. To quote his own words : "A poem
is the very image of
life expressed in its eternal truth It is the creation of actions
according to the unchangeable forms of human nature, as existing in the mind of the
Creator, which is itself the image of all other minds." This, Shelley maintains, is the secret
of the sense of exaltation produced by poetry, since it expresses a deeper reality than that

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of the world ; it transports man to the kingdom of the Absolute and permits him to gaze
upon the very features of love, wisdom, and virtue, in their divine reality. It is better than
nature herself, for it rectifies that distortion of the divine idea which is occasioned when
the idea is embodied in earthly objects and forms. Hence also its universality of appeal,
since, by rendering the idea, it contains within itself, "the-germs of a relation to whatever
motives or actions have taken place-in the possible varieties of human nature."

Time destroys the beauty and the use of any story of particular facts, but increases that of
poetry by forever developing new and wonderful applications of the eternal truths that it
contains.
Shelley thus agrees with Sidney that poetry is better than, nature, but gives reasons
more philosophical. According to Sidney, man can actually create that which is better.
"Nature's world is-brazen, the poet delivers a golden one." According to Shelley, he
does not do this, but he gets, as it were, to the heart of nature by setting the eternal type
free from its accidents.

The Utility of Poetry : Its Superiority over Philosophy and History

Having denned the greatness of poetry, Sidney proceeds to speak of its function as
essentially moral. He praises it because it teaches better than either philosophy or history.
It teaches better than philosophy because it does not deal only in precepts, but also
enforces them by examples, which are more attractive and alluring. The bright pictures of
poetry, appeal to the imagination and impress the memory. Poetry also instructs better
than history because it is not tied to the particular fact, and can, more surely, move men
to virtue. "History", Sidney naively says, "sometimes deters men from virtue, since it
shows that even the cruel and unjust may be prosperous and the good unfortunate."
Poetry has a great advant&gj, since it can reward all according to their deserts. History,
again, exhibits good and evil mixed in the same character ; so that it is hard to distinguish
what is to be admired from what is to be shunned. Poetry, on the other hand, can
represent characters which are pure types of virtue and, therefore, wholly admirable, and
other characters which are types of unmixed vice, and so wholly to be avoided.

Moral Function of Poetry—Ways in which It is Performed

Shelley believes in the moral efficacy of poetry no less than Sidney, but he explains
its effect much less crudely, in a way that is indeed, a real contribution to philosophic
thought. He is influenced partly by Aristotle's definition of tragedy, possibly also by
reminis cence, conscious or unconscious, of Wordsworth's prefaces.

Poetry does not, says Shelley, instruct by direct precept, and it is only partially that it
instructs by example. The highest moral effect of poetry lies in its appeal to the
imaginative and emotional faculties ; in the development it gives to these it enlarges the
powers of the mind itself. Imagination always plays an important role in the growth of
moral sense. Men, Shelley points out, have never lacked excellent moral precepts ; they
have always known, in theory at least, what they ought to do, but they have lacked the

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understanding to apply that knowledge in day to day life. Want of imagination means want
of sympathy and want of sympathy produces callousness and cruelty. "A man to be greatly
good," says Shelley, "must imagine intensely and comprehensively...Poetry strengthens
the faculty which is the organ of the moral nature."

Thus the morality of poetry is higher than any that a teacher directly inculcates. To
teach morality directly is wrong, because such conceptions are limited in time and place.
It is for this reason that didactic poetry has always been an inferior an inferior kind. Nor
does Shelley end here. He adds that poetry not only extends the imaginative power, but it
also exercises an ennobling effect on the quality of the imagination itself. This idea is
really to be traced to Aristotle's famous theory of katharsis concerning the purifying
power of tragedy, which Shelley has interpreted in his own way. Aristotle says that
tragedy, through pity and fear, causes the proper purgation of these emotions. What he
means by this sentence has been greatly disputed, but Shelley conceives that the effect is
mainly on the imagination. The imagination is enlarged by a sympathy with pains and
pleasures so mighty that they distend in their conception the capacity of that by which
they are conceived ; the good affections are strengthened by pity, indignation, terror, and
sorrow ; and an exalted calm is prolonged from the satiety of this high exercise of them
into tumults of familiar life.

A further moral effect of poetry lies, Shelley believes, in the increased value it gives
to ordinary human life. Here Shelley is influenced by Wordsworth. Wordsworth, we are
told by Coleridge, in writing the Lyrical Ballads had desired to give the charm of novelty
to things of everyday life, and to exercise a feeling analogous to the supernatural by
awakening the mind's attention from the lethargy of custom and directing it to the
loveliness and wonders of the world before us, "an exhaustible treasure, but for which, in
consequence of the film of familiarity, we have eyes that see not, ears that hear not, and
hearts that neither feel nor understand." In other words, poetry reveals unsuspected
sources of pure enjoyment in the world arouvd. So Shelley says that poetry, "strips the
veil of familiarity from the world and lays bare the naked and. sleeping beauty tvhich is
the. spirit of its forms." And again : "Poetry purges from our inward sight the film of
familiarity which obscures from us the wonder of our being. It creates anew the universe
after it has been annihilated in our minds by the recurrence of impressions blunted by
reiteration."

Further, in his Preface Wordsworth defines poetry as, "The brtath and finer spirit of all
knowledge," and says that, "The Poet bii\d» together by passion and knowledge the vast
empire of human socidy as it is spread over the whole earth and over all time." So with
Shelley : "Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best
minds. Poetry thus makes immortal all that is best and most beautiful in the world......A
great poem is a fountain for ever overflowing with the waters of wisdom and delight."'
Shelley explains that, after one age has exhausted all its capacities, another will still find
new ones.

