nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpj;jYk;

mwpKfk;

,d;W kpf Ntfkhf tsu;r;rp ngw;W tUk; xU Jiwahf nkhopapay; Jiw tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. mjdhy;
,d;iwa r%fj;jpy; mj;Jiw kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtkhd xU ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ. nkhopj; Jiwapy;
<Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs; kl;Lkd;wp NtW gy JiwapdUk; nkhopapaiyg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;whu;fs;.
me;jtifapy; nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs;> kUj;Jt Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs;>
njhlu;ghly; Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUf;Fk; nghwpapayhsu;fs;> r%ftpay; Jiwapy;
<Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs;> cstpapyhsu;fs;> khdplapyhsu;fs;> jj;Jtpayhsu;fs;> fdpzp Jiwapy;
<Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs;> Clfj; Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs;> nkhopngau;g;Gj; Jiwapy;
<Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs;> mfuhjp jahupj;jy; Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs; Nghd;w gy;NtW
Jiwapdu;fSk; ,d;W nkhopapaiyg; gad;gLj;jpf;nfhs;gtu;fshf cs;shu;fs;. me;j tifapy;
nkhopapay; Jiw ,d;W kpfTk; gpugy;akhd> gaDila xU Jiwahf tsu;r;rp ngw;W tUfpd;wJ.

,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jw; Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUg;gtu;fSf;Fk; nkhopapay; Jiw mtrpahd xU

Jiwahf mike;Js;sJ. cjhuzkhfg; Ngr;nrhypfis vLj;Jf;nfhz;lhy;> mit nkhopf;F nkhop
NtWgLfpd;wd. mNjNghy; xU nkhopapy; ,Uf;Fk; xypfs; ,d;DnkhU nkhopapy; ,Ug;gjpy;iy.
cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopapy; cs;s m> M> ,> <> c> C> v> V> I> x> X> xs Mfpa capu;
xypfs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,Uf;fpd;wd. Mdhy; rpq;fs nkhopapYs;s we" wE Mfpa
xypfSfSf;F ,izahd xypfs; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;iy. MfNt mtw;iwf; Fwpg;gjw;F fPo;tUk;
nkhopapay; FwpaPLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

we æ
wE ǣ

jkpo; nkhopapy; aho;g;ghzg; Ngr;R tof;fpy; kl;LNk ,t;tpU xypfSk; cs;sd. cjhuzk;:

md;dk; (ænnam) Mrpupau; (ǣsiriyar)

kuk; (mæram) eha; (nǣy)

Mq;fpy nkhopapYk; ,tw;Wf;F ,izahd FwpaPLfs; ,y;iy. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; Mg;gpy; vd;gij
apple vd vOjp æpple vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. vWk;G vd;gij ant vd vOjp ænt vd
cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. passport vd vOjp pǣssport vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;.
jkpo; khztu;fSf;Fr; rpq;fsk; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ kpfTk; rpf;fyhd tplakhf cs;sJ rpq;fs
vOj;Jf;fshd we" wE Nghd;wtw;iw fw;gpg;gjhFk;. ,tw;Wf;F ,izahd vOj;Jf;fs; jkpo;
nkhopapy; ,d;ikahy; ,t;ntOj;Jf;fisf; fw;gpg;gjpy; Mrpupau;fs; rpf;fy;fis vjpu;
Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. ,t;ntOj;Jf;fisf; fw;gjpy; Fwpg;ghf cr;rupg;gjpy; jkpo; khztu;fSk;
rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;.

cjhuzkhf:

rpq;fs nkhopr; nrhy;yhd we;A; (cz;ik) vd;gij jkpo; nkhopapy; vOjpdhy; ‘mj;j’ vd;W vOj
Ntz;Lk; my;yJ ‘vj;j’ vd;W vOj Ntz;Lk;. mj;j vd;gJ jkpo; Ngr;R tof;fpy; je;ijapd; rNfhjup
(khkp) vdg; nghUs;gLk;. mNjNghy; vj;j vd vOjpdhy; rupahd cr;rupg;igg; ngw;Wf;nfhLf;f
KbahJ. ,t;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; nkhopapay; FwpaPlhd æ vd;gijg; gad;gLj;jp æththa vd
vOjp rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupf;f KbAk;.

mNjNghy; rpq;fs khztu;fSf;Fj; jkpo;f; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ nrhy; Kjypy; tUfpd;w c

vd;gjw;F ,izahfr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; W vd;w vOj;J gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt u vd
cr;rupj;Jf; fhl;lTk; KbAk; vOjpf;fhl;lTk; KbAk;. Mdhy; me;j c nrhy; ,ilapy; my;yJ nrhy;
,Wjpapy; Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;w nghOJ mjdJ cr;rupg;G c vd tUtjpy;iy. Fw;wpaYfukhf
tUfpd;wJ. mg;nghOJ mjdJ cr;rupg;Gk; khWgLk;. Mdhy; FwpaPL ,Ue;jhNy rpq;fs
khztu;fSf;F kpf ,yFthf mt;ntOj;ij ,dq;fz;L cr;rupf;f KbAk;. mJ ,d;ikahy; mtu;fs; mt;ntOj;ijr;
rpq;fs nkhopapy; c vdg; gpioahf vOjpg; gpioahf cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;.

cjhuzkhf:

ehL vd;w nrhy;ypYs;s ,Wjp xyp c vd cr;rupf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpq;fs khztu;fs;

mr;nrhy;iyr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; kdvq vd vOjp naadu vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. khL> fhL>
tPL> FUtp> cg;G vd cfuk; ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; tUk; ,lq;fspnyy;yhk; khztu;fs; u vd
cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. ,J gpioahd cr;rupg;G KiwahFk;. ,t;tplj;jpy; MrpupaUf;F nkhopapay;
Jiz nra;fpd;wJ. mjhtJ c vd;gJ nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUfpd;w nghOJ u vd;w FwpaPL
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mNj c nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; kw;Wk; ,Wjpapy; Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;w
nghOJ nkhopapaypy; ω vd;w FwpaPL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt nrhy;ypd; ,ilapYk;
,WjpapYk; ,e;jf; FwpaPl;il vOJtjd; %yk; rpq;fs khztu;fs; jkpo;r; nrhw;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy;
cr;rupg;gjw;F topNaw;gLj;jpf; nfhLf;fyhk;.

ehL vd;gij nkhopapay; FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;jp naadω vd vOjp cr;rupf;fyhk;. ,e;jf;

FwpaPL khztu;fSf;F vOj;ij ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sr; rpukhf ,Uf;Fkhapd; naaduω vd vOjp
cr;rupf;fyhk;.
rpq;fs nkhopapy; xt;nthU xypf;Fk; xt;nthU vOj;J cz;L. jkpo; nkhoapy; gy xypfs;
,Uf;fpd;wd. mt;thwhd xypfs; nthd;iwAk; vOJtjw;F vOj;Jf;fs; ,y;iy. Mdhy; me;j xypfs; ,e;j
,lj;jpy; tUfpd;w nghOJ ,t;thW cr;rupf;fg;gLk; vd;gjw;Fupa tpjpKiwfs; jkpo; nkhopapy;
cs;sd. mt;tpjpfspd; mbg;gilapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpg;gJk;
fw;Wf;nfhs;tJk; kpfTk; rpukkhd tplakhFk;. mr;rpukj;ijg; Nghf;Fk; Jiwahf nkhopapay; Jiw
tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopapy; g vd;w xypia vLj;J Nehf;FNthk;.

nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUfpd;w nghOJ p, m (glk;)

nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUfpd;w nghOJ p, m (mg;gk;)

g ,uz;L capnuOj;Jf;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUfpd;w nghOJ β, * (jghy;)

,d vOj;jhd ‘k;;’ vOj;ij mLj;J tUfpd;w nghOJ b, n (jk;gp)

vd cr;rupf;fg;gLk;. vOjpf; fhl;lg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd jkpo; nkhop cr;rupg;G NtWghLfisj; jkpo;

nkhopiaj; jha; nkhopahff;nfhs;shj khztu;fSf;F ,dq;fz;Lnfhs;tjw;F nkhopapay; FwpaPLfs;
ngupJk; Jiz epw;fpd;wd. ,t;thW nkhopapd; fl;likg;gpid nkhopapay; FwpaPLfis
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L tpsf;FtJ mikg;G nkhopapay; MFk;. mjdhy; mikg;G nkhopapay;
gw;wp jkpohrpupau;fs; mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ.

nkhopapaypd; gy gpupTfs; cs;sd. mg;gpupTfSs;> mikg;G nkhopapay;> gadhf;f

nkhopapay;> cstpay; nkhopapay;> xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;> r%f
nkhopapay; Nghd;wit ,uz;lhk; nkhopf; fw;gpj;jYld; njhlu;Gilaitahf cs;sd. mjdhy; ,t;thwd
nkhopapay; Jiwfs; gw;wpa mwpT> tpsf;fk;> njspT ngw;W nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Jiwapy;
<LgLfpd;w nghOJ Mrpupau;fsJ fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghLfisAk; khztu;fsJ fw;ww;
nraw;ghLfisAk; ntw;wpfukhf mikj;Jf;nfhs;s KbAk;. Mjyhy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f;
fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSf;F Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s nkhopapay; Jiwfs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk;
mtrpakhfpd;wJ. ,jidf; fUj;jpw;nfhz;L>

1. nkhopapay; - Xu; mwpKfk;

2. mikg;G nkhopapay;

3. gadhf;f nkhopapay;

4. xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;

 5. cstpay; nkhopapay;

6. rKjha nkhopapay;

Nghd;w ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jw; JiwAld; njhlu;Gila nkhopapaw; gpupTfs;

,g;ghlnewpapy; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

myF - xd;W

1.0. nkhopapay; - Xu; mwpKfk;

Nehf;fk;:

1. nkhop kw;Wk; nkhopapay; Mfpatw;Wf;;fpilapyhd NtWghl;il tpsf;Fjy;.

2. nkhopapaypd; gpupTfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy;.

3. ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpj;jypy; nkhopapaypd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij tpgupj;jy;.

1.1. nkhopf;Fk; nkhopapaYf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghL

1.1.1. nkhop vd;why; vd;d?

nkhop vd;gJ xU njhlu;ghlw;; fUtp vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ kdpjd; ehfuPfkile;jJ Kjy; ,d;W tiu
guk;giu guk;giuahff; filgpbf;fg;gLtJk; Ngr;nrhypfisAk; vOj;Jf;fisAk; FwpaPLfisAk;
Kiwahfg; (Systematic use) gad;gLj;jp xU Fwpg;gpl;l nkhopr; r%fj;jpw;Fs;
fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wNkh my;yJ njhlu;ghlNyh epfoj; JizGupAk; fUtp nkhop vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
kdpju; xUtiunahUtu; Gupe;Jnfhz;L xU $l;lkhfTk; xU rKjhakhfTk; tho nkhop
gad;gLfpd;wJ. kdpjdpd; ehfuPfk;> gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> tho;f;if tpjpKiwfs;> cwTfs;>
czu;Tfs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;nfy;yhk; mbg;gilahf nkhop tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; jdp kdpj
rpe;jidiag; ngUf;fp rKjhaj;Jld; xd;wpize;J tho nkhop cjtpahf cs;sJ.

1.1.2. nkhopapay; vd;why; vd;d?

goq;fhy kdpjdpd; nkhopia Muha;r;rp nra;jtu;fs;> Muk;gfhyq;fspy; xNu nkhopNa

Ngrg;gl;ljhfTk; mjd; gpd;dNu gy fpisfshfg; gpupe;J ehSf;F ehs; mit tsu;r;rpaile;jjhfTk;
mwpa Kbfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; `Pg;U nkhopjhd; cyfpy; Njhd;wpa Kjy; nkhop vd;gJk; mjd;
gpd;du; kdpjdhy; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;litNa Vida nkhopfs; vd;gJk; goq;fhy kf;fspd;
vz;zkhFk;. kf;fs; kj;jpapy; Mapuf; fzf;fhd nkhopfs; Ngrg;gbDk; mk;nkhopfs; midj;Jk;
mjw;Fupa fl;likg;gpNyNa mike;jpUf;Fk;. mtw;Ws; rpy nkhopfs; gy xw;Wikf; $Wfisf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. mj;jifa nkhopfs;> xNu FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j nkhopfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzkhf
rpq;fsk;> ghyp> xuprh Nghd;w nkhopfs; xNu jd;ikAilait. mjdhy; mit Mupa nkhopf;
FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j nkhopfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo;> njYq;F> fd;dlk;> kiyahsk; Mfpa
nkhopfs; xNu tifahd fl;likg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJld; gy xw;WikfisAk; jk;kfj;Nj nfhz;Ls;sikahy;
,e;ehd;F nkhopfSk; jpuhtplk; vd;w nkhopf; FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;jit vd mf;fhy nkhop
Ma;thsuhd fhyl;nty; Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;.

,t;thW cyf nkhopfSs; xw;WikAk; Ntw;WikAk; ,Ug;gJ ,ay;Ng. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L

cyf nkhopfis gpd;tUkhW ehd;F tiffshf tifg;gLj;jpAs;shu;fs;.

