Lifting Line Theory

Lifting Line Theory

• Applies to large aspect ratio unswept wings at small angle of attack.
• Developed by Prandtl and Lanchester during the early 20th century.
• Relevance
– Analytic results for simple wings
– Basis of much of modern wing theory (e.g. helicopter rotor aerodynamic
analysis, extends to vortex lattice method,)
– Basis of much of the qualitative understanding of induced drag and aspect
ratio

Thin-airfoil theory
Cl=2π(α-αo)

Biot Savart Law:

Velocity produced by a
semi-infinite segment of
a vortex filament
h

Γ
Γ V=
4πh
1868-1946 1875-1953
Large Aspect Ratio? Unswept?
 Physics of an Unswept Wing
l, Γ
Lift varies across span

-s y
s
Circulation is shed (Helmholz thm)
Outwash

pu<pl
pu≈ pl
Inwash

Vortical wake

Vortical wake induces

downwash on wing…

Downwash …changing angle of attack

just enough to produce
variation of lift across span
 Simplest Possible Model
Wake model Section model
b Induced drag di
A
Section A-A
ε

l
A
ε -w
V∞ α

α=α (y) Geometric angle of attack

ε=ε (y) Downwash angle
L -w=-w (y) Downwash velocity
Total lift coeff CL =
2 ρV∞ S
1 2
c=c (y) Chordlength
s Half span
Di
Total drag coeff C Di = l Lift per unit span
1
2 ρV 2
∞S di Drag per unit span
 LLT – The Wake Model
Γ • Assume role up of wake unimportant
• Assume wake remains in a plane
parallel to the free stream
-s y1 s • Model wake using single vortex sheet
dy1
y starting at the quarter chord

Strength of
vortex shed at y1=

− dΓ dy1
Downwash at y due dy y1
to vortex shed at y1 − dw( y ) =
4π ( y − y1 )

Downwash at y dΓ dy1
s dy y1
due to entire wake w( y ) = ∫ 4π ( y − y )
−s 1
 LLT – The Section Model
di • Assume flow over each section 2D
ε and determined by downwash at ¼
chord, and thin airfoil theory
l
Sectional lift coefficient
ε -w l ρV∞ Γ
Cl = = =
α 2 ρV∞ c 2 ρV∞ c
1 2 1 2
V∞

So Γ = πV∞ (α − α 0 )c + πwc

Sectional forces l ≈ ρV∞ Γ d i ≈ ρV∞ Γε ≈ − ρwΓ

s s
Total Forces
integrated over span L ≈ ρV∞ ∫ Γdy Di ≈ − ρ ∫ wΓdy
−s −s
s s
L 2 D 2
Total Coefficients CL = 1 ≈ ∫ Γdy C Di = 1 i 2 ≈ 2 ∫ wΓdy
2 ρV∞ S 2 ρV∞ S
2
V∞ S − s V∞ S − s
 The Monoplane Equation
Wake model l, Γ

dΓ dy1
s dy y1 -s s y
w( y ) = ∫ 4π ( y − y )
−s 1 Section model
0 π θ

y / s = − cos θ
Γ = πV∞ (α − α 0 )c + πwc

dΓ dy1
c
s dy y1 Substitute for θ, and express
Γ = πV∞ (α − α 0 )c + ∫ Γ as a sine series in θ
4 −s y − y1 ∞
Γ = 4U ∞ s ∑ A sin(nθ )
n =1, odd
n

πc ∞
⎡ πcn ⎤
(α − α 0 ) sin θ = ∑ An sin( nθ ) ⎢ + sin θ ⎥ The Monoplane Eqn.
4s n =1, odd ⎣ 4s ⎦
 Results
∞
Substituting Γ = 4U ∞ s ∑ A sin(nθ )
n =1, odd
n

s
dΓ dy1
2
s
2 s dy y1
C Di = 2 ∫ wΓdy ∫ 4π ( y − y )
V∞ S −∫s
CL = Γdy w( y ) =
into V∞ S − s −s 1

C L2 ∞
C Di = (1 + δ )
πAR w
∑ nA sin(nθ )
n
gives C L = ARπA1 ∞
α =−
n =1, odd

sin θ
δ= ∑ n( A
n =3, odd
n / A1 ) 2 V∞

So, • Lift increases with aspect ratio

• For planar wings at least lift goes linearly with angle of attack and lift
curve slope increases with aspect ratio (to 2π at ∞)
• Drag decreases with aspect ratio and goes as the lift squared?
• Downwash tends to be largest at the wing tips ?
• Drag is minimum for a wing for which An=0 for n≥3.