Immorality of Poetry—The Love Theme : Its Vindication

After having vindicated the greatness of poetry in his Apologie, Sidney next
meets the arguments of those who urge that particular kinds of poetry, especially love

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poetry, are immoral and that poets sometimes lend their art to ignoble uses. It is true,
he admits, that poets do speak too much of love and they even speak of lust and vanity
and scurrility, yet, "it it not poetry which abuses man's wit but man's wit that abuses
poetry." Shelley follows this general outline, but again with much more insight. He
would scarcely grant that poetry could speak too much of love, providing the love
were spiritual, and he boldly asserts that poetry, in so fa/ as-it is poetry, is invariably
moral and pure and cannot be otherwise. Really great poetry can be produced only in a
noble age, and, when the social decay of any period begins, then poetry decays with it,
becoming colder and less lifelike.

"Obscenity is at the opposite pole from poetry, for obscenity is blasphemy against
the divine beauty of life of which poetry is the embodiment." Even those luscious and
sensuous poets, such as the Alexandrian' Greeks, who are considered immoral, are not
so in relation to their own age ; when we regard their work more closely we find that
they embody the good which still survived in that age. "It is not what the erotic poets
have, but what they have not, in which their imperfection consists." Poetry remains in
every age, however corrupt it may be, the light of life, and communicates all the
pleasure men are capable of receiving.

Rhyme and Metre

Yet another point of resemblance between Sidney and Shelley lies in the insistence
of both that there is no essential difference between prose and verse. Sidney says : "It
is not rhyming and versing that maketh Poesie. One may be a poet without versifying
and a versifier without poetry." Sidney, however, strongly advocates verse on the
ground that it is an aid to memory.

Shelley also denies the necessity of rhyme and metre ; the essential things are
dignity and nobility of thought and language suitably harmonious and rhythmical; but
rhythm is not limited to verse, and good prose possesses excellent rhythm of its own :
"The distinction between poets and prose writers is a vulgar error….. Plato was
essentially a poet….. The truth and splendour of his imagery and the melody of his
language are the most intense that it is possible to conceive." So also, he asserts,
Lord Bacon was a poet.

In this particular respect, Shelley differs from Coleridge, who maintains that the
language of poetry is, and ought to be, different from the language of prose, since the
mere addition of metre presupposes a state of high excitement, and, therefore, should
produce a change of language. "Theoretically we may agree with Coleridge that the
language of poetry ought to be different from the language of prose ; but practically it
is difficult to deny that Shelley is right; the language of Jeremy Taylor or of Bacon is
certainly more poetic than that of poets like Pope or Crabbe ; it is possessed of more
energy and has a nobler rhythm."

Historical Survey of Poetry : Shelley's Practical Criticism

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Then follows a comprehensive review of the world's poetry and its general function
in history. His judgments are brief, but they have, all of them, the winged and enchanting
quality of enthusiasm. We notice, especially, his preoccupation with the Greek and Italian
literatures, perhaps the only ones he fully appreciated. He extols the Athenian drama above
all other varieties of poetry ; considering that it contains, as a class, the noblest poetry the
world has seen. It is only the interpenetration of comedy in King Lear— comedy which
Shelley splendidly defines as, "universal, ideal, and sublime"—which turns the balance in
its favour as against the Oedipus Tyrannus or the Agamemnon,

Shelley declares that the highest dramatic art is impossible except within a social
milieu of high degree of nobility, and remarks that the period of grossest degradation in
the English drama occurred in the reign of Charles II. However, this view may be true
morally, but it is hardly correct artistically.

He passes over Latin poetry very briefly with the remark that the true poetry of
Rome, "lived in her institution". He means that the institutions of Rome are the highest
expression of her imagination. His enthusiasm for Italian poetry is very great for it is akin
to his own genius in its spiritual quality, and in the pre-eminence it gives to love. He writes
that Petrarch's verses, "are as spells which unseal the inmost enchanted fountains of the
delight which is in the grief of love." Dante, "understood the secret things of love even
more than Petrarch." His apotheosis of Beatrice and the gradations of his own love and
her loveliness by which he ascends to Paradise are, Shelley thinks, expressions of the most
glorious imagination in modern poetry.
Of English literature Shelley says very little, but singles out Milton for comparison
with Dante. He dislikes the theology of Milton, and considers, as others have done, that
Satan is the true I hero of Paradise Lost, and so concludes that Milton's poem contains \
4-tcithin itself a complete refutation of the system of which it has been a J chief popular
support."

The End: Rhapsod on the Poet


Shelley concludes his essay with a brief summary of his arguments and in the last
paragraph we get the famous picture of the poet, “ass an inspired capturing in
language the moments of his contact with the ideal world.”

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Longinus, "On the Sublime"

1. Uncertainty Regarding Its Date and Authorship

The exact date and authorship of the Greek treatise 'On the Bublime', attributed to
one Longinus, has been a matter of much critical wrangling. It wag in 1554 that the Italian
critic Robortello first presented the work to the modern readers, and ascribed it to a
rhetorician named Dionysius Longinus, and this authorship was generally accepted upto
the beginning of the 19th century. Then some critics pointed out that the work belonged to
that Longinus who was the famous minister of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. In recent
times, R.A. Scott-James has subscribed to this view.. The controversy still goes on, and
who its author actually was still remains uncertain. Therefore, the traditional authorship is
retained, and the work is simply assigned to one 'Longinus'. In the absence of any definite
information, this name is as good as any other to stand for the 'unknown'.