1. jdpepiy nkhopfs; (Isolation Language)

2. xl;Lepiy nkhopfs; (Agglutinative Language)

3. cl;gpizg;G epiy nkhopfs; (Inflexional Language)

4. cs;slf;F nkhopfs; (Incoparating Language)

,tw;Ws; ve;j nkhopahf ,Ue;jhYk; mtw;Wf;F ,U cUtq;fs; cs;sd. kdpjd; jhd; Ngrf;$ba Ngr;R
tof;F nkhopf;Fk; mt;tpU cUtq;fs; cs;sd vd;gJ nkhopapayhsu;fspd; fUj;jhFk;. mt;tpU
cUtq;fSk; rpy gpupTfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mtw;iwf; fPo;tUk; tiuglk; %yk; mwpe;Jnfhs;syhk;.

nkhop

Gw cUtk; mf cUtk;

vOj;jpay; ,yf;fztpay; nghUz;ikapay;

xypapay; xypadpay; cUgdpay; njhlupay;

,t;thW xypay;> xypadpay;> cUgdpay;> njhlupay;> nghUz;ikapay; vd nkhop gw;wpa

midj;J tpsf;fq;fisAk; jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;Ls;s ,aNy nkhopapay; MFk;. nkhopia tpQ;Qhd
uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;Ak; Jiw nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ nkhopapd; mikg;G vt;thW
tbtk; ngWfpd;wJ? me;j mikg;gpy; gq;FngWk; epiyfs; (Levels) vit? $Wfs; (features) vit?
myFfs; (unites) vitnait? ,tw;Wf;F ,ilNaahd njhlu;Gfs; vit? mit vt;thnwy;yhk;
njhlu;GgLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? mt;thW njhlu;GgLj;jg;gLtjhy; KOikahd nkhopaikg;Gf;fs; vt;thW
ntspg;gLfpd;wd Nghd;wtw;iw nkhopapay; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. NkYk; nkhop vt;thW rKjhaj;jpy;
gq;Nfw;W> Kiwrhu; kw;Wk; Kiwrhuh gzpfisr; nra;tjw;Fj; Jizahf mikfpd;wJ vd;gJ Nghd;w
tplaq;fisAk; nkhopapay; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. MfNt nkhopaikg;G (Language Structure)
nkhopapd; gad;ghL (Language Use) Mfpa ,U ngUk; gpupTfs; nkhopapaypy; kpf
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. nkhopapd; ,t;thwhd xt;nthU $WfisAk; tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T
nra;gtu;fs; nkhopapayhsu;fs; (Linguists) vdg;gLfpd;whu;fs;.

kuG rhue;j ,yf;fzk; kugpyf;fzk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjpypUe;J khWgl;L> ,yf;fzj;ijg; Gjpa

fz;Nzhl;lj;jpy; Nehf;Fk; Kiwik khw;wpyf;fzk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

kugpyf;fz> khw;wpyf;fz NtWghLfs;

kugpyf;fzk;
1. jha;nkhopahsu;fshy; vOjg;gl;lJ.
2. xU r%fj;jpy; tof;fpy; cs;s
nkhop gw;wp mr;r%fj;jpdUf;fhf
vOjg;gl;lJ.
3. vOj;J nkhopf;F Kf;fpaj;jtk;
mspf;fg;gl;lJ.
4. tpjp Kiwf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
mspf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
4. xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; gw;wp
jha;nkhopahsd; jhd; vOj
Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nghf;fhy; gy
nkhopfs; mope;J Nghapd.
khw;wpyf;fzk;
nkhop Ma;thsu; ahuhYk; vOjg;glyhk;
nkhop gw;wp fw;f Mu;tk; ciltu;fSf;fhf
vOjg;glJ.
Ngr;R nkhop> vOj;J nkhop Mfpa ,uz;ilg;
gw;wpAk; Muha;fpd;wJ.
tpsf;f Kiwf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
mspf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; gw;wp nkhop
Ma;thsu; ahUk; vOjyhk; vd;w Nghf;fhy;
goq;Fb nkhopfSf;Fk; ,yf;fzk; vOjg;gl;L
mit capNuhl;lk; ngw;wd.

1.2. nkhop gw;wpa nkhopapaypd; tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd fUj;Jf;fs;

nkhopapay; rpe;jidfs; gjpndl;lhk; E}w;whz;lstpy; Njhw;wk; ngw Muk;gpj;jhYk;

mj;JiwahdJ> gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpd;dNu tpQ;Qhdk; rhu;e;j Jiwahf tsu;r;rp ngw
Muk;gpj;jJ. me;jtifapy; nkhopapay; JiwahdJ> nkhopia tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;J
nkhop gw;wp gpd;tUk; fUj;Jf;fis Kd; itf;fpd;wJ.

m). nkhopapd; fl;likg;G mbg;gilapy; vy;yh nkhopfSNk rkkhdit. cjhuzkhf cyfpy;

mjpfsthd kf;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w nkhop vd;w tifapy; Mq;fpy nkhop cau;thd
nkhop vd;w kdg;ghq;Nfh my;yJ Mq;fpy nkhopapy; fijj;jhy; kl;LNk r%fj;jpy; nfsutk;
fpilf;Fk; vd;w kdg;ghq;Nfh jtwhdit. xU nkhop mk;nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; r%fj;jpd;
 Njitia epiwNtw;Wkhdhy; mJ mq;fPfupf;fg;gl;l nkhopNa. me;j tifapy; cyf
tof;fpYs;s midj;J nkhopfSNk mijg; gad;gLj;Jk; r%fj;jpd; Njitia epiwNtw;WtdthfNt
mike;Js;sd. mjdhy; nkhopfSf;fpilNa Vw;wj; jho;Tfs; ,y;iy. mjdhy; ,e;j nkhopjhd;
cau;thd nkhop ,e;j nkhop jho;thd nkhop vd;w kdg;ghq;F jtwhdjhFk;. MfNt ,e;j
nkhop tsu;r;rpaile;j nkhop my;yJ Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j nkhop ,e;j nkhop tsu;r;rp Fd;wpa
nkhop my;yJ Kf;fpaj;Jtkw;w nkhop Nghd;w kdg;ghq;Ffs; mk;nkhopiag;
gad;gLj;JNthupd; r%fg; gz;ghLld; njhlu;Gila tsu;r;rpNa md;wp nkhop
njhlu;ghdJ my;y.

M). ,J ,dpikahd nkhop> ,J fbdkhd nkhop> ,J nfhLikahd nkhop vd;nwy;yhk;

nkhopia tiuaiw nra;a KbahJ. xt;nthUtUf;Fk; mtutu; nkhop ,dpikahdNj. mUikahdNj.
jdpr;rpwg;GilaNj.

,). nkhopiag; nghWj;jstpy; Kjypy; Njhd;wpaJ Ngr;R tof;Nf. Ngr;R tof;if

mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl vOj;J tof;F Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ. mjdhy; Ngr;R tof;F
jho;e;jJ. vOj;J tof;Nf cau;e;jJ vd;gJ jtwhd kdg;ghq;F MFk;. Ngr;R tof;F vOj;J tof;iftpl
ve;jtifapYk; jho;e;jJ my;y.

<). rpyu; rpy Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapYs;s nfhr;irr; nrhw;fisf; nfhz;L mJ jho;thd
Ngr;R tof;F vd;w KbTf;F tUfpd;whu;fs;. mJ mr;r%fk; rhu;e;j kdg;ghq;Nfad;wp
Muha;e;J ghu;j;jhy; mtu;fs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w Ngr;R tof;fpYk; nfhr;irr; nrhw;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLtjid mtjhdpf;fyhk;. MfNt xU rKjhaj;jpy; tof;fpYs;s Ngr;R tof;F
nkhopfis cau;e;jJ> jho;e;jJ vd tiuaiw nra;a KbahJ. cyf tof;fpy; midj;J Ngr;R
tof;FfSNk cau;thditNa.

c). nkhopahdJ fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; khw;wq;fisg; ngw;W tsu;r;rp mile;J tUk; xU

JiwahFk;. mjw;F mbg;gil fhuzk; nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; r%fj;jpd; khw;wKk;
tsu;r;rpAkhFk;. MfNt nkhopahdJ> khw;wq;fis cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L mjw;Nfw;wtifapy;
khWk; ,ay;Gila xU JiwahFk;.

1.3. nkhopapay; gpupTfs;

nkhopapaw; JiwahdJ> jw;NghJ kpf Ntfkhf tsu;e;J tUk; xU JiwahFk;. mjdhy; ,d;W
gy;NtW nkhopfspd; mikg;Gf;fs; Ma;T nra;ag;gl;LtUfpd;wd. mt;thW Ma;T nra;tjw;F
nkhopapaypd; gy gpupTfs; Jiz nra;fpd;wd.
i. mikg;G nkhopapay; (Structural Linguistic)

nkhopapd; mikg;ig tpsf;Fk; gpupT mikg;G nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

nkhopapaypd; je;ij vdg;gLk; r#u; vd;gtNu mikg;G nkhopapay; gw;wpa
nfhs;ifia ntspapl;ltuhthu;.

ii. nghJnkhopapay; (General Linguistic)

nkhopfspd; gy;NtW epiyfs;> tplaq;fs;($Wfs;)> njhlu;Gfs; gw;wp tpgupf;Fk;

gpupT nghJ nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

nkhopapay; kw;nwhU tifapYk; ,U ngUk; gpupTfshf tFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

i. Nfhl;ghl;L nkhopapay; (Theoretical Linguistics)

,g;gpuptpDs; nkhopapd; mikg;G> nkhopapd; gad;ghL njhlu;ghd nfhs;iffs;

KiwahfTk; njspthfTk; epiwthfTk; tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

ii. gadhf;f nkhopapay; (Applied Linguistic)

nkhopf; nfhs;iffisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; Fwpg;gpl;l nkhopr; #oy;fspw; gad;gLj;jp

nkhop gw;wpa tpsf;fq;fisAk; nkhopapd; gad;ghL gw;wpa tplaq;fisAk; MuhAk;
gpupT gadhf;f nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jypy; gadhf;f
nkhopapay; kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ.

1.4. nkhopapaypd; kpf Kf;fpa gpupTfs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; tUkhW>

1.4.1. tpsf;f nkhopapay; (Descriptive Linguistic)

xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyr; #oypy; toq;Fk; nkhopapd; mikg;ig xU Fwpg;gpl;l rpy

nkhopapaw; Nfhl;ghLfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpsf;FtJ tpsf;f nkhopapay; (Descriptive
Linguistic) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg; gFjpapy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,d tif
kf;fshy; toq;fg;gLk; nkhopapd; mikg;gpidAk; nrhy; tsj;ijg; gw;wpAk; Muha;tNj tpsf;f
nkhopapaypd; Fwpf;Nfhs; MFk;. mt;thW MuhAk; NghJ xU nkhopapd; xypaikg;G>
nrhy;yikg;G> njhluikg;G> thf;fpa mikg;G> nghUz;ik Nghd;wit gw;wp tpupthf
Muhag;gLk;.

tpsf;f nkhopapaYf;F tpj;jpl;l ngUik ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bw;F Kw;gl;l

fhyg;gFjpapy; tho;e;j mnkupf;f nkhopapay; mwpQu;fisNa rhUk;. me;jtifapy;
Nghah]; (1858 – 1942)> rgPu; (1884 – 1939) GSk; gPy;l; (1884 – 1949) Nghd;w
nkhopapay; mwpQu;fs; Kf;fpakhff; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; $batu;fshthu;fs;. nkhop vd;gJ
xU Fwpg;gpl;l rKjhaj;jpd; fyhrhuj;Jld; njhlu;GilajhFk;. xt;nthU nkhopf;Fnkd
rpwg;ghd xU fl;likg;G cz;L. Mjyhy; xU nkhopia Ma;T nra;Ak; nghOJ vspik (Simplicity)>
Kuz;ghbd;ik (Consistency), KOikj; jd;ik (Completeness) mikg;gpidg; gw;wp
Kd;djhfNt mwpe;JzUk; jd;ik (Prediction) Mfpa ehd;F Kf;fpakhd gz;Gfs; ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ tpsf;f nkhopapaypy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; Nfhl;ghLfshFk;.

tpsf;f nkhopapay; gy cl;gpupTfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. MapDk; mt; cl;gpupTfSs;

Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; gpupthf tpsq;FtJ mikg;G nkhopapay; (Structural Linguistic)
MFk;. ,g;gpupNt nkhopapay; tuyhw;wpy; xU GJ mj;jpahaj;ij Muk;gpj;J itj;jJ
vd;DksTf;F nkhopapaypy; kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; xU gpupthFk;. Fwpg;ghff;
$Wtjhapd; nkhopapaw; Jiwapy; ngUk; Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa xU gpupthf ,g;gpupT
nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. ,g;guptpd; mbg;gilapy; nkhopia Ma;T nra;j nkhopapaw; Jiwf;F>
nkhopapd; ,U ngUk; $Wfis ,dq;fz;Lnfhs;sf; $bajhf ,Ue;jJ. mitahtd>

m). xyp tbtq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l Ngr;R nkhop

M). vOj;J my;yJ tuptbtq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l vOj;J nkhop

mikg;G nkhopapaYf;F tpj;jpl;l ngUik G@k; gPy;L kw;Wk; rgPu; MfpNaiur;

rhUk;. mj;NjhL gpshf;> igf;> bNuf;fu;> `u;up];> ielh> ];lhl\; Nghd;w
nkhopapay; ty;Ydu;fs; nkhopia xypad;> cUgd; Nghd;w mbg;gilapy; Ma;T
nra;J tpsf;fq;fis Kd; itj;jhu;fs;. mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; mikg;G nkhopapay; tsu;r;rp
ngw;Ws;sJ.

1.4.2. tuyhw;W nkhopapay; (Historical Linguistic)

xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyr; #oypy; toq;Fk; nkhopiag; gw;wp tpsf;Fk; nkhopapaw; Jiw

tpsf;f nkhopapay; vd;gJ Nghy; gy;NtW fhyr; #oy;fspy; toq;fpa nkhopfs; gw;wp
tuyhw;W uPjpapy; tpsf;FtJ tuyhw;W nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ xU
nkhopapd; Muk;gk;> ,ilf; fhyq;fspy; mk;nkhopapy; Vw;gl;l khw;wq;fs;>
mk;nkhopapd; epiy my;yJ ,ay;G Nghd;wtw;iw gy;NtW fhyfl;lq;fshf tFj;J tuyhw;W
Nehf;fpy; Ma;T nra;tJ tuyhw;W nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. xU nkhopapy;>
fhyj;Jf;Ff; fhyk; Vw;gLk; xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> thf;fpak;> nghUz;ik
njhlu;ghd khw;wq;fis Muha;tJ ,jd; mbg;gil Nehf;fkhFk;. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopia
vLj;Jf;nfhz;lhy; jkpo; nkhopapd; Ntw;Wik cUGfs; gw;wp tuyhw;W uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;a
Ntz;Lkhdhy; Ntw;Wik cUGfs; gw;wp njhy;fhg;gpau; Kd; itj;Js;s fUj;Jf;fs; vit? rq;f
 fhyj;jpy; mit vt;thW toq;fg;gl;ld? Ntw;Wik cUGfSs; vit kiwe;jd? mt;thW
kiwe;jikf;fhd fhuzq;fs; vd;d? ,ilf; fhyq;fspy; Ntw;Wik cUGfspy; Vw;gl;l khw;wq;fs;
vit? jw;fhy Ngr;R tof;fpy; mit vt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? vOj;J tof;fpy; mit vt;thW
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? Ntw;Wik cUGfs; ,f;fhyj;jpy; vt;thW toq;fg;gLfpd;wd?
mtw;wpy; Vw;gl;Ls;skhw;wq;fs; vit? Nghd;wtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; Ma;T nra;fpd;w
nghOJ jkpo; nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLfpd;w Ntw;Wik cUGfspd; tuyhw;wpid
mwpe;Jnfhs;sf; $bajhf ,Uf;Fk;.

fp.gp.17Mk; E}w;whz;by; nrhw; gpwg;G (Etymology) gw;wpa Ma;T Muk;gpj;jJ.

mJNt tuyhw;W nkhopapay; Ma;Tf;F tpj;jpl;lJ vdyhk;. MapDk; 18Mk;
E}w;whz;bNyNa tuyhw;W nkhopapay; Ma;Tj; Jiw xU jdpg; ngUk; Jiwahf tsu
Muk;gpj;jJ vd;gJ mwpQu;fspd; fUj;jhf cs;sJ.