πc ∞
⎡ πcn ⎤
4s
(α − α 0 ) sin θ = ∑ A
n =1, odd
n sin( nθ ) ⎢ 4s
⎣
+ sin θ ⎥
⎦
 Solution of monoplane equation
πc ∞
⎡ πcn ⎤
(α − α 0 ) sin θ = ∑ An sin( nθ ) ⎢ + sin θ ⎥
4s n =1, odd ⎣ 4s ⎦

-s s y
0 π θ

y / s = − cos θ

1. Decide on the number of terms N needed for the sine series for Γ
2. Select N points across the half span, evenly spaced in θ
3. At each point evaluate c, α, α0 and thus the NxN matrix of terms that
multiplies the An’s and the N terms on the left hand side
4. Solve for the An’s by matrix division
5. Evaluate CL, CDi , w(y), and Γ(y).
 πc ∞
⎡ πcn ⎤
4s
(α − α 0 ) sin θ = ∑ A
n =1, odd
n sin( nθ ) ⎢⎣ 4 s + sin θ ⎥⎦
s=2.8; %Half span (distances normalized on root chord)
alpha=5*pi/180; %5 degrees angle of attack
alpha0=-5.4*pi/180; %Zero lift AoA=-5.4 deg. for Clark Y
N=20; %N=20 points across half span
th=[1:N]'/N*pi/2; %Column vector of theta's llt.m
y=-cos(th)*s; %Spanwise position
c=ones(size(th)); %Rectangular wing, so c = c_r everywhere
n=1:2:2*N-1; %Row vector of odd indices

res=pi*c/4/s.*(alpha-alpha0).*sin(th); %N by 1 result vector

coef=sin(th*n).*(pi*c*n/4/s+repmat(sin(th),1,N)); %N by N coefficient matrix
a=coef\res; %N by 1 solution vector ∞

gamma=4*sin(th*n)*a; %Normalized on uinf and s

Γ = 4U ∞ s ∑ A sin(nθ )
n =1, odd
n

w=-(sin(th*n)*(a.*n'))./sin(th);
AR=2*s/mean(c); CL = ARπA1 C L2
CL=AR*pi*a(1); C Di = (1 + δ )
CDi=CL^2/pi/AR*(1+n(2:end)*(a(2:end).^2/a(1).^2)); πAR
1. Decide on the number of terms N needed for the sine series for Γ
2. Select N points across the half span, evenly spaced in θ
3. At each point evaluate c, α, α0 and thus the NxN matrix of terms that
multiplies the An’s and the N terms on the left hand side
4. Solve for the An’s by matrix division
5. Evaluate CL, CDi , w(y), and Γ(y).
 Example
0.1

Our AR=5.6 Rectangular Clark Y Wing αo≈-5.4o

y/c
0.05
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/c
CL=0.80783, CDi=0.038738
0.2

0.15
Γ/V∞s

0.1

0.05

0
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0

-0.05
∞
-w/V

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
y/s

Determine aerodynamic characteristics

of our rectangular Clark Y wing
 Drag Polar
C L2 Curve for minimum
CD =
πAR drag (elliptical wing)

Note that friction drag coefficient of 0.01 added to CDi

 If we pretend wing is elliptical…
CL=0.80783, CDi=0.038738
0.2

0.15 AR=5.6, α=5o, α0=-5.6o

Γ/V∞s

0.1

0.05
2πAR(α − α 0 )
CL = = 0.856
AR + 2
0
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0

0
C L2
C Di = = 0.041
πAR
-0.05
∞
-w/V

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
y/s

Thus, an elliptical lift distribution can often be a good approximation!

 The Elliptic Wing
The minimum drag occurs for a wing for which An=0 for n≥3. For this wing:

∞
1. Γ = 4U ∞ s ∑ A sin(nθ ) = 4U
n ∞ sA1 sin(θ ) (cos θ = − y / s )
n =1, odd
2
⎛ Γ ⎞ ⎛ y⎞
2

⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 1 • Lift distribution has an elliptical shape.

⎝ 4V∞ A1s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠
∞

w
∑ nAn sin( nθ )
n =1, odd
2. =− = − A1 • Downwash velocity is constant across span
V∞ sin θ

3. Γ = πV∞ (α − α 0 )c + πwc
• If the wing is untwisted, the chordlength is
Γ proportional to circulation and thus also has
⇒ c=
πV∞ (α − α 0 ) − V∞ A1π an elliptical form
 Spitfire

Note that the chordlengths are all lined up along the quarter chord line so
the actual wing shape is not an ellipse
 Further results
C L2 w
C L = ARπA1 C Di = = − A1
πAR V∞
But what is A1? Planform area of elliptic wing is S = 12 πscr
Γr
Now cr =
πV∞ (α − α 0 ) − V∞ A1π
2
⎛ Γr ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
2

and ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 1 ⇒ Γr = 4V∞ A1s

⎝ 4V∞ A1s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠

Substituting and solving for A1 gives A1 = 2(α − α 0 ) /( AR + 2)

2πAR(α − α 0 ) w 2(α − α 0 )
And thus CL = =−
AR + 2 V∞ AR + 2
…confirming our earlier presumption about aspect ratio effects on CL
 Not done yet…
2πAR(α − α 0 ) C L2
CL = C Di =
AR + 2 πAR
Consider two elliptical wings with the same section but different AR
producing the same lift coefficient:

C L ( ARA + 2) C L ( ARB + 2)
α A −α0 = α B − α0 =
2πARA 2πARB
CL ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⇒ α A −αB = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
π ⎝ ARA ARB ⎠

Similarly, we can show the two drag coefficients are related as:

C L2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
C DiA − C DiB = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
π ⎝ ARA ARB ⎠
 Geometrically Similar Wings
These results work quite well even for non-elliptical wings:

C ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ C L2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
α A − α B = L ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ C DiA − C DiB = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
π ⎝ ARA ARB ⎠ π ⎝ ARA ARB ⎠
Prandtl’s Classic Prandtl’s
Rectangular Wing rescaling using
Data for Different LLT result to
Aspect Ratios AR=5