Similarly, there is a controversy regarding its date of composition. 19th century


critics tended to assign it to the 3rd century A.D. However, there is ample evidence to
establish that the work must have been written in the later half of the first century A.D.,
neither much earlier, nor much later. In the very beginning, we are told that the treatise
was written to correct the faults of an essay on the same subject by one Caecilius, who is
definitely known to have belonged to the first century A.D. Moreover, there are constant
references in the work to contemporary oratory and orators and an analysis of the causes
of its decline. The decline of eloquence was a burning topic of the age, and the treatise has
been professedly written to corrrect contemporary faults of style. It has all the appearance
of a work written to meet some pressing need of the time. Therefore, we must accept the
later half of the first century A.D. as the most likely date of its composition.

2. 'On the Sublime': Its Fragmentary Nature; Its Significance

On the Sublime is a critical document of great worth and significance. It is the


most precious legacy of the Graeco-Roman period to literary criticism in the modern age.
No doubt, it is unfortunate that it has come down to us in an imperfect form. Large
portions are missing, and there are frequent and extensive gaps. It has been calculated that
as much as one-third of the original ocument is missing. Thus we have only a part of the
actual work, but what we have, is sufficient to make plain the intention of its author. The
document, imperfect as it is, contains such abundance of good things, that it must be
considered as one of the choicest pieces of criticism that have come down to us from
antiquity.

3. Its Plan

Despite its apparent formlessness, the treatise has a well-marked structure. It is


addressed to one Terentianus, a friend or a pupil, and after a brief introduction the writer
passes on to the central theme, a discussion of those vices of style which constitute in
contemporary oratory, 'a false sublime'.

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This is followed by a section representing the main substance of the treatise, in which
are specified the five sources of the sublime, as well as the details of the treatment
necessary for its attainment. The five sources are said to be (1) grandeur of conception,
(2) intensity of emotion, the consideration of which is reserved for a separate work ; and
both of these, as the author points out, are largely the fruit of natural genius. Then follows
some account of the remaining three sources which are due primarily to art, (3) the
appropriate use of figures, (4) nobility of diction, and (5) dignity and elevation of word-
order. The work ends with a discussion of the causes of the decay of eloquence, a return
to the opening theme, which rounds off the treatment and suggests the motive that has
been prompted the author throughout.

The general plan of the work is thus obvious and clear cut. "The central theme is
treated on comprehensive line, embodying an approach to the subject from both the
psychological and the technical points of view ; while something of the usual rhetorical
procedure is also adopted in treating first of subject-matter and its arrangement under the
head of grandeur of conception, and then of the choice and arrangement of words in
subsequent sections"—(Atkins). But the treatment is never rigidly systematic.
Throughout the work, an easy conversational tone is maintained, rising at times to an
appropriate eloquence. "And by means of an abundance of illustrative quotations, by his
shrewd and convincing analysis of literary qualities, the author succeeds in calling
attention to some of the fundamental principles underlying all good writing, while
commending them to his readers by the freshness and charm of his style—(Atkins).

4. Critical Synopsis

A brief synopsis of the work is necessary to bring out fully its scope, and the purpose
of its author.

(a) Introductory. The writer addresses his friend. Terentian, tells him of his
purpose, that of correcting the faults of Gaecilius' essay on the sublimej and makes some
other preliminary observations.

(b) Sublimity defined and explained. Sublimity is a certain loftiness and


excellence in language. It is only through sublimity that the greatest poets and
prose writers have derived their eminence and gained immortality. Sublimity does not
merely persuade ; it carries us away almost irresistibly. It expresses itself in the general
structure of a work. Sometimes it might express itself even in a single phrase, like a
flash of lightning.

(c) Can art teach sublimity or loftiness in writing ?


Some people think that sublimity is a gift of nature and it has nothing to do with art. They
say : "a lofty tone is inborn, and it does not come by teaching ; nature is the only master
that can teach it." However, it must be remembered that nature needs the help of art to
control its wild impulses. Nature impulses without artistic control are like a ship let loose
on the oceans without a helmsman. Secondly, it is only by art that a writer can learn when
to abandon himself, "to the direction of genius". Art is to nature, what good counsel is to

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good fortune. "The expression of the sublime often needs the spur, but it also needs the
curb which is put by art alone."

{d) Some faults of style. There are some defects of style which tend to spoil the
loftiness of language. These faults are tumidity or bombast, puerility, grandiloquence and
frigidity. All these faults arise from the craze for novelty of thought.

(e) The true and false sublime. The writer then distinguishes between the 'true
sublime' and the 'false sublime'. The true sublime uplifts our soul. It arises from lofty ideas
clothed in lofty language. It gives us joy and exalts our spirits. The more we read it, the
more we enjoy it. Every time it suggests new ideas and feelings. It never grows stale. In
short, the true sublime, "pleases all, and pleases always". The "false sublime", on the
other hand, consists merely of a gorgeous exterior, which conceals nothing but emptiness.
There is bombast of language. Affected, pompous language is used to clothe thoughts
which are essentially trivial and peurile. There is also cheap display of passion
unwarranted by the subject.

(/) The sources of the sublime. There are five principal sources of the sublime :

(i) Grandeur of thought, i.e. the power of conceiving great thought.

(ii) Strong and inspired passion, and vigorous treatment of it.

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(iii) The use of figures—(a) figures of thought, and (b) figures of language or
expression.

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iv) Noble diction, including a proper choice and arrangement of words and
handling of metaphor and other ornaments of diction.