1.4.3. xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay; (Comparative and Contrastive

Linguistic)

xNu FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j gy;NtW nkhopfis xg;gPL nra;J mtw;wpd; %y

nkhopiaf; fz;Lgpbj;J mk; %y nkhopapypUe;J Vida nkhopfs; vy;yhk;
vt;thW gy;NtWgl;l nkhopfshff; fpisj;jd vd Ma;T nra;tJ xg;gPl;L
nkhopapayhFk;.

VjhtJ ,uz;L nkhopfis xypapay;> xypadpay;> cUgdpay;> njhlupay; kw;Wk;

nghUz;ikapay; Nghd;wtw;wpid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L mt;tpU nkhopfSf;Fk; ,ilapYs;s
xw;Wik> Ntw;Wikfis Ma;T nra;tJ xg;G epiy nkhopapayhFk;.

1.4.4. khdpltpay; nkhop (Anthropological Linguistic)

vOj;J tof;fpy; ,y;yhJ Ngr;R tof;fpy; kl;Lk; cs;s nkhop mikg;igAk; mk;nkhop
NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> ehfuPfk; Nghd;wtw;iw Ma;T nra;Ak;
nkhopapay; gpupT khdpltpay; nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; nkhopapy;>
gz;ghl;bd; jhf;fj;ij Ma;T nra;tNj khdpltpay; nkhopapaypd; gpujhd Nehf;fkhFk;.
1930Mk; Mz;L fhyg; gFjpapNyNa ,k;nkhopapaw; Jiw tsu;e;jJ vdyhk;. gNuh> vkNdh>
gl;lhrhu;ah Nghd;Nwhu; ,t;tha;Tj; Jiwapy; <Lgl;ldu;. rf;jpNty;> Rg;igah>
rpjk;guehjgps;is Nghd;Nwhu; jkpo; ehl;by; nfhlF> frgh> Nfhlh> ,Ush Nghd;w
nkhopfis khdpltpay; nkhopapaypd; mbg;gilapy; Muha;e;jhu;fs;.

1.4.5. cstpay; nkhopapay; (Psychological Linguistic)

 cstpay; nkhopapayhdJ> nkhopapd; nraw;ghLfs;> nkhop gw;wpa elj;ijthjf;
Nfhl;ghLfis tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sy; Nghd;wtw;iw cs;slf;fpajhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk;
euk;gpay; nkhopapaypD}lhf %isf;Fk; nkhop fw;wYf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;gpidAk;
mwpe;Jnfhs;sf; $bajhf cs;sJ.

1.4.6. r%f nkhopapay; (Socio Linguistic)

nkhopahdJ r%fk; rhu;e;jJ. r%fk; ,y;iyNay; nkhop ,y;iy; nkhop ,y;iyNay;

r%fkpy;iy vdf; $WksTf;Fr; r%fKk; nkhopAk; xd;Wld; xd;W ,ilj; njhlu;gpidf; nfhz;ldthff;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. xU r%fj;jpy; thOk; kdpju;fspd; gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> tuyhW>
nghUshjhuk;> murpay; vd midj;J tplaq;fisAk; ntspg;gLj;JtJ nkhopNa. mjdhy; jhd;
nkhopahdJ xU r%fj;ijg; glk; gpbj;Jf; fhl;Lk; fz;zhb vdg;gLfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy;
xU r%fj;jpy; nkhop vt;thW gad;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjid Muha;tNj r%f nkhopapayhFk;.

r%fj;jpw;Fk; nkhopf;Fkpilapyhd neUq;fpa njhlu;GfisAk; NtWrpy cl; $WfisAk;

mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L r%fj;jpw;Fk; nkhopf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;G> cl;$Wfs;> nghJj; jd;ik>
rpwg;Gj; jd;ik> Mw;wy;> nkhopj; jpl;lkply;> nkhopapy; GJikahf;fk;> nkhopapd;
epiyNgW> nkhopf; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy;> nkhop NtWghLfs; Nghd;wtw;iw Muha;tNj
r%f nkhopapayhFk;.

myF ,uz;L

mikg;G nkhopapay; mbg;gilapy; nkhopapd; gpupTfs;

Nehf;fk;

1. xypapay; kw;Wk; xypadpaypd; fl;likg;ig

tpsf;Fjy;

2. cUgdpapy; gw;wp tpgupj;jy;

3. njhlupay; gw;wp tpsf;fkspj;jy;

4. nghUz;ikapay; gw;wp njspTgLj;Jjy;

2.1. xypapay; (Phonetics)

kdpj ehfuPfj;NjhL tsu;r;rp ngw;w nkhopapy; Kjypy; Njhd;wpaJ Ngr;nrhypfs;. kdpjd;
NgRfpd;w nghOJ gy xypfis vOg;Gfpd;whd;. mit Ngr;nrhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
mg;Ngr;nrhypfs; gw;wp MuhAk; gpupT xypapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy;
Ngr;nrhypfs; %d;W tifg;gLfpd;wd.

(m). ngsjpf xypapay; (Acoustic Phonetics)

ngsjpf xypapay; gw;wpa Ma;tpy; Ngr;nrhypfspd; ngsjpfj; jd;ik gw;wp Muhag;gLfpd;wJ.

xyp cWg;Gf;fspd; mirthy; fhw;wZf;fspy; cz;lhFk; mjpu;T> ntspf;fhw;wpy; Vw;gLk;
mjpu;r;rpaiy> ePsk; Kjypait ngsjpf Ma;tpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. ,e;j Ma;tpy; mjpfkhf
tpQ;Qhd fUtpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. fzpjk;> ngsjpfk;> kw;Wk; nkhopapay;
Mfpatw;wpy; njspe;j mwpTk; gapw;rpAKilatu;fs; kl;LNk ,j;Jiwapy; rpwg;ghfr; nraw;gl
KbAk;.

(M). Nfl;nghypfs; (Auditory Phonetics)

Nfl;nghypapay; vd;gJ kdpjdpd; Nfl;Fk; mjhtJ nrtpkLf;Fk; jd;ikapid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L

xypfis MuhAk; JiwahFk;. MapDk; mtutupd; nrtpapd; Nfl;Fk; jd;ikf;Nfw;g xyp NtWgLtjhy;
,J Ma;Tf;Fg; nghUe;jhJ vd;Wk;; thjpLfpd;wdu;.

(,). cr;rupg;G xypapay; my;yJ xypg;gpay; (Articulacy Phonetics)

nkhopapaypy; xypapaypd; Ma;Tj; Jiwf;Fg; ngsjpf kw;Wk; Nfl;nghypapaiy tpl cr;rupg;G

xypapaNy ngupJk; gad;gLfpd;w JiwahfTk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;w JiwahfTk; cs;sJ.
Vndd;why; ,j;JiwNa kdpjdpd; xyp cWg;Gf;fspd; nray;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpQ;Qhd
Kiwapy; Ngr;nrhypfis kpf vspikahf> vspjhf Muha;fpdw;J.

Ngr;nrhypfs; gpwf;Fk; Kiw> mtw;wpd; tifg;ghL> vz;zpf;if> mtw;NwhL njhlu;GgLk; NtW

xypfs;> Jiz xypg;G Kiwfs;> Nghd;wtw;iwAk; xypapay; tiffisAk; mtw;Wf;fpilNaAs;s
njhlu;GfisAk; KiwahfTk; tpQ;Qhd KiwapYk; MuhAk; my;yJ tpsf;Fk; gFjp xypapay;
(Phonetics) vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaUk; ehf;F> mz;zk;> ,jo; Mfpatw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;Nl xypapid tpsf;fpr;

nry;fpd;whu;. mNjNghy; Ngr;nrhypfis tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Muha;NthUf;Fk; mtw;iw tpsf;f
gad;gLgit Ngr;RWg;Gf;fNsahFk;. nkhopahrpupau;fs; ,g;Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs; gw;wp
mwpe;jpUj;jy; kpfTk; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. fhuzk; nkhop fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cr;rupg;G
kpfTk; mtrpakhFk;. cjhuzkhf jkpo; nkhopapy; y> s> o vd %d;W xypfs; cs;sd. ,it
xt;nthd;Wk; cr;rupg;G uPjpapy; NtWgLfpd;wd. mt;NtWghLfis mwpahj xUtu; ,k;%d;W
xypfisAk; xNu tpjkhf cr;rupg;ghu;. mt;thW cr;rupf;fg;gLfpd;w nghOJ nrhy;ypd; nghUs;
NtWgLk;.

cjhuzkhf:

myF - msT> fjpu;> $u;ik

moF - tbT> rpwg;G

msF - md;dg;ngil> ngz;kapy;> ngz;Nfhop

MfNt ,t;thW xypfspd; cr;rupg;G NtWghLfis mwpe;jpUe;jhy; kl;LNk mk;nkhopapidr;

rpwe;j Kiwapy; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. Fwpg;ghf nkhopj; Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs; cr;rupg;G
cWg;Gf;fs; gw;wpAk; cr;rupg;G NtWghLfs; gw;wpAk; mwpe;jpUj;jy; kpf kpf
mtrpakhfpd;wJ.

2.1.1. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fSk; mtw;wpd; njhopw;ghLfSk;

Ngr;nrhypfis xypg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLk; cly; cWg;Gf;fNs Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs; my;yJ

xypAWg;Gf;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. kdpjdpy; cjLfs; Kjy; EiuaPuy; tiuAs;s cWg;Gf;fs;
Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; ,it %d;W ngUk; gpupTfshfg;
gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

1. neQ;Rg; gFjp 2. njhz;ilg; gFjp 3. jiyg; gFjp

,e;j gFjpfspy; KiwNa capu;j;jy; (respiration), Fuy; vOg;Gjy; (voicing), xypj;jy; (articulation)
Kjypa %d;W nray;fs; eilngWfpd;wd.

2.1.1.1. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;

glk; tiujy; Ntz;Lk;

1. ,jo;> cjL (Lips)

2. gy; (teath)

3. Edpaz;zk; (Alveolar ridge/alveolum)

4. ,ilaz;zk; (dome)

5. filaz;zk; (velum)

6. cs;ehf;F (uvula)

7. eh tpspk;G (blade of the tongue)

8. Edp eh (tip of the tongue)

9. ,ileh (centre of the tongue)

10. fileh (dorsum)

11. mbeh (root of the tongue)

12. %f;fiw (nasal cavity)

13. %f;fiw thapy; (velic)

14. Kd; njhz;il (pharynx)

15. %r;Rf; Foy; %b my;yJ fhw;Wf; Foy; %b (epiglottis)

16. xypj; jirfs; (vocal chords)

17. %r;Rf; Foy; my;yJ fhw;Wf; Foy; (trachea)

18. Fuy; tis (larynx/adam’s apple)

2.1.1.2. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fspd; njhopw;ghLfs;

1. ,jo; my;yJ cjL

,jo;fspd; nraw;ghLfshy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs; ,jopd; xypfs; (Labials) vdg;gLfpd;wd. fPo; ,jOk;
Nky; ,jYk; Nru;e;J fhw;wpidj; jLj;J epWj;Jfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopiag; nghWj;jstpy; ,t;tpjo;fs;
NrUkplj;jpy;> rpwpa ,ilntspia Vw;gLj;jp> mt;tpilntspapilNa fhw;iwr; nrYj;jp mjpur; nra;tjd;
%yk; rpy xypfis vOg;Gfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapy;> ,jo;fs; ,iztjhy; g> k Mfpa
xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. fPopjOk; gy;Yk; ,ize;J nghUe;Jtjd; %yk; t xyp gpwf;fpd;wJ.

2. gy;

‘gy;Y Nghdhy; nrhy;Y Nghr;R’ vd;gJ KJnkhopahf ,Ug;gjw;Ff; fhuzk; gw;fs; ,y;iynadpy;
czit nky;YtJ kl;Lky;y nrhy;iyr; nrhy;yTk; KbahJ vd;gjw;fhfTkhFk;. me;jstpw;F nrhw;fis
cr;rupg;gjpy; gw;fs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. Nky; gy; tupirAk; fPo; gy; tupirAk; ehf;fhYk;
,jo;fshYk; njhl;Lk;> ,ilntdpfis Vw;gLj;jpAk; xypfis vOg;Gfpd;wd. mt;thW vOk; xypfs;
gy;nyhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; j> e Mfpa xypfs; gy;nyhypfshf cs;sd. ,jid
njhy;fhg;gpau; ‘gy; Kjy; kUq;fpy; eh Edpgue;J> xw;wj; jhkpdpJ gpwf;Fk; jfu efuk;
vd;fpwhu;.

3. mz;zk;

thapy; Nkw;gFjpapYs;s fbdkhd gFjp mz;zk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. xypfs; gpwg;gij

mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L mz;zk;> Edp mz;zk;> ,ilaz;zk;> filaz;zk; vd %d;W tifahf
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.

4. ehf;F

,J mirAk; cWg;G Mifahy; xypAWg;Gf;fSs; ehf;F kpf Kf;fpa cWg;ghff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. ehit
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L gpwf;Fk; xypfspd; mbg;gilapy; ehf;fpid Edp eh> eh tpspk;G> ,ileh>
fileh> mbeh vd Ie;J gFjpfshg; gFf;Ffpd;wdu;.

m). Edp ehthy; vOfpd;w xypfs;> Edp eh xypfs; vdg;gLk;.

M). Edp ehTk; gy;Yk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpehg; gy;nyhypfs; vdg;gLk;.

,). Edp ehTk; Edp mz;zKk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh Edpaz;z

xypfs; vdg;gLk;.

<). Edp ehTk; ,ilaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh ,ilaz;z

xypfs; vdg;gLk;.

c). Edpeh ,U gw;fSf;fpilNa ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh

gy;ypil xypfs; vdg;gLk;. (Edpeh gy;ypil xypfs; - gy;nyhypfs;>

Ezpaz;z xypfs;> ehtis xyp> gy;ypil xyp vdTk; toq;fg;gLk;.)

C). ,ilehTk; ,ilaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> ,ileh

,ilaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;.

v). fil ehTk; filaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> fileh filaz;z

xypfs; vdg;gLk;.