(v) Dignified, elevated, and elaborate composition. (By this Longinus means
rhythm).
The first two of these sources are inborn gifts of a genius, the others can be acquired
by art.
(g) Grandeur of thought. Great thoughts spring from great souls. The truly
eloquent must be free from low and ignoble thoughts. Men with mean and servile ideas
cannot attain sublimity. It is only great minds that produce great literature. "Their words
are full of sublimity whose thoughts are full of majesty."
(h) Skilful selection and organisation of material.
Another thing that contributes to the sublimity of style is the wise and systematic selection
of the most important elements (events, emotions or passions) and their combination into
a single whole.
(i) Amplification. Amplification, i.e. the accumulation of relevant and telling details
of a subject, is closely associated with sublimity. This imparts force and magnitude to the
style, "One impressive point after another is brought in a continuous and. ascending
scale."
(j) Amplification and sublimity distinguished. The distinction between sublimity
and amplification is that sublimity consists in elevation, while amplification embraces a
multitude of details. It gives extension to a subject. Sublimity is often comprised of a
single thought, while amplification can only subsist with a certain prolixity and
diffusiveness.

(k) Imitation as a means to sublimity. The imitation of previous great poets and
writers is one of the paths which lead to sublimity. The great masters of antiquity are the
standards of excellence. Hence they should be imitated. The writer may receive a divine
impulse from them. He should ask three questions: (t) How would Homer or Plato have
expressed a particular idea ? (it) If Homer or Plato were to listen to what he composed,
what would be their reaction ? (in) How would future ages judge his composition ? Such
questioning will stimulate the writer to the sublime.
(I) The use of Figures. The use of vivid figures or images also helps in the creation
of the sublime. The writer should first see imaginatively what he describes, and then try to
produce a similar illusion in his readers. The aim of poetical images is to astound and
startle the readers ; the aim of rhetorical images is to impart vividness and clearness.
Both, however, seek to stir the passions and the emotions. Both kind of images may be
used.
(to) The Importance of Figures. Figures of speech, if properly handled, contribute
to sublimity. But the figures should

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be employed in the right place, on the right occasion, in the right manner, and with a
right motive.

Figures should be used in a natural manner. The artificiality of figures rouses


suspicion and anger. Art lies in concealing art. 'Wherefore a figure is at its best when the
very fact that it is a figure escapes attention.'

(n) The various figures and their uses. One of the1 common figures is Adjuration or
Apostrophe. It is an effective use of an appeal or address to stir the emotions. The
rhetorical use of questions and answers often makes the language more effective and
impressive. The language becomes not only more elevated but also more convincing. The
device stirs the readers or the listeners and gives energy to the words. But these questions
should spring from a natural outburst of passion and should be inspired by the occasion.
They should strike as being quite natural under the circumstances. If a question is inspired
by a strong passion, the words will flow out spontaneously and will add to the
impetuosity of effect.

Another figure is Asyndeton which consists in the removal of connecting particles.


The effect produced is one of rush and torrent of passion.

The union of certain figures, to attain some particular effect, imparts strength,
beauty and persuasiveness to the language. In order to produce a powerful emotional
effect, figures such as Anaphora (repetition of words), and Diatyposis (vivid description)
may be combined together. Such a union imparts, "vigour, cogency and beauty to a
speech".
Hyperbaton is a figure which consists in the inversion of the natural order of words
or thoughts. It carries the very effect of violent, mental agitation. When a person speaks
under the stress of a strong passion the logical order is often reversed and he jumps from
one thought to another. This figure, therefore, gives a touch of reality to speech and
produces the natural effect of emotion : 'Art is perfect when it seems to be nature, and
nature hits the mark when she contains art hidden within her.'

Polyptota is a figrue which consists in the interchange of one case for another, of
one number for another, of one tense for another, and of one person for another. It is an
excellent weapon of public oratory and contributes to sublimity. It diversifies and enlivens
exposition. But it should be used only when the nature of our subject allows it. "To
overlay every sentence with ornament is very pedantic."
Periphrasis also contributes much to the sublime and adds greatly to the beauty of
language. But it is to be handled with great discrimination, otherwise it will lose its effect
and arouse disgust.

(o) Noble Diction and sublimity. The choice of proper and striking words is
essential for prod-icing sublimity, because it is

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through words that a writer expresses himself. "Beautiful words are the very light of lofty
thought." But inappropriate magnificence of diction should be avoided. For example,
trifling subjects should not be treated in a grand manner.

(p) The use of Metaphors. The use of metaphors contributes a great deal to the
sublime. Metaphors should, however, be used in impassioned and descriptive passages
only. 'The proper time for using metaphors is when the passions roll like a torrent and
sweep a multitude of them down their resistless flood.' On such occasions, a number of
metaphors can be used together. The use and number of metaphors is determined by the
occasion. No fixed rules can be laid down in this connection.

(q) A brief digression. A genius with some faults is better than a flawless mediocre.
It is not the number but the loftiness of a writer's excellencies which counts.

(r) Closely allied to metaphors are comparisons and similes. They also contribute to
sublimity.

(a) Hyperboles may be used in describing the great as well as the small, since
exaggeration is the common element in both cases. Those hyperboles are best in which
the very fact that they are hyperboles escapes attention. So naturally should it grow out
of the circumstances. In the use of Hyperbole, one must not overstep, otherwise the effect
would be spoiled.

(t) Arrangement of words. The harmonious arrangement of words is the fifth


source of the sublime. It is a great source of persuasion as well as pleasure. It, "reaches
our souls", and contributes to lofty utterance and passion. It is the sense of harmony that
gives charm and organic unity to a work of art. A sentence has its own organic structure,
and it arises from a harmonious arrangement of words. Broken and agitated movement of
language spoils dignity and elevation and gives the composition an appearance of
meanness. Excessive conciseness of expression also tends to mar the sublime. "Deformity
instead of grandeur ensues from over compression." 'Grandeur is married when the
thought is brought into too narrow a compass.' Similarly, over-extension also makes the
style lifeless.
(u) The use of mean words should be avoided. Low and undignified vocabulary
also disfigures and degrades sublimity. Ill-sounding words and vulgar idioms should,
therefore, be avoided.
(v) The decline of eloquence in the age; its causes.
Some critics are of the view that the decline of truly great literature in their times was due
to the lack of incentive which democracy provided to men of genius in earlier times. They
say that the growth of highly exalted genius has ceased. Longinus differs from such
critics. He thinks that it is characteristic of human nature, always to find fault with the
present. The real cause of the decline of

18
eloquence and literature, is the moral decline of the people. People attach more
importance to the materialistic values of life ; they do not exert themselves except for the
sake of praise, money, or pleasure. "Great literature springs from great and lofty souls,
and not from those with whom the world is too much."
5. The Sublime : Its Nature and definition

Even a cursory reading of the text is sufficient to show that Longinus has not used
the word 'sublime' in its modern, narrow and limited sense. What Longinus means by the
word 'sublime' is 'elevation' or 'loftiness', all that raises style above the ordinary, and gives
to it distinction in its widest and truest sense. This distinction was present in the earliest
Greek masterpieces, and it gives them their permanent value, but this distinction is entirely
lacking in the works of his contemporaries.

Thus by sublimity Longinus means, "a certain distinction and excellence in


composition". The effect of this quality is not mere persuasion or pleasure, but, 'transport'
; that is to say it works like a charm carrying irresistibly away with it, all readers and
hearers. The effect is as immediate as it is subtle ; it does not result from a painstaking
observance of the rules of rhetoric. To quote his own words, "sublimity, flashing forth at
the right moment, scatters everything before it like a thunderbolt, and at once displays the
power of an orater in all its plenitude." Passages like these have led, R.A. Scott-James to
call Longinus, "the first romantic critic".

In order to explain further the nature of the sublime, Loginus compares the true
sublime with the false sublime. The false sublime is characterised, first, by tumidity or
bombast of language, which is as great an evil as swellings in the body. "It is drier than
dropsy". Secondly, the false sublime is characterised by puerility, which is a parade and
pomp of language, tawdry and affected, and so frigid. Thirdly, the false sublime results
when there is a cheap display of passion, when it is not justified by the occasion, and so is
wearisome. Contemporary literature was falsely sublime, and, "All these ugly and
parasitical growths in literature arise from a single cause, that pursuit of novelty in the
expression of ideas which may be regarded as the fashionable craze of the day." True
sublime, on the other hand, "pleases all, and pleases always", for it expresses thoughts of
universal validity—thoughts common to men of all ages and countries —in a language
which instinctively uplifts our souls.

Ways of Acquiring It : Nature and Art

Next, Longinus examines how this true sublimity can be acquired, and points out
that both Nature and Art are equally necessary. However, the course of discussion shows
that in truth he considers that such skill is inborn, it does not come by teaching, "and that
indeed genius itself shrivells up at the touch of the rules."

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However, art has its own place. Its function is twofold. In the first place, it provides a
safeguard against undue licence, and it explains to men Nature's method of expression :
"Fine writing needa the cutb, as well as the spur."

Its Sources

There are five sources of this distinction, loftiness, or sublimity, (o) First, and most
important source is grandeur of conception or lofty and awe-inspiring thoughts, (b)
vehement and inspired passion, (c) use of figures which are of two kinds, figures of
thought and figures of language, (d) noble diction which is the result of choice and
arrangement of words, use of images, and metaphors and similes and comparisons, and («)
dignified, elevated and elaborate composition. The first two sources are innate or natural,
while the remaining three are the products of art. Thus art and nature both contribute to
the sublime or loftiness of style.

(a) Grandeur of Thought: Grandeur of thought is the first essential, for noble and
lofty thoughts find their natural expression in lofty language. Lofty thought itself is an,
"echo of greatness of soul". Such greatness and nobility of soul can be cuitivated by
nourishing the mind on thoughts that are elevating. Mean and ignoble thoughts can never
inspire a lofty utterance. Therefore, he ¦who would attain distinction of style must feed his
soul on the works of the great masters, as Homer, and capture from them some of their
own greatness. This reflects the classicism of Longinus. However, what Longinus has in
mind is not mere imitation or borrowing, but that, "men catch fire from the spirit of
others". The "imitation" he here advocates is worlds apart from the formal copying usually
associated with that term ; it is different, too, from Horace's rather loftier conception
which stood for an assimilation of ancient methods ¦with a view to producing something
new. "To Longinus the operation is not that aims at capturing something of the ancient
spirit, something of that vital creative force which had gone to the making of the earlier
master-pieces ; and its effect he describes as that of illumination, guiding the mind in some
mysterious way to the lofty standards of the ideal. Here then is something new in the
critical outlook ; a recognition of that imaginative stimulus derived from great creative
genius, as well as an interpretation of "imitation" that raised it to a higher place. And it is
such theorising as this that constitutes the greatness of Longinus"—(J.W.H. Atkins). This
grandeur of conception is to be emphasised and made effective by a suitable treatment of
material. Details should be so chosen as to form an organic whole. 'Amplification', i.e.
accumulation of all the details of a given subject, is also helpful. Such amplification by its
profusion suggests overwhelming strength and magnitude. The use of vivid and
compelling images is also useful, for it brings home to the readers the conception of the
writer, effectively and forcefully.