5. cs; ehf;F

cs; ehf;F my;yJ cs;eh vd;gJ thapd; mbg;gFjpapy; njhq;fpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; xU jirg;

gFjpahFk;. Kd; njhz;ilapypUe;J %f;fiwf;Fr; nry;Yk; thapiyj; jpwf;fNth my;yJ %lNth ,J
gad;gLfpd;wJ.

6. Kd; njhz;il

%f;fiw thapy;> fhw;Wf;Foy;> tha;ghij Mfpad ,g;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

7. %f;fiw

fhw;W %f;fiw thapypUe;J Nky; Nehf;fpr; nrd;W fPNo ,wq;fp %f;fpy; Kbfpd;wJ. %f;fpd;
%yk; cr;rupf;fg;gLk; xypfs; %f;nfhypfs; vdg;gLk;.

8. fhw;Wf; Foy;

fhw;Wf; Foy; topahf fhw;W EiuaPuYf;Fr; nrd;W tUk;. ,jd; Nkw;gFjp njhz;il my;yJ Fuy;tis
vdg;gLk;. xypfis ntspg;gLj;Jtjpy; ,t;TWg;Gk; Jiz nra;fpd;wJ.

9. fhw;Wf; Foy; %b

fhw;Wf; Foypd; njhlf;fj;jpy; ,J cs;sJ. Rthrpf;Fk; nghOJ jpwe;jpUf;Fk;. czT cz;Zk; nghOJ
%bf;nfhs;Sk;. xyp vOg;Gtjpy; ,t;TWg;gpw;Fk; gq;Fz;L.

10. Fuy;tis

fhw;Wf; Foypd; xypj; jirfspd; miktplk; ,JthFk;.

11. xypj; jirfs;

xypj; jirNa Fuy; ehz; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J nky;ypa cWjpahd ,U jirg; gFjpfshFk;. ,tw;Wf;F
,ilg;gl;l ,ilntsp xypj;jir thapy; vdg;gLk;. xypj; jirfs; mfd;wpUf;Fk; nghOJ fhw;W jq;F
jilapd;wp nray;gLk;. mt;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; xypj; jir mjpu;tjpy;iy. mg;NghJ gpwf;Fk;
xypfs;> xypg;gpy;yh xypfs; (voiceless sound) vdg;gLk;. mNjNghy; thapy; FWfp xypj;jir
mjpUk;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; xypg;Gil xypfs; (voiced sound) vdg;gLk;.

12. EiuaPuy;

,J cjutpjhdk; kw;Wk; tpyh vYk;gpYs;s jir ehu;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; nraw;ghl;bdhy;

tpupe;Jr; RUq;Fk;. tpupAk; nghOJ fhw;W cs;Ns nrd;W RUq;Fk; nghOJ ntspNa
tUfpd;wJ. ,JNt xU %r;R my;yJ Rthrk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

EiuaPuypd; nraw;ghl;lhy; fhw;W kplw;wpy; tUk;NghJ xypf;fhw;W> Fuy; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

Fuy; mjpu;TilaJ. mNjNghy; ,irj; jd;ikAKilaJ. me;jf; Fuy; %f;F my;yJ thapYs;s cWg;Gf;fs;
%yk; milgl;Lr; rpy Fwpg;gpl;l miy ePsKk;> mjpu;Tk; Vw;gl;L ntspNaWk; NghJ ‘xypfs;’
gpwf;fpd;wd. mt;nthypfs;> %f;F> ehf;F> mz;zk;> ,jo;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; Kiwahd
nraw;ghl;lhy; ntspNaWk; NghJ Kiwahd xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. mjdhy; ,e;j cWg;Gf;fs;
xypr;ry;yilfs; (Sound Filters) vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

xypj;jw; njhopypy; <LgLk; cWg;Gf;fs; xypg;ghd;fs; vdg;gLk;. ,it ,uz;L tifg;gLfpd;wd.

xypg;ghd;fs;

,aq;Fk; xypg;ghd;fs; ,aq;fh xypg;ghd;fs;

fPopjo;> ehf;F Nkypjo;> Nkw;gy;> mz;zk;> Nky; njhz;il

%f;F xyp Cf;fp vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

2.1.2. capu; xypfs;

EiuaPuypypUe;J ntspNaWk; fhw;W> ve;j Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshYk; vt;tpj jq;F jilAk;

Vw;gLj;jhky; tha; topahf ,ay;ghf ntspNaWfpd;w nghOJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; capu; xypfs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd. mjhtJ %r;Rf; fhw;whdJ> ,aq;Fk; xypg;ghd;fSf;Fk; ,aq;fh
xypg;ghd;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa vt;tpj jilAkpd;wp nry;fpd;w nghOJ capu; xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. jkpo;
nkhopapy; m Kjy; xs tiuahd capu; xypfs; mt;thW gpwf;fpd;wd?

nghJthf capu; xypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fj;jpy; ehf;F> ,jo; Mfpa ,uz;L cWg;Gf;fSk; Kf;fpa gq;F
tfpf;fpd;wd. capu; xypfs; gpwf;fpd;w nghOJ ,t;TWg;Gf;fspd; nraw;ghl;L epiy>

1. ehf;fpd; Kd;Ndhf;fpr; nraw;gLk; jpwd; (Advancement of the tongue)

2. ehf;F mz;zj;ij Nehf;fp vOk; cauj;jpd; msT (Hight of the tongue)

3. ,jo;fspd; mikg;G my;yJ epiy ( Position of the Labiolistaion)

Mfpa %d;wpd; mbg;gilapy; tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

capu; xypfis cr;rupj;Jf; fhl;Lk; glk;

capu; xypfis cr;rupf;Fk; nghOJ ehf;fpd; cauk; vt;thW mikfpd;wJ vd;gij mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L
capu; xypfs;> Nky; capu;> ,il capu;> fPo; capu; vd %d;W tifahfg; gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

1. Nky; capu;

i - ,iy> ,Q;rp ii - <ry;> ePyk;

, <

Ξ - ,Lg;G> ,sik ΞΞ - <ok;> ePsk;

 u - cLk;G> ckp

c C uu - Cu;> G+

ω - ehL> cg;G

2. ,il capu;

e - vYk;G> ntg;gk; ee- Vyk;> Njrk;>

v V

ə - vOk;G> vz;zk; əə - Vzp> Nfs;tp

x - o - xl;lfk;> nfhk;G X - oo - XL> Nfhop

3. fPo; capu;

a - mg;gk;> el aa - ML> ghy;

m M

ε - md;G> kuk; εε - Mrpupau;> ghu;

capu; xypfis cr;rupf;Fk; nghOJ ehtpd; Kd; my;yJ eL my;yJ gpd; gFjp
nraw;glyhk;. ,jid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L capu; xypfs;> Kd; capu;fs;> eL
capu;fs;> gpd; capu;fs;> fPo; capu;fs; vdTk; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

1. Kd; capu;

, - i - ,iy < - ii - <uk;

v - e - vyp V - ee - Vyk;

2. eL capu;
 , - Ξ - ,sik < - ΞΞ - <ok;

c - ω - ehL

v - ə - vWk;G V - əə - VL

3. gpd; capu;

c - u - cyfk; C - uu - Coy;

x - o - xl;lfk; X - oo - XL
4. fPo; capu;
m - a - mk;kh M - aa - ML
m - ε - md;dk; M - εε - fiu

Kd; capu; eL capu; gpd; capu;

,><> i,ii, b"B ,> <> Ξ, Ξ Ξ- c>ω c>C u,uu,W"W!

Nky; ,il capu;

v>V>e,ee,t"tA x>X> o,oo,T´

əə fPo; ,il capu;

fPo; ,il capu;
v>V>ə,əə

m>M> a,aa,w"wd
m>M>a,aa,ε,εε
fPo; capu;

1. fPo; eL ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp - m (a)

2. fPo; eL ,jo; Ftpah neby;; capu; xyp - M (aa)
3. Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp - , (i)
4. Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftpah neby;; capu; xyp - < (ii)
5. eL Kd; ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp - v (e)
6. eL Kd; ,jo; Ftpah neby; capu; xyp - V (ee)
7. Nky; gpd; ,jo; Ftp Fwpy;; capu; xyp - c (u)
8. Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftp neby; capu; xyp - C (uu)
9. eL gpd; ,jo; Ftp Fwpy;; capu; xyp - x (o)
10. eL gpd; ,jo; Ftp neby; capu; xyp - X (oo)

I - ai - Iau;> if xs- ou - xsitahu;> nksdk;

2.1.3. nka; xypfs;

EiuaPuypypUe;J ntspNaWk; fhw;W> ve;j Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshYk; vt;tpj jq;F jilAk;

Vw;gLj;jhky; tha; topahf ,ay;ghf ntspNaWfpd;w nghOJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; capu; xypfs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd. mt;thW my;yhky; fhw;W jilgl;Nlh my;yJ jpir khw;wj;jpw;Fl;gl;Nlh gpwf;Fk;
xyp nka;nahyp vdg;gLk;. mjhtJ EiuaPuypypUe;J ntsptUk; fhw;W thaiwapy; milgl;Nlh>
rpwpa ,ilntspA+lhf ntspg;gl;Nlh> ehtpd; ,U tpspk;Gg;gFjpfs; topahf ntspg;gl;Nlh my;yJ
%f;fpd; topahf ntspNaWk; nghONjh gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; nka;nahypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

nka;nahypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fjpd;NghJ xypg;ghd;fs; gythwhf jq;F jilapd;wp tise;Jk;

nespe;Jk; nraw;gLfpd;wd. mit tise;Jk; nespe;Jk; nraw;gLtnjd;gJ thapd; gpw mirah
Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshfpa mz;zk;> Fuy;tis> Nkypjo; Mfpatw;wpy; cr;rupf;fg;gLfpd;w
xypfSf;Nfw;wthW ,it nghUe;JtjhFk;. ,J xypg;G Kiw (Manner of articulation) vdg;gLk;.
fhw;W EiuaPuypNyh my;yJ Fuy;tisapNyh my;yJ filaz;zj;jpNyh my;yJ thaiwapNyh VjhtJ
xU ,lj;jpy; jilg;gl;L thaiwapNyh my;yJ %r;riwapNyh xypA+f;fkile;J ntspNaWfpd;wJ.
,t;thW %r;R jilg;gLk; ,t;tplq;fs; xypg;gplq;fs; (point of articulation) vdg;gLfpd;wd. %r;Rj;
jil VJkpd;wp fhw;W ntspNaWk; NghJ capu; xypfs; gpwg;gjhy; capu; xypfspd;
gpwg;ghf;fj;jpd;NghJ xypg;gplq;fs; ,y;iy.

xypg;G Kiwia mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L nka;nahypfs; gpd;tUkhW tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

1. milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs;> ty;nyhypfs; (Stop polisives)

Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshy; fhw;iw Kw;whfj; jil nra;J ntspapLk;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs;

milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; f> r> l> j> g> w
Mfpa MW ty;ypd xypfSk; milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk;:

f-k - fz;

r-c - rf;fuk;

l-T - jl;L

j - t - jk;gp

g-p - gl;L

2. cunrhypfs; (Fricatives)

%r;Rf; fhw;W thaiwapy; tUk;NghJ KOtJk; jLf;fhky; %r;R ntspNaWk; ghijia xypg;ghdhy;
FWf;fp me;j ,Lf;fpd; topNa nrYj;jpdhy; cuha;Tj; jd;ik (friction) Vw;gLk;. ,t;thW cuha;Tj;
jd;ikNahL gpwf;Fk; xypfNs cunrhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

g- β - khu;G> rgyk;

g - f - ghj;jpkh

` - h - `up

] - s - ]yhk;> m];jp

3. milg;Gunrhypfs; my;yJ ntbg;Gunrhyp (Stops Fricatives)

Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshy; fhw;iw Kw;whfj; jil nra;J ntspapLk;NghJ rw;W cury; jd;ikAld;

xypf;fg;gLk; xyp milg;Gunrhyp vdg;gLk;.

cjhuzk;:

g - C - gr;ir

r - j - gQ;rk;

4. %f;nfhyp (Nassals)
fhw;W tha; topahf my;yhky; %f;fhy; ntspaplg;gLk; NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; $f;nfhypfs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

q-ŋ - jq;fk;

Q-ñ- QhapW

z - N - fz;

e -ṉ - ez;L

k -m- kuk;

d -n - tdk;

5. kUq;nfhypfs; (Laterals)

ehf;fpd; ,U kUq;fhYk; fhw;W ntspNaWk; NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; kUq;nfhypfs;

vdg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

y - l- gyk;

s - ḷ - tsk;

o - ḻ - fodp

6. tUnlhyp

Edp eh Edp md;dj;ij tUbr; nry;Yk; NghJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; tUnlhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

u - r - fuk;

7. tiseh xyp

ehf;F tise;J mz;zj;ijj; njhl gpwf;Fk; xypfs; tiseh xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

g -ṭ - gl;L

g -ḍ - gz;lk;
 z; - N - jz;lid

s - ḷ - gs;sk;

o - ḻ - tho;f

8. Mnlhypfs; (Trills)

Edp eh Edp mz;zj;Jld; ,ize;J mjpUk;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; Mnlhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

w-R- gwit

9. miu capu;

capu; xyp jd;ikAk; nka; xyp jd;ikAk; ngw;wpUf;Fk; nka;nahypfs; miu capu; nka;nahypfs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

t - v - tay;

a - y - ahid

jkpo; nkhopapYs;s u> w> e> d> z> y> s> o cr;rupg;G Kiwfs;
jkpo; nkhop nka;nahypfspd; ml;ltiz

xypg;gplk; <upjo; ,jo; gy; Edpeh tiseh ,ileh fileh

gy; ,ilaz;zk; ,ilaz;zk;
xypg;G
Kiw
milg;nghyp p b t d ṭ ḍ c j k g
g; j; l; r; f;
%f;nfhyp m ṉ n ṇ ñ ŋ
k; e; d; z; Q; q;
cunrhyp β s
g ]
kUq;nfhyp l ḻ ḷ
y; o s
tUnlhyp r
 u;
Mnlhyp ṛ
w;
miuAapu; v y
t; a;

2.2. xypadpay; (Phonology)

Ngr;nrhypfis ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sTk; NtWgLj;jp mwpaTk; Kw;gl;l nghOJ Njhw;wk; ngw;wNj

vOj;J tbtkhFk;. ,J kugpyf;fzj;jpy; vOj;J vdg;gLfpd;wJ. vOj;J> nkhopapaypy; xypad;
vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopapd; vOj;Jf;fs; gw;wp MuhAk; gpupT xypadpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. rpy
nkhopfspy; Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpyk;> rpq;fsk; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; Xu; xypf;F Xu; xypad;
cz;L. Mdhy; jkpo; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; gy xypfs; cz;L. Mdhy; mt;ntht;nthU xypf;Fk;
xypad;fs; ,y;iy. mjhtJ xd;Wf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l xypfSf;F xNu vOj;J tbtNk gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk;:

Mq;fpyk; rpq;fsk; jkpo;

k l f
h y f
g . f

,t;thwhd xypfspd; vOj;jhf;fj;jpw;F rpy mbg;gil nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfs; mtrpakhfpd;wd.

mj;jifa Nfhl;ghLfis tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; tpsf;FtNj xypadpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. kugpyf;fzk; ,jid
vOj;jpay; vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ.

xyp - xU nkhopapy; njhlu;ghlYf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;

Ngr;nrhypfs; xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

xypad; - xU nkhopapy; nghUs; khw;wj;jpid Vw;gLj;jf; fhuzkhf

cs;s xyp tbtq;fs; xypad;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

khw;nwhypad;fs; - xypg;G xw;WikAila xypfis xNu xypadpd; fPo;

nfhz;L te;J mit tUk; ,lq;fs; my;yJ xypr;
#oy;fs; tiuaiw nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. mt;thW tiuaiw nra;ag;gl;l
Ngr;nrhypfs; khw;nwhypad;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
xypad;fs; / / vd;w FwpaPl;bDs;Sk; khw;nwhypad;fs; [ ] vd;w FwpaPl;bDs;Sk;
vOjg;gLk;. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapd; xypadpay; mikg;G gpd;tUkhW fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

1. ty;ypdk;

[ka] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ka, l - fUk;G

[ka] nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ka, l - mf;fh

/f/ [ha] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ha, y - fhfk;

[ga] ,d vOj;jhd ‘q;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ ga, . - Njq;fha;

[ca,sa] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ca,sa, p"i - me;jr; rl;b> rdp

[ca] nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ca, p - gr;ir

/r/ [sa] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ sa, i - thrk;

[ja] ,d vOj;jhd ‘Q;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ ja, c - gQ;R

[-] nrhy; Kjypy; tUtjpy;iy. Ntw;W nkhopr; nrhw;fspy; kl;Lk;

tUk; - LkPy;> lkhy;

[ṭ] nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ṭa, g - gl;lk;

/l/ [ḍ] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ḍa, v - glk;

[nda] ,d vOj;jhd ‘z;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ nda, ~ - gz;lk;;

[ta] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ta, ; - jiy

[da] nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ da, ; - gj;J

/j/ [tha] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ tha, o - fjT

[nda] ,d vOj;jhd ‘e;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ nda, |- ge;J

[pa] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ pa, m - glk;

[pa] nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ pa, m - mg;gk;

/g/ [βa] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ βa, * - jghy;

[ba] ,d vOj;jhd ‘k;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ mba, n - mk;G

[-] nrhy;ypd; Kd; tUtjpy;iy. te;jhy; Kd;dhy; ‘,’ tUk; - ,wg;gu;

[r] nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ r, Ür - New;W

/w/ [ṛ] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ṛ, r - MW

2. nky;ypdk;

/q/- [ŋ], x - rq;F

/Q/- [ñ], [ - fQ;R

/e/- [ṉ], k - ed;wp

/ z / - [N], K - kz;

/k/- [m], u - kzp

/d/- [n], k - khd;

3. ,ilapdk;

/a/- [y], h - ahid

/u/- [R], r - thuk;

/y/- [l], , - kyu;

 /t/- [v], j - tay;

/ o/ - [ḻ], < - jkpo;

/s/- [ḷ], < - tsk;

2.3. cUgdpapy; (Morphology)

nkhopapd; nrhy; mikg;G gw;wp MuhAk; gpupT cUgdpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. xyp vd;gJ
rj;jk;. xypad; vd;gJ vOj;J. me;j xypad; jdpj;Njh my;yJ Nru;e;Njh nghUs; jUkhapd; mJ
cUgd; vdg;gLk;. xU nkhopapy; NkYk; gpupf;f Kbahj nghUSs;s kpfr; rpwpa tbtk; cUG
(Morph) vdg;gLk;. xU nkhopapd; epiyapy; nrhy;Yk; nrhy;ypy; ,ize;Js;s xl;Lf;fs;
epiyapYk; nghUs; juf; $ba tbtj;jpid cUgd; (Morphime) vdg;gLk;. mt;thwhd cUgd;fisAk;
mjd; top mike;j cUGfisAk; tpsf;FtJ cUgdpayhFk;.

2.3.1. jdp cUgd;

XnuOj;J xU nrhy; - G+> kh> <> M> jP> eP> ik> ig> ij> it> if> Nfh> Ngh>

<nuOj;J xU nrhy; - ML> fhL> khL> kio> kiy> tiy> XL> NfhL> Nfhop

%d;nwOj;J xU nrhy; - kyu;> tdk;> japu;> ghrk;> Nfhyk;> gok;> tay;> mk;kh

,r;nrhw;fisg; gpupf;f KbahJ.

cjhuzkhf:

kyu; vd;w nrhy;iy k + yu; vd;Nwh my;yJ ky + u; vd;Nwh gpupf;f KbahJ. mt;thW
gpupj;jhYk; mit nghUs; ju khl;lh. mjdhy; ,it xt;nthd;Wk; jdpj; jdpg; nghUis czu;j;Jk; jdpj;
jdp cUgd;fs; MFk;. mt;thW jdpg; nghUis czu;j;JtJ cUgd; vdg;gLk;.

2.3.2. fl;Lz;l cUgd;

fPo;tUk; nrhw;fis mtjhdpAq;fs;.

1. kyu;fs; = kyu; + fs;

kyu; - G+

fs; - m/wpiz gd;ik tpFjp

kyu;fs; vd;w nrhy;ypy; ,uz;L $Wfs; cs;sd. xd;W kyu;. kw;iwaJ fs;. kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w
nghUisj; jUfpd;wJ. fs; vd;gJ m.wpizg; gd;ikia czu;j;Jk; tpFjpahFk;.

2. kyu;fis = kyu; + fs; + I

kyu; - G+

fs; - m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp

I - Ntw;Wik cUG

kyu;fis vd;gjpy; kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisAk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ikg; nghUisAk;; I
vd;gJ Ntw;WikiaAk; czu;j;Jfpd;wd.

3. kyu;fisNah = kyu; + fs; + I + X

kyu; - G+

fs; - m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp

I - Ntw;Wik cUG

X - tpdh vOj;J

kyu;fisNah vd;gjpy; kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisAk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ikiaAk; I vd;gJ
Ntw;Wik cUigAk; X vd;gJ tpdhg; nghUisAk; czu;j;Jfpd;wd.

Nkw; $wg;gl;Ls;s cjhuzq;fSs; kyu;> fs;> I> X Mfpa midj;JNk jdpj; jdp cUgd;fNs. Mdhy;
mtw;Ws; kyu; vd;w nrhy; kl;LNk jdpj;J nghUs; czu;j;Jk;. Vida fs; vd;w m/wpizg; gd;ik
tpFjpNah my;yJ I vd;w ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUNgh my;yJ X vd;w tpdh vOj;Njh jdpj;J
nghUs; czu;j;j khl;lh. mit jdpj; jdpNah my;yJ Nru;e;Njh kyu; vd;w nrhy;Yld; ,ize;jhy;
kl;LNk nghUs; czu;j;j KbAk;. ,t;thW xU nrhy;Yld; ,ize;Njh my;yJ rhu;e;Njh my;yJ
fl;Lz;Nlh nghUs; czu;j;Jk; cUgd;fs; fl;Lz;l cUgd;fs; (Bound Morph) vdg;gLk;.

kugpyf;fzk; kyu;fisNah vd;w nrhy;ypy; tUk;

kyu; vd;gJ xU nrhy; vdTk;

fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp vdTk;

I vd;gJ ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUG vdTk;

X vd;gJ tpdh vOj;J vdTk; Fwpg;gpLk;. Mdhy; nkhopapay; ,it midj;ijAk; cUgd;fs; vd
Fwpg;gpLk;. MfNt xU cUgd; xU nrhy;yhfTk; mikyhk; my;yJ xU nrhy;ypd; gFjpahfTk;
mikayhk;. xU nrhy; Xu; cUgidf; nfhz;bUf;fyhk;. my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l cUgd;fisAk;
nfhz;bUf;fyhk;.

cjhuzk;:

kyu; - xU cUgdhyhd nrhy;

kyu;fs; - ,U cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;

kyu;fis - %d;W cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;

kyu;fisNah - ehd;F cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;

2.3.4. xl;Lf;fs; (Affixes)

xU nrhy;ypy; jdpj;J epw;fhky; cUgdhd mbr; nrhy;Yld; (stem) ,ize;jpUg;git xl;Lf;fs;

vdg;gLk;. ,t;nthl;Lf;fs; %d;W tifg;gLk;. mitahtd>

1. Kd;ndhl;L (prefix)

2. gpd;ndhl;L (suffix)

3. ,ilnahl;L (infix)

1. Kd;ndhl;L (prefix)

Ntu;r; nrhw;fSf;F Kd;ghf ,izgit Kd;ndhl;L vdg;gLk;. Mq;fpy nkhopapy;

disquality, impossible, absent, indecent (ab, dis, im, in) Nghd;w nrhw;fs;
Kd;ndhl;Lf;fSf;F cjhuzkhFk;. wjkïnqj" wjux.," wj,ËK (wj) Mfpait
rpq;fs nkhopapy; tUk; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;.

jkpopy; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fs; nfhz;l nrhw;fs; ,y;iy vd;Wk; jkpopy; toq;fg;gLfpd;w

tlnkhopr; nrhw;fshd mRj;jk;> mePjp> mtkupahij> mepahak;> mtkhdk; Nghd;w
nrhw;fspy; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fs; tUfpd;wd vdTk; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.

,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Mq;fpy nkhopapNyNa mjpfkhd Kd;ndhl;Lfs;

nfhz;l nrhw;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd vd;Wk; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspNy KiwNa m>
w Mfpa ,U vOj;Jf;fSk; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fshf ,lk;ngWfpd;wd vdTk; FWpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
2. gpd;ndhl;L (suffix)

Ntu;r; nrhw;fspd; gpd;du; ,izAk; xl;Lf;fs; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. foolish, timly,

acceptance Nghd;w nrhw;fspy; ish, ly, tance Mfpad gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;.

rpq;fs nkhopapy; wdfjñ hkafkuq" .sfhah" Nghd;w nrhw;fspy; tUf;fpd;w

ñ" uq" h Nghd;wit rpq;fs nkhopapy; tUk; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. te;Njd;> te;Njhk;>
te;jha;> mtu;fs; Nghd;w jkpo; nrhw;fspy;> Vd;> Xk;> Ma;> fs; Nghd;wit
gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;.

jkpo; nkhoapy; ghy;> vz;> ,lk; czu;j;Jk; tpidr; nrhw;fspy; tUk; tpFjpfs; midj;Jk;
gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. NkYk; ,ilepiyfs;> Mf;f cUGfs; midj;JNk gpd;ndhl;Lf;fNs. me;jtifapy;
jkpo; nkhopapy; mjpfkhd gpd;ndhl;Lf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mjdhy; jkpo; nkhopiag;
gpd;ndhl;L nkhop vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLtu;. mNjNghy; rpq;fs nkhopapYk;
mjpfshthd gpd;ndhl;Lf;fs; cz;L.

3. ,ilnahl;L my;yJ cs;nshl;L(infix)

Ntu;r; nrhw;fSf;fpilNa cUgd;fs; ,iztjhy; nghUs; khw;wk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. mt;thW

nghUs; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; xl;Lf;fs; ,ilnahl;Lf;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cyfpNy rpy
nkhopfspNyNa ,ilnahl;Lf;fs; cs;sd. cjhuzkhf fpNuf;f nkhopapy; koon vd;Dk; nrhy;
XL vDk; nghUs; jUk;. mr;nrhy;NyhL m vd;Dk; cUG ,izj;J komon vd tUk;
nghOJ Xl;lf;fhuu; vdg; nghUs; jUk;. ,q;Nf m vd;w cUG ,ilnahl;lhfr; nraw;gLfpd;wJ.
jkpo; nkhopiag; nghWj;jstpy; fhy ,ilepiyfs; xU nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; te;jhYk; mit NtW
nrhw;fspd; cs;Ns GFj;jg;glhikahy; mtw;iw ,ilnahl;L vdf;nfhs;s KbahJ vd;gJ
jkpowpQu;fspd; fUj;jhFk;. mjdhy; mtu;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,ilnahl;Lf;fs; ,y;iy vd;Nw
Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;fs;.

2.3.5. khw;WUgd; (appllomorph)

Xu; cUgdpd; khw;W tbtk; khw;WUgdhFk;. mjhtJ cUgd;fspd; gy;NtW tbtq;fNs

khw;WUgd;fshFk;. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy;>

Firs Person Singular

1. I I went to kandy yesterday. ,q;F I vd;gJ vOthahf te;Js;sJ.

2. My It is my pen. ,q;F my vd;gJ Mwhk; Ntw;Wik mikg;gpy; te;Js;sJ.

3. Me She asked me. ,q;F me vd;gJ ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik tbtpy; te;Js;sJ.

4. Mine It is mine. ,q;F mine vd;gJ> I, My, Me Mfpait tuhj ,lq;fspy; tUk;.

,NjNghy; jkpo; nkhopapy; jd;ik xUikiaf; Fwpf;f xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l cUgd;fs;

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

jd;ik xUik

ehd; ehd; gs;spf;Fr; nrd;Nwd;. vOtha;

vd;Dila ,J vd;Dila Gj;jfk; Mwhk; Ntw;Wik

vd;id vd;id kwf;f Ntz;lhk; ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik

vdf;F vdf;Fg; grpapy;iy ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik

me;jtifapy; xU nrhy; xU nghUisf; Fwpf;Fk; epiyapy; cUgd; vd;Wk; mg;nghUisf; fhl;Lk;

gy;NtW cUGfs; epiyapy; khw;WUGfs; vdTk; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L
Nehf;Ffpd;w nghOJ jdp cUgNdh my;yJ cUgd;fNsh ,ize;J nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd vd;gJ
njspthfpd;wJ. ,t;thW cUgd; xd;Nwh my;yJ gyNth ,ize;J vt;thW nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd
vd;gJ gw;wp tpgupg;gJ cUgdpayhFk;.

myF 3

4.0. gadhf;f nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;

Nehf;fk;

1. gadhf;f nkhopapay; gw;wp tpgupj;jy;

2. nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfisj; njspTgLj;Jjy;

3. nkhop ngau;g;G gw;wpa tpsf;fijg; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jy;

4. mfuhjp gad;ghL gw;wp tpgupj;jy;

ghl mwpKfk;

,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;lhdJ> tuyhw;wpy; gy Gul;rpfis Vw;gLj;jpa fhyg; gFjpahff;

fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mf;Nlhgu; Gul;rp vd r%fj;jpYk; gy ehLfspd; tpLjiy vd ehl;L
tuyhw;wpYk; ,uz;L cyfg; Nghu;fs; ele;J Kbe;j Kjy; E}w;whz;L vd Nghu; tuyhw;wpYk;
jfty; njhlu;G> fzpdpg; Gul;rp vdj; njhopy;El;g tuyhw;wpYk; Gul;rp nra;j fhyg;gFjpahf
,f;fhyg; gFjp rpwg;G ngWfpd;wJ. mNjNghy; nkhop gw;wpa Ma;tpYk; nkhop fw;wy;-
fw;gpj;jypYk; ngUk; jpUg;gq;fis Vw;gLj;jpajd; %yk; nkhopj;JiwapYk; ,f;fhyg;gFjp ngUk;
Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpaJ vdyhk;.

tpsf;f nkhopapay;> khw;wpyf;fzk;> Nfhl;ghLfs; vd nkhopapay;> nkhopj; Jiwapy; ngUk;

khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;jpd. nkhopj; Jiw njhlu;ghd Nfhl;ghLfs;> mtw;wpd; khw;wq;fs;>
mtw;iw vj;Jiwfspy; gad;gLj;jyhk;> mt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLk;NghJ Vw;gLk; mikg;G
NtWghLfs; Nghd;wtw;wpid cs;slf;fpa gFjpahf gadhf;f nkhopapay; mike;Js;sJ.
,f;fhyg;gFjpapy; nkhopj; Jiwapy; Vw;gl;l Nfhl;ghl;L khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd;
tpisTfis> nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy;> nkhop ngau;g;G> nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy;>
Ngr;Rf;FiwghLfs; mit njhlu;ghd jPu;Tfs; Nghd;w gy Jiwfspy; gad;gLj;Jk; gpupT gadhf;f
nkhopapay; MFk;.