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(6) Passion : The second source of the sublime is vehement and inspired passion.
Longinus asserts that nothing contributes more to loftiness of tone in writing than genuine
emotion. However, the topic has not been dealt with in detail. The author declares his
intention of dealing with it in a second treatise, which unfortunately has not come down
to us.

(c) The Use of Figures : The third source of attaining excel lence of style is the use
of Figures, which he considers very important, and so devotes nearly one-third of his
work to it. He shows great discrimination and originality of thinking in his treatment of
the subject. Figures should not be used mechanically, rather they must be rooted in
genuine emotion. Used naturally, they impart elevation, to style, and are themselves made
more effective by an elevated style. They are the result of art, but they should be so used
that art is concealed. This becomes possible only when the style is-elevated ; for an
elevated style, "casts a veil over artifice". "A figure is most effective when the fact that
it is a figure is happily concealed, and it is concealed by splendour of style."

Longinus does not deal with all figures, but only with those that give distinction to
style. The figures treated are the rhetorical question, Asyndeton or the omission of
conjunctions, Hyperbaton or inversion, and Periphrasis ; and his main contention
throughout is that Figures properly treated are a valuable means of giving emotional
quality to style, thus supplementing by devices of art the animation or ardour which
normally results from the genuine emotion of the speaker (or writer), and his views are
illustrated from a number of eminent masters of the past. Hyperbaton, Anaphora (or
repetition of words), Apostrophe or address to abstract or inanimate object, Asyndeton or
the figure in which conjunctions are left out, and the various Figures embodying changes
of syntex are all useful in heightening the expression. They create, "something of the
breathless vehemence, the studied disorder, and the air of un-premeditation characteristic
of impassioned utterance"—(Atkins). It is in short an example of artistic expression
reproducing the effects of natural expression ; a principle emphasised by Longinus in his
statement that, "art is perfect when it seems to be nature, and nature hits the mark when
she contains art hidden within her". Various variations of syntax (plural for the singular,
present for the past, etc.) have a far reaching enlivening effect. Periphrasis (a round about
way of saying thing s by which the use of commonplace words is avoided) adds to the
expression a richer note and more tuneful rhythms, and thus helps in the expression of
lofty thoughts. However, the Figure should be used with care otherwise it degenerates into
a trivial and cumbrous form of expression, as it did actually happen in the 18th century
English poetry. In short, the use of Figures mwt be psychological—intimately connected
with thought and emotion—and not merely mechanical.
(d)Diction : The fou rth source of the 'sublime' is diction which includes choice and
arrangement of words, as well as the use of metaphor and simile. Both ordinary and
striking words must be suitably chosen, for both are necessary for the formation of
an impressive style. He declares that what gives to literature its enduring charm,
whether it be the quality of grandeur, or beauty, or mellowness, or force, in the last
resort it is this vebral magic, which, "invests dead things with a sort of living voice".
"Beautiful words", he adds, "are in truth the very light (or illumination) of thought"
; and it may safely be said that nowhere in the work does Longinus approach more

21
nearly to the mysteries of art than in this suggestive and striking pronouncement of
his. Further, he issues a warning against the indiscriminate use of stately words ; to
employ magnificent diction, he states, in connexion with trivial matters, would be
about as effective as to put on a child a man's tragic mask. On the other hand, he has
a word of approval for homely and racy expressions in the proper place"—(J.W.H.
Atkins).

Next, he takes up the use of metaphor and displays a similar breadth of outlook and
penetration of insight. One would have supposed that he would include metaphor, the
Queen of Figures, and simile and comparison, under the heading of 'Figures', but to our
surprise they are discussed under diction. Metaphors are necessary to give elevation to
style ; no rules can be laid down as to the number of metaphors which may be used in a
passage. With the insight of genius, he brushes aside all rules, and boldly asserts that the
passion, which gives rise to metaphors, will not only determine their number but will
provide the necessary control over their numbers. "Thus impassioned utterance, he
explains, demands the use of these striking turns, often in a sustained series ; so that there
can be no fixed limit to the number used. Then, too, a reader stirred does not stop to
count or weigh up metaphors ; carried away by emotion he needs no other means of
controlling or checking any excess in their use. And in this way, it is implied, does passion
help metaphor and metaphor passion ; the relation between the two being of a natural and
fundamental kind"—(J.W.H. Atkins). Alongwith the use of metaphors, he also considers
the use of hyperboles, which, he says, must also arise from emotion. Hypzrbole must not
be overdone, for an exaggerated Hyperbole results not in elevation, but in bathos.
According to Wimsatt and Brooks, the view of Longinus is that it is only strong and timely
passion which can make us swallow a far-fetched metaphor or a violent hyperbole.

(e) Dignified Composition : Then he proceeds to consider the fifth source of the
sublime, dignified and noble composition and arrangement. By arrangement and
composition he simply means a verbal order which is usually called rhythm. Words must
be harmoniously set, for the resulting harmony is a natural instrument, not only of
persuasion and pleasure but of lofty emotion as well. Such harmonious combination of
words appeals to the soul, and enables the reader to share in the emotions of the author.
Foremost among the rhythms that make for grandeur of utterance is said to be the
dactylic, upon which, as Longinus reminds his readers, that most beautiful of metres, the
hexametre, is built. On the other hand, weak and broken rhythms made up of phyrrhics,
trochees, and the like, are instrumental solely in lowering the dignity of a passage. "But
so, adds Longinus, does also writing in which the rhythm is too pronounced ; for there it
is the quality of the rhythm, rather than the meaning of the words, that engages the
attention, and the effect is said to be not unlike that of dance-music to which hearers were
wont to keep time with their feet—(Atkins). He issues a further warning against undue
conciseness of expression. "Extreme conciseness, as he points out, cramps and cripples
the thought ; whereas brevity, in the true sense, is effective because of its economy and
directness. Also, Longinus briefly points out that the use of simile and comparison, too, is
helpful in achieving splendour of style.