,g;ghlj;jpy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL> ,uz;lhk; nkhop

fw;gpj;jYld; njhlu;Gila nkhopngau;g;G kw;Wk; mfuhjp gad;ghL Mfpa tplaq;fs; gw;wpa
tpsf;fk; jug;gLfpd;wJ.

4.1. gadhf;f nkhopapay; gpupTfs;

gadhf;f nkhopapay; gpd;tUkhW gy gpupTfisf; nfhz;ljhf mike;Js;sJ.

1. nkhop fw;gpj;jy;-fw;wy;

2. nkhop ngau;g;G

3. mfuhjpapay;

4. Ngr;Rf; FiwghLfSk; jPu;TfSk;

5. nkhop jpl;lkpLjy;

4.1. nkhop fw;gpj;jy;-fw;wy;

gadhf;f nkhopapay; Jiwapy; kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWtJ nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw;

nraw;ghlhFk;. mjhtJ gadhf;f nkhopapay; Jiwia Kw;WKOjhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; Jiw fw;wy;-
fw;gpj;jy; JiwahFk;. ,f;fhyg;gFjpapy; Vw;gl;l nkhopaikg;G tpjpfs; kw;Wk; Nfhl;ghLfspd;
nry;thf;fhy; nkhop fw;gpj;jypy; gy;NtW khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. Fwpg;ghf nkhop fw;gpj;jy;
KiwfspYk; cj;jpfspYk; ngUk; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. tpsf;f nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghl;L
mbg;gilapYk; ];fpd;dupd; Gwelj;ijf; Nfhl;ghl;L mbg;gilapYk; Nfl;L - Ngry; gof;f Kiw vOe;J
gy Mz;Lfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mNjNghy; Nehk; nrhk;];fpapd; khw;wpyf;fz Nfhl;ghLk;
gpahN[apd; MSif cstpay; (Cognaitive Psychologe) Nfhl;ghLk; fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapy;
Vw;gLj;jpa khw;wNk MSiftpjprhu; fw;wy; Kiwfs; (Cognative Psychology code learning
method) MFk;. mNjNghy; xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay; (Comparative and
Contrastive Linguistics) JiwAk; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapy; nry;yhf;Fr; nrYj;jpd. ,t;thW
gadhf;f nkhopapaypy; fw;Nghupd; Njitfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Rkhu; mWgjpw;Fk;
Nkw;gl;l nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;L> eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;ld. gadhf;f
nkhopapay; mbg;gilapy; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghLfspy; gpd;tUk; tplaq;fs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWfpd;wd.

(i). nkhop fw;Fk; #oy;

(ii). nkhopj; jpwd;fs;

(iii). fw;gpj;jw; Nfhl;ghLfs;

(iv). fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;

(v). fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> El;g Kiwfs;

(vi). fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL

(vii). ghlj;jpl;lk; - ghl cs;slf;fk;> ghlE}y;> fw;wy; tsq;fs;

(viii). Mrpupau;

(ix). khztu;

(x). ,izg;ghltpjhdr; nraw;ghLfs;

(xi). kjpg;gPL

(xii). gpd;D}l;lk;

4.2. nkhop ngau;g;G

%y nkhopapYs;s (Sourse Language) tplaj;ij mjw;F epfuhd ,yf;F nkhop tplakhfg; (Target
Language) ngau;g;gJ my;yJ nkhop khw;wk; nra;ag;gLtJ nkhopngau;g;G
vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mt;thW nkhopngau;f;Fk; nghOJ nghUSf;F KjyplKk; eilf;F ,uz;lhk;
,lKk; jUk;tz;zk; nkhopngau;j;jy; mtrpakhFk;.
nkhopngau;g;G tiffs;

(m). nghUs; RUf;f nkhopngau;g;G

,d;W Vw;gl;Ls;s etPd njhopy;El;g JiwAld; njhlu;Gila NjitfSf;Nfw;g nkhopapay; JiwapYk;

khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLfpd;wd. cyfshtpa uPjpapy; ntspahFk; GJg; GJ njhopy;El;gk;rhu;
tplaq;fs;> fz;Lgpbg;Gf;fs;> Ma;Tfs;> jpwdha;Tf; Fwpg;Gfs; Mfpatw;wpd; rhuhk;rq;fs;
my;yJ RUf;fq;fs; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl Ntz;ba Njit Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. me;jtifapy; %y nkhopapYs;s
tplaq;fspd; rhuhk;rq;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy; cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L mtw;iw ,yf;F nkhopapy;
nkhop ngau;j;jy; nghUs; RUf;f nkhopngau;g;G vdg;gLk;.

(M). jOty;

%y nkhopapYs;s nra;jpia cs;thq;fpf; nfhz;L mijg; ngWk; nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;ghsu;

jdJ tpUg;gj;jpw;F Vw;wthW $l;bAk; Fiwj;Jk; khw;wpaikj;Jk; ,yf;F nkhopapy; Gide;J jUtJ
jOty; MFk;.

(,). KOikahd nkhopngau;g;G

%y nkhopapYs;s vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> thf;fpak;> ge;jp> fl;Liu> E}ypd; xU gFjp>

KOikahd E}y; (text) vd vJthf ,Ue;jNghJk; vt;tpj khw;wKk; ,d;wp vt;tpj NtWghLkpd;wp
mg;gbNa ,yf;F nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;gJ KOikahd nkhopngau;g;G vdg;gLk;.
,k;Kiwapy; nkhopngau;g;G Nfhl;ghLfSk; mZF KiwfSk; KOikahfg; gpd;gw;wgl;L
nkhopngau;g;G nra;ag;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;.

(c). tpQ;Qhdk;rhu; nkhopngau;g;G

,q;F tpQ;Qhdj; Jiwapy; cs;s nra;jpNa Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. ,r;nraw;ghl;by;

njhlu;ghlYf;F my;yJ fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLk; fUtpahf kl;LNk nkhop
gad;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thwd nkhopngau;g;gpy; mzpeak; nrwpe;j nkhopeil jtpu;f;fg;gly;
Ntz;Lk;. mNjNghy; nghUs; kaf;fk; jUk; nrhw;fs;> njhlu;fs;> rpNyilfs;> tu;zidfs;
jtpu;f;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.

(C). ,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;G

nghJthf Mf;f ,yf;fpaq;fs; czu;r;rpAld; $baitahf mike;jpUf;Fk;. ftpij> ehlfk;> rpWfij> ehty;
Nghd;wit czu;r;rpf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtkspg;gd. ,t;thwhdtw;iw nkhopngau;f;fpd;w nghOJ %y
nkhopapYs;s czu;r;rp> Rit Nghd;wtw;wpw;F gq;fk; Vw;glhj tifapy; nkhopngau;g;G
mikjy; Ntz;Lk;. MfNt ,t;tifahd nkhopngau;g;gpy; nkhopngau;g;ghsd;> jhd; xU
nkhopngau;g;ghsd; - gilg;ghsd; vd ,U ghj;jpuq;fis Vw;fNtz;bAs;shd;. mJkl;Lkd;wp
,t;thwhd nkhopngau;g;ghsd;> %y nkhop kw;Wk; ,yf;F nkhop Mfpa ,U nkhopfspYk;
rpwe;j MSikAk; jpwikAk; gilg;ghw;wy; jpwDk; ngw;wpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghl;by; Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s midj;J nkhopngau;g;Gf;fSk;

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. mjdhy; fiyj;jpl;lk; jahupj;jy;> ghlj;jpl;lk; jahupj;jy;> ghl E}y;fis
tbtikj;jy;> Mrpupau;fSf;Fg; gapw;rpaspj;jy;> khztu;fSf;Ff; fw;gpj;jy; Nghd;w ,uz;lhk;
nkhop Jiwapy; <LgLgtu;fs; ,t;tidj;J nkhopngau;g;G tiffs; gw;wpa mwpTk; njspTk;
mDgtKk; ngw;wpUj;jy; mtrpakhFk;.

4.3. mfuhjpapay;

mfuhjpapay; (Lecicography) vd;gJ> nrhy; gw;wpa tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd Ma;Tj; Jiwahf

,Ug;gjhy; mJ nkhop gw;wpa tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd Ma;Tj; Jiwahd nkhopapaypd; gy;NtW
gpupTfSld; njhlu;Ggl;ljhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. mfuhjpapy; ,lk;ngWk; nrhw;fs;> nrhw;fspd;
,ay;GfSf;Fk; mfuhjp tifikf;Fk; gadhspapd; Njitf;Fk; mfuhjpahsu; cUthf;fpf; nfhz;l
newpKiwfSf;Fk; Vw;g gy;NtW gjpTf;$WfisAk; ciladtha; mikf;fg;gLfpd;wd. xU mfuhjpg;
gjpthdJ> jiyr; nrhy;(Head word)> nrhy; %yk; my;yJ nrhw; gpwg;G (etymology), xypg;G
Kiw (pronouncation), vLj;Jf; fhl;ly; (spelling), ,yf;fzg; nghUs;> nrhw;nghUs;>
nrhw;nghUs;-tupir Kiw> jiyr; nrhy;Yf;fhd tof;Fg; gapw;rp> Fwpg;ghd;fs;(lables),
Nkw;Nfhs;fs; Nghd;w gy $Wfisf; nfhz;bUg;gjhf mike;jpUf;Fk;. ,g;gjpTf; $Wfs;
xt;nthd;Wk; gw;wpa jfty;fisg; ngw mfuhjpahsu;fs; nkhopapaiyNa Jizahff;
nfhs;fpd;whu;fs;.

mfuhjp tiffs;

1. fiyf;fsQ;rpak;
2. tho;tpaw; fsQ;rpak;
3. nkhop mfuhjp
(m). xU nkhop mfuhjp
jkpo; Mq;fpyk;
jkpo; rpq;fsk;
rpq;fsk; jkpo;

(M). ,Unkhop mfuhjp

jkpo; rpq;fsk;-Mq;fpyk;

rpq;fsk; jkpo;-Mq;fpyk;
 jkpo; Mq;fpyk;-];ghdp~;

(,). gd;nkhop mfuhjp

`pe;jp F[uhj;jp-fh~;kPup-cUJ

njYq;F fd;dlk;-`pe;jp-F[uhj;jp

fd;dlk; kiyahsk;-njYq;F-jkpo;-Mq;fpyk;

4. fhyKiw mfuhjp

5. tuyhw;W mfuhjp

6. nrhw; gpwg;G mfuhjp

7. xg;gpay; mfuhjp

8. rpwg;gfuhjpfs;

Nghd;wit Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. ,t;tfujpfSk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jypy;

<LgLfpd;wtu;fSf;F mtrpakhfpd;wd. MfNt mj;Jiwapy; <Lgl;bUg;gtu;fs; mfuhjpfs; gw;wpa
tpsf;fk;> njspT> gad;ghL> mfuhjpapYs;s tplaq;fs;> mfuhjpiag; gad;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs;
Nghd;witg; gw;wpa tpsf;fq;fisg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;sy; mtrpakhFk;.
myF 4

4.0. xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;

Nehf;fk;

1. jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfis> xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> nghUs;

Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;J xw;Wikfis ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sy;

3. jkpo; rpq;fs nkhopfis nkhopfis> xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> nghUs;

Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;J Ntw;Wikfis ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sy;

ghl mwpKfk;

,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau; xUtu; khztupd; jha; nkhopiag; gw;wp
mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhFk;. ,yq;ifiag; nghWj;jstpy; jkpohdJ> rpq;fs nkhopiaj;
jha;nkhopahff; nfhz;ltu;fSf;F ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;wikahy; ,q;Nf jkpo; kw;Wk;
rpq;fs nkhopfs; xg;gPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. nghJthfj; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; xNu
fl;likg;igAiladthff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. MapDk; Mq;fhq;Nf rpy NtWghLfSk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
,g;ghlj;jpy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs;> xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> nghUs;
Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;ag;gl;L xw;Wik> Ntw;Wikfs; ,dq;fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

4.1. jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; Xu; xg;gPL

4.1.1 xyp> vOj;J

4.1.1.1. capu; xyp kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs;

 m M , < c C
w a wd aa b i B W u W!
ii uu
v V I x X xs

t e ta ft ai T o ´ oo T! au
ee

rpq;fs nkhopapy; cs;s Mdhy; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;yhj ,U capu; xypfSk; vOj;Jf;fSk;
tUkhW>

we æ
wE ǣ

,tw;wpdbg;gilapy;

1. jkpo; capu; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; - 12

rpq;fs capu; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; - 14

2. jkpo; capu;f; Fwpy; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; - 5

rpq;fs capu;f; Fwpy; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; - 6

3. jkpo; capu;f; neby; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; - 5

rpq;fs capu;f; neby; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; - 6

4. jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;bYNk I kw;Wk; xs Mfpa ,uz;Lk; $l;nlhypfs;

vdg;gLfpd;wd.

5. jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;bYk; capu; vOj;Jf;fs; nrhy; Kjypy; kl;LNk
tUfpd;wd. mit nrhy; ,ilapy; my;yJ ,Wjpapy; tUfpd;w nghOJ capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fshfNt
tUfpd;wd.

6. jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;f; FwpaPLfs; capu; vOj;Jf;fspy; ,lk;ngWtjpy;iy. Mdhy;

rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,lk; ngWfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;: ft" tA
4.1.1.2. capu;f; FwpaPLfs;

capu; vOj;J jkpo; rpq;fsk;

m - -

M h d

, p s

< P S

c q" =

C }> + + Q

v n f

V N fa

I i ff

x nh f d

X Nh f da

xs ns f !

1. jkpo; nkhop NghyNt rpq;fs nkhopapYk; capu;f; FwpaPLfs;

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

2. jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;f;FwpaPLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,lq;fspy; nka;naOj;Jf;fspd;

Nky; tUfpd;w nka;f; FwpaPlhd Gs;sp gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpq;fs nkhopapy;
rpy ,lq;fspy; capu;f; FwpaPLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w ,lq;fspy; nka;f; FwpaPLf;s
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

cjhuzk;:

fa - fha" fka" fÉ" fï

f da - fida" flda" fjda" f,da

4.1.1.3. nka;naOj;Jf;fs;

f; r; l; j; g; w;

la É c Ü ;a ma ¾
k ṭ t p ṛ

q; Q; z; e; k; d;

x Coa Ka ka ï ka n
ŋ ñ N ṉ m

a; u; y; t; o; s;

ha ¾ l õ ḻ ḷ <a
y R ,a v <a

1. jkpo; nkhopapy; nrhy; Kjypy; nka;naOj;Jf;fs; tUtjpy;iy. mNjNghy; rpq;fs

nkhopapYk; nka;naOj;Jf;fs; nrhy; Kjypy; tUtjpy;iy.

2. jkpo; nkhopapy; nka;naOj;ijf; Fwpg;gjw;F nka; vOj;jpd; Nky; Gs;sp

,lg;gLfpd;wJ. rpq;fs nkhoapy; ,U tpjkhd nka;f; FwpaPLfs; cs;sd.

a s

cjhuzk;:- ;a" <a" ¾ - a

Ü" ï" â - s

4.1.1.4. capu; nka;naOj;Jf;fs;

f r l j g w
 l p c g ; m r r
k ṭ t p

q Q z e k d

X Co K k u k n
k ñ N ṉ m

a u y t o s

h r R , j < <
y L v ḻ ḷ

1. jkpo; nkhop
NghyNt rpq;fs nkhopapYk; capu; vOj;Jf;fSlDk; nka;naOj;Jf;fSlDk; capu;f; FwpaPLfs;
,ize;J capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fs; Njhw;wk; ngWfpd;wd.

2. jkpo; nkhopapy; cs;s xt;nthU xypf;Fk; vOj;Jf;fs; ,y;iy. Mdhy; mit ve;j ,lj;jpy;
tUfpd;w nghOJ vt;thW cr;rupf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;F tpjpKiwfs; cs;sd. Mdhy; rpq;fs
nkhopapy; xt;nthU capu;nka; xypf;Fk; jdpj; jdp vOj;Jf;fs; cs;sd.

3. jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fis vOJk; NghJ nka;f;FwpaPlhd Gs;sp

,lg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpq;fs nkhoapy; capu;f;FwpaPLfSk; nka;f;
FwpaPLfSk; ,izj;J capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fs; vOjg;gLfpd;wd.

4.1.2. njhlu;fs;
nkhopapd; njhlHfs; gw;wpa Ma;T njhlupay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nrhw;fs; jdpj;J epd;W
nghUs; czHj;jpdhYk; mit ,ize;J epd;W njhluhf mikfpd;w nghOJjhd; mJ KOik ngWfpd;wJ.
,t;thW njhlupy; nrhw;fs;> nrhy;yikg;Gfs; mikAk; KiwNa njhlHKiw (order) vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
,t;thwhd njhlHfspy; rpy cWg;Gfs; kpf neUq;fpa njhlHG nfhz;L mikfpd;w nghOJ mit
mz;ikAWg;Gfs; (Immediate constituents) vdg;gLfpd;wd. mj;NjhL ,t;thW cs;s
mz;ikAWg;Gfspy; fhzg;gLk; ,iaG njhlupiaG (Concord) vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

jkpo; nkhopapy; njhluikg;G

njhlu;
 ng.njh. tp.njh.

eP th

njhlH - 1 ng.njh. + tp.njh. + nra.ngh. + Nt + tp.K.

njhlu;

ng.njh. tp.njh.

Nt.njh. tp.

ng.njh.

fe;jd; eha; I mbj;jhd;

,j;njhlupy; Xu; vOtha;> xU nraw;gLnghUs;> xU gadpiy cz;L. kugpyf;fzj;jpy; ,j;njhlH jdp
thf;fpak; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

njhlH - 2
njhlu;
 njh1 njh2

ng.njh. tp.njh. ng.njh. tp.njh.

ng. ,.nrh. tp.K. ng. ,.nrh. tp.K.

ehd; ck; te;Njd; fky; ck; te;jhd;

ehDk; fkYk; te;Njhk;.

,j;njhlupy; ,uz;L njhlHfs; ,ize;Js;sd. ,j;njhlH kugpyf;fzj;jpy; $l;L thf;fpak; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

rpq;fs nkhopapy; njhluikg;G

rpq;fs nkhopapYk; ,t;thwhd njhluikg;G cz;L.
v-L:
njhlH - 1

njhlu;

ng.njh. tp.njh.

.ng.njh. tp.K.
 f,Akd fmar lhs
Nyzh Ngu fap
mzpy; nfha;ahg;gok; rhg;gpLk;

njhlH - 2

njhlu;

ng.njh. tp.njh.

ng.njh. ng.njh. ng.njh ng.m. tp.K.

ng. ,.nrh. ng. ,.nrh ng. ,.nrh.

uu hs kqU hs weh hs fyd|

hd¿fjda
kk ap Ek;g ap va ap n`he;j ahONth
ehd; ck; eP ck; mts; ck; ey;y ez;gHfs;
ehDk; ePAk; mtSk; ey;y ez;gHfs;.

,t;thW jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; njhluikg;G mike;Js;sJ. nghJthfNt ,uz;L

nkhopfspYk; xNu mikg;ghfNt njhlHfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

4.1.3. nghUz;ikapay; (Semantics)

nkhopapd; nghUz;ik (meaning) gw;wpa nra;jpfisj; jUtjhfg; nghUz;ikapay; mike;Js;sJ.
mjhtJ nrhy;ypd; nghUis tpsf;Ftjhf ,g;gFjp mike;Js;sJ. nghUz;ikapy; gy tifahfg;
gFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

m). tUzidg; nghUz;ikapay;

nrhy; kw;Wk; njhlHfspd; nghUis tpsf;FfpwJ.
gb - ngaH - gb
tpid - gbj;jyhfpa nray;
XL - ngaH - $iu XL
tpid - XLjyhfpa nray;

osh c,h - [ya - ePH>

ch - [a - ntw;wp
jk le,Eh - nfNya - fhL

M). tuyhw;Wg; nghUz;ikapay;

nghUs; khw;wj;jpidAk; mjw;fhd fhuzq;fisAk; tpsf;FfpwJ.
nrhy; goe;jkpo; jw;fhyj;jkpo;
fjpH new;fjpH vf;];Nu fjpH
thf;F thHj;ij thf;Fr;rPl;L
ehw;wk; eWehw;wk; JHehw;wk;

,t;thwhd nrhw;fisr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; fhZjy; rw;W mupjhf cs;sik Fwpg;gplj;;jf;fjhFk;.

MapDk; ,yq;ifapy; Ml;rp nra;j NghHj;Jf;Nfau; kw;Wk; xy;yhe;ju; gad;gLj;jpa nrhw;fs;
,k;nkhopapy; cs;sikiaf; fhz Kbfpd;wJ.

rpq;fsr; nrhy; jpirr;nrhy;

ÿïßh fldaÉÑh - Gifapujk;
Jk;upa Nfhr;rpa
uq,A;ekaf.a l=iaish - rikayiw
 Ky;njd;Nf F];]pa

,). nghJg; nghUz;ikapay;

nkhopayFfspd; nghUisAk; gz;igAk; tpsf;FfpwJ.
tPL - ,y;yk;
kyH -é
Áy; - Gj;jfk;

u, - mqIam - ky - G~;g - kyH

kßhd - ysj,d - eupah - `ptyh - eup

fk¿ï - moau - neOk; - gj;k - jhkiu

,t;thW jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; nrhw;fspd; nghUz;ikia tpsf;fyhk;.

rpq;fs nkhopapy; nrhy;yikg;ghdJ> jkpo; nkhop NghyNt mike;Js;sJ.

1. jpiz - rpq;fs nkhopapYk; cau; jpiz> m/wpizr; nrhw;fs; cs;sd.

2. ghy; - Mz;ghy;> ngz;ghy;> ghy; my;yhjit vd ghy; %d;W tifahfg;

gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

3. vz; - xUik> gd;ik vd ,U gpupTfshfg; gFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

4. ,lk; - jkpo; nkhop NghyNt jd;ik> Kd;dpiy> glu;f;if vd %d;W tiffshfg;

gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

5. Ntw;Wik - jkpo; nkhopapy; vl;L Ntw;Wik Fwpg;gplg;gl> rpq;fs nkhopapy; 9

Ntw;Wikfs; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd.

6. fhy ,ilepiyfs;> tpidr; nrhw;fs;> tpidnar;rq;fs; jkpo; nkhop Nghd;w

mikg;gpidf; nfhz;Ls;sd.

7. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; vOtha;> gadpiy> nrag;gLnghUs; vd thf;fpa fl;likg;G

mika> jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; thf;fpakhdJ> vOtha;> nrag;gLnghUs;>

gadpiy vd;w xOq;fikg;gpy; mike;Js;sJ.

myF 5

4.0. cstpay; nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;

Nehf;fk;

1. nkhop fw;wYf;Fk; %isf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;igj; njspTgLj;jy;

2. cstpaYf;Fk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;gpid tpsf;Fjy;

3. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wypy; khztu;fs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rpf;fy;fis cstpay;

mbg;gilapy; jPu;j;jy;

ghl mwpKfk;

nkhop fw;gjw;Fk; %isf;Fk; ,ilNahd njhlu;G> ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wypy; cstpay;

Nfhl;ghLfspd; nry;thf;F> nkhop fw;fpd;wnghOJ khztu;fs; ,lu;gLk; ,lq;fs;> mt;tplu;ghLfis
cstpay; uPjpapy; vt;thW jPu;j;Jf;nfhs;syhk; vd;gJ gw;wpa tpsf;fk; ,g;ghlj;jpy; Kd;
itf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

4.1. nkhop fw;wYf;Fk; %isf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;G

4.2. cstpapy; nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfs;

4.2.1. elj;ijthj Nfhl;ghL

elj;ijthjf; NFhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; J}z;bj; Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghL Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ. nkhopapd;
fl;likg;G kw;Wk; cs;thq;fy; vd;gJ> elj;ijapd; mbg;gilapy; cUthf;fk; ngw;Ws;sJ. J}z;b
Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghlhdJ> mfj;Nj epfOk; nrad;Kiwiaf; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;stpy;iy khwhf nkhopf;Fk;
fw;wYf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,iltpidapd; gpwg;ghf;fk; nkhopf; fw;if vd;fpd;wJ. ,f;nfhs;ifapd;
mbg;gilapy; fw;wy; vd;gJ mtjhdpf;ff; $ba tpisthFk;. ,f;fw;wy; nray;KiwahdJ> jd;dpaf;f
mbg;gilapy; J}z;b-Jyq;fy; %yk; ,lk;ngWtjhFk;. jd;dpaf;f mbg;gilapyhd gof;fj;ij
cUthf;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F J}z;b-Jyq;fy; nrad;Kiwapyhd elj;ijia cUthf;Ftjw;F> ntFkjpy; nfhLj;jy;
gad;gLfpd;wJ. ntFkjp mspj;jyhdJ> elj;ijia kPs typAWj;Jfpd;wJ. elj;ijthjf; Nfhl;ghl;bd;
mbg;gilapyhd nkhop fw;wyhdJ> kPs typAWj;jy; Kiwapy; fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;Ls;sJ.

Kjyhk; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopfSf;fpilNa xw;Wik fhzg;gbd; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;if ,yFthf
,Uf;Fk;. mit ,uz;Lf;FkpilNa NtWghLfs; fhzg;gbd;> fw;Nghd; jdJ fw;ww; nraw;ghLfspy;
rpf;fiy vjpu;Nehf;Ftjw;fhd tha;g;Gfs; cs;sd. ,r;re;ju;g;gj;jpy; khztDf;F kPs typAWj;jy;
mtrpakhfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; J}z;b-Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghl;by; khztd; fw;wypy; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rpf;fy;fisj;
jPu;j;jy; Kjd;ik ngWfpd;wJ. fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> cj;jpfis khw;wpaikj;jy;> kPs typAWj;jy;
Nghd;wtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; ,r;nraw;ghlhdJ ,lk;ngwy; Ntz;Lk;.

4.2.2. fz;fhzpg;Gf; Nfhl;ghL

,f;Nfhl;ghl;il cUthf;fpatu; fpwrd; Mthu;. ,tu; nkhopia cs;thq;fYf;Fk; nkhopiaf;

fw;wYf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghl;il tpsf;fp cs;shu;. nkhopia cs;thq;fy; vd;gJ> Mokhd epiyapy;
eilngWk; nraw;ghlhFk;. ,uz;lhk; nkhopf; fw;ifAk; Mokhd epiyapy; epfo;tjhapd; mJ
nghUs; nghjpe;jjhf mikAnkd ek;Gfpd;wdu;. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wyhdJ> fw;wyhf
,lk;ngWk;NghJ> nkhopapd; mikg;G> kw;Wk; tpjpfs; Nghd;wit Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd.
,tupd; Nfhl;ghl;by; fpufpj;jy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. ,J csr; nraw;ghl;bid
typAWj;Jfpd;wJ. mJNt nkhop cs;thq;fiy epfo;j;Jfpd;wJ. MfNt nkhop fw;wypy;
kdntOr;rpfs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. kdntOr;rprhu; epiyapy; nkhop fw;ww; nraw;ghL
tpidj;jpwDld; mikahJ. MfNt mjw;Fupa #oiy cUthf;fp ,uz;lhk; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL
,lk;ngwy; mtrpakhFk;.