6, Some Incidental Matters : Suggestive Richness

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Such are the views of Longinus on the sublime, but the treatise also deals with a host
of other incidental matters. Great is the variety of this small work. Say Wimsatt and
Brooks, "One of the most extraordinary features of the essay on The Sublime is the
variety of criteria, the number of approaches to poetry, which it manages to include ; not
only the main three, the transport of the audience, the genius of the author, the devices of
rhetoric—but in passing the democratic idea that great poetry is that which, pleases all
and always, and again a further variation on the subject-object relation, the most
spectacular or operatic part of the essay, the idea of physical grandeur as the counterpart
of psychic." For example, the decay of eloquence in the age is examined and its causes
pointed out. Decline and degradation of literature result not from the rise of democracy
and the collapse of monarchy, but from a degradation and corruption of the human soul.
People have grown greedy, corrupt, materialistic, shameless and insolent, and so art and
literature suffered. He constantly illustrates his views with reference to the works of the
Greek and Roman masters, and such digressions, explanations, illustrations, and the like,
incidently supply further relevant passages in which fresh light is thrown on such matters
as critical standards,, and critical methods.

7. Excellence in Literature : Its Test

The treatise, ostensibly on style, widens considerably in scope and becomes one on
literary criticism in the larger sense of the term. Nothing, for instance, is of more lasting
value than the remarks of our author on the standards for forming judgment in literature.
It is a subject on which he has not a little to say ; and such judgment he describes as an
arduous business, indeed, "the crowing fruit of ripe experience". To some extent it would
be true to say that his standard of taste is implied in what has already been said concerning
"distinction" in style ; so that for him the qualities of great utterance are likewise the
qualities of great literature. Hence, as his first criterion of excellence in literature, he
demands the presence of an imaginative and emotional appeal ; the power, that is, of
uplifting the soul of the reader and of filling him with joy and pride, by arousing in him
noble thoughts and suggesting more than the words actually convey. "And here, it will be
noticed, the test is no longer that of mere pleasure or persuasion ; nor is the appeal made
to the emotions or the intellect alone. The effects are such as concern the whole nature of
man ; and they are essentially of a bracing and tonic quality." Alongwith this test, however,
he combines another of equal importance, that requiring in great liieraiure a permanence
of appeal. "In general", he states, "you should regard that greatness in art to be noble and
genuine which appeals to all men in all ages." "He insists on this test of time in positive
fashion ; and also gives reasons for the faith that is in him. When men, he argues, differing
in all possible respects, in their interests, their ways of life, their tastes, ages and
languages, all agree, notwithstanding, in the views they hold on any particular subject,
then the unanimity of a tribunal otherwise so discordant is surely undeniable proof of the
justice of their verdict and of the value to be attached to woiks thus commended"—
(Atkins). The fact is that Longinus has here called attention to one of the basic truths of
literature and literary criticism, namely, the inexhaustible vitality of all great art, and its
power of communicating life right down through the ages. He commends as 'touchstone'
the works of the great masters, and thus reminds us of Matthew Arnold and T.S. Eliot. He
attaches great value to 'correctness', but prefers genuine greatness, allied to some defects,
to a flawless mediocrity. It is greatness alone which compels admiration ; grandeur in
literature appeals irresistibly to men and this mere correctness cannot do,

23
8. Longinus : Practical Criticism

His practical criticism, his comments on literature in the concrete —constantly


brought in by way of illustration—are also illuminating and interesting. By his insight and
penetration, he succeeds in bringing to light not a few of the finest literary qualities of the
ancient masterpieces. As David Daiches puts it, "he asks quite different questions about
literature from those asked by Plato and Aristotle". His vision is comprehensive, and
everywhere he stresses the emotional and imaginative appeal of great literature. It is the
creative imagination which modifies and transforms, and produces works of beauty.
Longinus is the first of the critics to emphasise this aspect of great literature, such as the
works of antiquity.

Methods of Criticism: Historical, Comparative, and Analytical

In his practical criticism, Longinus makes use of both the historical and
comparative methods. He constantly views poetry,

24
say the works of Homer, in Fetation to their author, and the age in which they were
written, and so makes many interesting, original, and thought-provoking comments.
Abercrombie calls him, "the first comparative critic of literature". He takes cognizance
of a literature, say Hebrew literature, which he knew and which is outside the pale of
Graeco Roman literature, and by means of constrast brings out the salient characteristics
of the work under discussion, qualities which would not have been brought out without
such comparison. In this way, he suggests the universal nature of certain literary
phenomena. His achievement in this field is, indeed, memorable. Longinus is also a
pioneer in the field of analytical criticism. He analyses passages from particular works to
estimate the aptness of the words, images, epithets etc., used by the author. The best
example of this analytical method is his analysis of one of the important love-lyrics of
Sappo.

9. Achievement as a Critic : His Greatness and Originality

As a critic, Longinus displays a rare breadth and catholicity of outlook, and a mind
disinterested and free from prejudice. His estimates are essentially just, and have been
upheld by posterity. More important still, say3 Atkins, "are those judgments of his that
aim not at assessing, but at interpreting literary values ; those appreciations of his that
enlighten and stimulate, and enable us to read with quickened intelligence." Such passages
are referred to by Gibbon as among the, "finest monuments of antiquity". Such passages
are criticism of the highest kind, for they are based on sound psychological grounds, and
result from conscious analysis and delicate imaginative sympathy. Says Atkins, "There
are, in short, many respects in which Longinus stands high as a judicial critic ; and not
least is the fact that he takes account of three separate literatures. Yet more significant still
is his anticipation of modern criticism, in those interpretations of his which lead to a more
intimate understanding of ancient art, and reveal in the clearest light his appreciation of the
essence of literature."

No doubt, many of his remarks were literary commonplaces for his contemporaries,
there is much in his treatise that is borrowed from earlier writers. But there is also much
that is original and illuminating and is of permanent and universal significance. He is
original in the importance which he attaches to emotion, imagination and beauty of words.
For him literature is not a mechanical craft, but a thing of the spirit, of imagination, of
feeling, and of the gift of communication. He thus becomes a pioneer in the field of
aesthetic appreciation of literature. His great doctrine is that in great literature there are
certain basic qualities which are permanent and universal, and that these qualities are
embodied in the ancient masterpieces of Greece. In this way, he advocates a return to the
standards, and above all the spirit of the classical Greeks. Again and again he directs
attention from the technical to the more elusive and spiritual side of literature. He hints in
more than one place that formal rules may be disregarded at the bidding of a higher law ;
an important aesthetic truth which was to be rediscovered by modern critics. "Elsewhere
he points out the inevitable and organic relation existing between thought and expression ;
or again, the atmosphere of infinite suggestion bound up with all great literature ; while he
also establishes once for all the survival value attached to great art" —(Atkins).

25
Nor is he less suggestive in his remarks on the function of literature. "Of the earlier
didatic conception he gives not a hint; and what is perhaps more surprising, he disregards
entirely the stock theories of 'pleasure' and 'persuasion'. What he sees in literature is a
great aesthetic force, appealing irresistibly to the whole nature of man, uplifting, bracing,
and stimulating, while nourishing something that lies deep in his nature"—(Atkins). With
Aristotle he perceives that literature works mainly through the emotions, and that its effect
is one of a cathartic kind—though he nowhere alludes to Catharsis theory. But in
addition, he also brings to light something not covered by Aristotelian theory ; the wider
view attained by means of the imagination, the more comprehensive and more stimulating
Catharsis which embraces the whole of the higher nature of man. "And in this larger
conception of the aesthetic function he approaches more nearly to modern ideas than did
any of his predecessors."
In the work as a whole there is surprisingly little dead matter ; on the other hand,
there is much that is vital, expressed in memorable fashion. "Nor is his style an unworthy
medium of his thought, lacking though it may be in Attic purity of speech." Reminiscent in
some ways of Plato's manner, and rich with metaphors, compounds, and poetical
expressions, his style, at the same time, has a peculiar intensity of its own ; and this is due
partly to his use of striking epigrams and picturesque similes, and partly to his use of long
sentences brought to a triumphant, effective close.

R. A. Scott-James calls Longinus, "the first romantic critic", and he is romantic in


his enthusiasm and exuberance, and in his emphasis on imagination, emotion, and the
"transport" of great literature. But in the view of Atkins it would be more correct to call
him an exponent of the genuine classical spirit. Throughout, he is concerned mainly with
ancient Greek models, "while his theory is solely based on the conception of art as tha
product of principles deduced from the practice of the past." Nor is this reverence for
tradition the only classical element in his constitution. "He is classical also in the balance
he maintains between genius and unimpassioned hard work, in his sense of the need for
fitness, selection, and a fine adjustment of means to ends." So that it is as one of the last of
the classical critics that he figures primarily in ancient critical history.
"But while this is true, it is true also that he anticipates much that it modern in
critical work." And this is shown by his concern with the essence rather than with the
form of literature, his under, standing of the part played by the imagination and the
feelings in creative work, his efforts at literary interpretation and appreciation, his
widening outlook and the variety of his judicial methods ; features which were to reappear
only after the lapse of centuries. "The fact is that in him were combined faculties that were
characteristic of the greatest of his predecessors. Like Aristotle, for instance, he based his
theories on existing Greek literature ; he likewise aimed at a rational explanation of
literary phenomena ; and his methods of theorising are analytic, inductive, psychological,
and historical. On the other hand, he is spiritually the antithesis of Aristotle ; for nothing
could be farther removed from the cold intellectualism of Aristotle than the impassioned
and suggestive teaching of Longinus" —(Atkins).

His Influence

Longinus, in short, is one of the greatest critics of antiquity; but the influence of his
work has been comparatively slight. It was lost sight of, during the middle ages and

26
rediscovered at the Renaissance, its knowledge remained confined, more or less, to a few
scholars. It was Boileau'a translation of the treatise, in 1674, that won recognition for it
as a work worthy to rank with the works of Aristotle and Horace. After this, the treatise
was frequently translated and edited throughout the 18th century. But still its true
significance was not generally recognised. It had only a limited appeal. It was only in the
later 19th century that its many merits were duly recognised. Now, the supreme qualities
of the work are no longer in question. Ranking in antiquity with the greatest critical
achievements, it "remains towering among all other works of its class", and for sheer
originality and power it has not been surpassed. "There are things in its pages that can
never grow old ; while its freshness and light will continue to charm all ages. All beautiful
things, it has been said, belong to the same age ; and the work of Longinus is in a sense
contemporaneous with that of Plato and Aristotle and Coleridge—(J.W.H. Atkins).

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