4.2.3. mwpiff; Nfhl;ghL

mwpiff;Nfhl;ghlhdJ> csr;nraw;ghl;ilg; gw;wpajhFk;. ,f;Nfhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; mwpifr;

nrad;KiwahdJ> khw;wk;> nghJikg;gLj;Jjy;> kPs; fl;likj;jy; Mfpatw;iw mfj;Nj nra;fpd;wJ.
nkhop fw;wy; vdgJ fw;Nghdpd; mwpif tpUj;jpahFk;. fw;Nghd; vz;zf;fUit rupahd Kiwapy;
tpsq;fpa gpd;du; nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jfpd;whd;. mwpif tpUj;jpahdJ> nkhop tpUj;jpf;F Kd;
NjitahFk;. nkhop tpUj;jpf;F Kd; mwpif epfo;fpd;wJ. J}z;b-Jyq;fy; ghu;f;f NtWgl;ljhFk;.
,f;Nfhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; fw;Nghd; nkhop gw;wp rpe;jpf;fpd;whd;.
tpsq;fpf;nfhs;fpd;whd;. Qhgfg;gLj;Jfpd;whd;. fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;whd;.

4.2.4. r%f fyhrhu Nfhl;ghL

tpnfhl;];fp vd;w Nfhl;ghl;lhsu; vd;gtu;> nkhop vd;gJ milahs Kiwikia nfhz;ljhff;

fUJfpd;whu;. ,e;j milahsk;rhu; Kiwik jiyKiw jiyKiwahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;L tUfpd;wJ. ,tu;>
nkhopahdJ> r%fkakhdJk; jd;id ikag;gLj;Jk; mfk; rhu;e;j njhopw;ghl;ilf; nfhz;lnjdf;
fUjpdhu;. rpe;jidf;F mbg;gil nkhopahFk;. ,tuJ fUj;Jg;gb> vz;zKk; Ngr;Rk; NtWgl;l
%yj;ijf;nfhz;lit. njhlf;fj;jpy; vz;zkhdJ tha;nkhop rhuhjjhfTk; Ngr;rhdJ mwpTepiy rhuhj;
jd;ikiaAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. nkhop fw;ifr; nraw;ghlhdJ> rpf;fyhd fUtpiaf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wJ. mJ
fw;Nghdpd; rpe;jidiaj; jPu;khdpf;fpd;wJ. NkYk; mJ nrhw;fspd; %yk; Gj;jhf;fkhd rpe;jidia
ntspf;nfhz;L tUfpd;wJ. nkhop fw;ww; nraw;ghlhdJ gpwupd; cjtpAld; ,lk;ngWtjhFk;.
mjhtJ fw;Nghd; tsu;e;Njhupd;> ngw;Nwhupd;> rktaJf; FOf;fspd;> Mrpupaupd;>
r%fj;jtupd; cjtpNahL nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;whd;.

4.3. nkhop fw;wypy; %isapd; nraw;ghL

nkhop fw;wypy; %isapd; nraw;ghL vt;thW mike;Js;sJ vd;gij tpsf;Fk; Jiwahf cstpaYld;
njhlu;Ggl;l euk;gpapy; nkhopapay; Jiw cs;sJ. euk;gpay; nkhopapayhdJ> xU kdpjd;
nkhopia cs;thq;Fjy;(aqusitions), fpufpj;jy; (comprehention), ntspg;gLj;Jjy;(production)
Nghd;w nraw;ghLfs; %isapy; vt;thW epfo;fpd;wd vd;gJ gw;wp tpsf;Ftjhf mike;Js;sJ.
euk;gpay; nkhopapayhsu;fs;> euk;gpay; nkhopapay; Ma;T Jiwapd; Ma;T KiwfisAk;
Nfhl;ghLfisAk;> tpjpKiwfisAk; euk;gpay;> tpQ;Qhdk;> nkhopapay;> nkhop MSif>
njhlu;ghly;> euk;gpay;> cstpay; Nghd;w gpupTfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L tiuaiw
nra;fpd;whu;fs;. mJ njhlu;ghfg; gy;NtW Nrhjid El;gq;fisAk; NtWgl;l Nfhl;ghLfisAk;
mwpKfk; nra;Js;shu;fs;. euk;gpay; ty;Yeu;fs;> %isia nkhopAld; njhlu;GgLj;Jtjd; %yk;
euk;gpay; nkhopapay; kw;Wk; cstpay; nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfis cUthf;Ffpd;whu;fs;.

Ngr;R FiwghLilaatu;fSf;F euk;gpay; nkhopapay; mbg;gilapNyNa rpfpr;irfs;

toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. nkhopAld; njhlu;Gila %is gFjpfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl ,r;rpfpr;ir Kiwfs;
jPu;khdpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; nkhop fw;wYld; %isapd; nraw;ghLfs; kpf neUq;fpa
njhlu;gpidf; nfhz;Ls;sjhff; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
4.4. nkhop fw;wYld; njhlu;Gila rpf;fy;fis cstpay; uPjpapy; jPu;j;jy;

nkhopahdJ r%fk; rhu;e;jJ. MapDk; nkhopiaf; fw;gpf;Fk; nghOJk; fw;Wk;nfhs;Sk;

nghOJk; kdepiy Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. kdjpd; ,af;fj;jpw;F Vw;g fUj;Jk; nrhy;Yk;
njhlu;GgLj;jg;gl;L> ntspg;gLfpd;wd. ,jid mbg;gilahff;nfhz;Nl nkhopahdJ tbtk;
ngWfpd;wJ. Foe;ij gpwe;jJk; mjw;F ahUk; nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhLg;gjpy;iy. Foe;ij jhdhfNt
jhd; thOk; #oypypUe;J rpWfr; rpWf nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf jdJ jha;>
je;ij> rNfhjuu;fspd; Ngr;R> tho;f;if Kiw Nghd;wtw;iw cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L mjw;Nfw;wthW
jhDk; nraw;gl Kaw;rp nra;fpd;wJ. Muk;gj;jpy; Foe;ij Kiwrhuh Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapidf;
fw;Wf;nfhz;L gpd;du; ghlrhiyapy; nkhopia Kiwrhu; Kiwapy; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ.
Fwpg;ghf ghlrhiyapy; vOj;J tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. mt;thW Ngr;R tof;F
%yj;jpypUe;J vOj;J tof;fpw;F khWk; epiyapy; (from oracy to literacy) Foe;ij gy rpf;fy;fis
vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;wJ.

,e;epiyapy; Foe;ij nkhopiag; gw;wp rpwe;j mwpitg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. mjd;NghJ

nkhop njhlu;ghd kdg;ghq;FfSk; language attituds) cUthfpd;wd. nkhopiaf;
fw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; Kiwahd newpKiwfs;> mZFKiwfs;> #oy; Nghd;wit
Njitg;gLfpd;wd. ,tw;iw cstpay; nkhopapay; MA;thsu;fs; fw;gpj;jw; Nfhl;ghL vdf;
Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;fs;.

,NjNghd;Wjhd; xU nkhopia ,uz;lhk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;gtu;fSf;Fk; nkhopiaf;

fw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; Kiwahd newpKiwfs;> mZFKiwfs;> #oy; Nghd;wit
Njitg;gLfpd;wd. mit rupahd Kiwapy; mikahj NghJ gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;.
cjhuzkhf ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; khztu;fs;
vjpu;Nehf;Fk; cstpay; rhu; rpf;fy;fs; rpy tUkhW>

4.3.1. r%fk; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;

nghJthf rpq;fs khztu;fSf;Fj; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;F fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ vOj;J tof;F my;yJ
epak tof;F nkhopNa fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; jkpo;r; r%fj;jpy; vOj;J tof;Nfh my;yJ
epak tof;Nfh Ngrg;gLtjpy;iy. khwhfg; Ngr;R tof;Nf tof;fpYs;sJ. vOj;J tof;F my;yJ epak
tof;F %yk; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;Wf;nfhz;l khztu;fs;> mjid jdJ md;whl tho;f;ifapy;
gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ rpy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk;
nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; xU khztu; vt;thNwDk; jkpo; nkhopapy; ciuahl Ntz;Lk; vd;w
Mirapy; cztfk; xd;wpy; nrd;W ciuahLfpd;whu;. mt;Tiuahly; gpd;tUkhW mike;jpUe;jik
mtjhdpf;fg;gl;lJ.

thbf;ifahsu;: mz;zd; til ,Uf;fpd;wjh?

filf;fhuu;(rpupj;jthW): ky;yp nkhd tNlj Xd?

thbf;ifahsu;: vdf;F ,uz;L gUg;G tilfSk; Ie;J cSe;J tilfSk;

jhUq;fs;.

filfhuu;(,g;nghOJk; rpupj;jthNw): vr;ruapj ky;yp?

thbf;ifahsu;(jhDk; rpupj;jthNw): Mkhk;. mz;zd;. ehd; vt;tsT ju Ntz;Lk;?

,t;thW ciuahly; njhlu;fpd;wJ. Muk;gj;jpy; jd;dk;gpf;ifNahL ciuahliy Muk;gpj;j khztu;> jdJ

jkpiof; Nfl;L filf;fhuu; rpupj;jJk; jhd; gpioahd nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;jp tpl;NlNlNdh vd;w
jLkhw;wj;jpy; gpd;du; mt;Tiuahliy njhlu jaq;Ffpd;whu;. mj;jaf;fkhdJ mk;khztd;
jkpo;nkhopapy; ciuahLtjw;Fj; jilahf mike;JtpLfpd;wJ. vq;Nf ehk; jtwhfg; Ngrp tpLNthNkh
vd;w jaf;fNk ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;Fk; khztu;fsplk; mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLk; cstpay;
rhu; rpf;fyhFk;.

4.3.2. ghy; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;

tFg;giwapy; khztu;fs; Mz;fs; ngz;fs; vd ,Ughyhuhk; fw;fpd;w nghOJ nraw;ghLfspy;

<LgLtjpy; rpy khztpfs; jaf;fk; fhl;Ltjid mtjhdpf;fyhk;. jhq;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy; gpioahfg;
Ngrptpl;lhy; Mz; khztu;fs; jq;fisg; ghu;j;J rpupj;J tpLthu;fNsh vd;w jaf;fj;jhy; khztpfs;
kpfTk; $r;r Rghtj;JlDk; jaf;fj;JlDk; tFg;giwapy; mku;e;jpUg;gijf; fhzyhk;. rpy khztpfs; tpdh
Nfl;lTld; jiyiaf; Fzpe;J nfhs;tijAk; my;yJ Gj;jfq;fshy; Kfj;ij kiwj;Jf;nfhs;tijAk; mtjhdpf;fyhk;.

4.3.3. rktaJ FOf;fs; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;

tFg;giwapy; rpy khztu;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy; guPl;iraKs;stu;fshf ,Ug;ghu;fs;. rpy khztu;fs;

Kd;dwptpd;wp ,Ug;ghu;fs;. mt;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; Kd;dwptw;w khztu;fs; Kd;dwpTs;s
khztu;fisf; fz;L gak;nfhs;Sjy; kl;Lkd;wp mtu;fSld; ,ize;J fw;fTk; nraw;ghLfspy; <LglTk;
jaq;Fthu;fs;. mJkl;Lkd;wp Kd;dwpTs;stu;fs; xU FOthfTk; Kd;dwptw;wtu;fs; xU FOthfTk;
,ize;J nraw;gLtjidAk; fhzyhk;. ,t;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; Kd;dwptw;w khztu;fs;
jho;Tr;rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpdw;hu;fs;.

4.3.4. ghl cs;slf;fk; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;

,ay;ghfNt jkpo; nkhop fbdkhdJ vd rpq;fs khztu;fSk; rpq;fs nkhop fbdkhdJ vd jkpo;
khztu;fSk; vjpu; kiwahd kdg;ghq;fpidNa nfhz;Ls;shu;fs;. mJkl;Lkd;wp rpy
re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ghl cs;slf;fq;fs; khztu;fsJ jpwDf;F Vw;w tifapy; mikahJ Nghfyhk;. my;yJ
mtu;fs; vjpu;ghu;j;j tifapy; mikahJ Nghfyhk;. mt;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; jq;fshy; ghlj;ijr;
rupahd Kiwapy; cs;thq;f KbahJs;sNj vd;w vjpu;kiwahd vz;zk; khztu;fisf; fw;ww;
nraw;ghLfspy; gpd;dilar; nra;ayhk;.

4.3.4. fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; nkhop njhlu;ghd kdg;ghq;F rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;

jhq;fs; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; nkhop> mk;nkhop cupj;jhFk; r%fk;> mr;r%fj;jpd; fyhrhuk;>

gz;ghL Nghd;wit njhlu;ghf Neu;kiw vz;zk; my;yJ kdg;ghq;F my;yhky; vjpu;kiw vz;zk;
my;yJ kdg;ghq;F ,Uf;Fkhapd; mk;khztu;fshy; jhq;fs; fw;Wf;nfhs;s tpUk;gpa nkhopia
vf;fhyj;jpYk; fw;Wf;nfhs;s KbahJ.

4.3.5. Mrpupau; njhlu;ghd kdg;ghq;F rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;

,d;W ,yq;ifapy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSs; ngUk;ghyhdtu;fs;

jkpou;fNs. mNjNghy; rpq;fsk; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSs; ngUk;ghyhdtu;fs; rpq;fstu;fNs.
MfNt Mrpupau; njhlu;ghd Neu;kiwahd kdg;ghq;F ,y;yhJ tplj;J khztu;fs; fw;ww;
nraw;ghLfspy; rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Fthu;fs;.

4.3.6. fw;gpj;jy; Kiw rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;

,d;W khztu;fs; etPd njhopy;El;gj;jpd;ghy; mjpf Mu;tk; nfhz;Ls;s fhyg;gFjp. MfNt

khztu;fSk; fw;gpj;jypy; etPd KiwfisNa tpUk;Gfpd;whu;fs;. mJkl;Lkd;wp nraw;ghLrhu;e;j
fw;gpj;jy; KiwapNyNa mjpf Mu;tj;Jld; <LgLfpd;whu;fs;. mt;thwhd fw;gpj;jy; Kiw
mikahtpl;lhy; khztu;fs; Nrhu;tile;J fw;wypy; Mu;tk; fhl;Ltjpy;iy.

NkNy $wpa tplaq;fs; khztu;fs; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk; cstpay;
rhu; rpf;fy;fshFk;. MfNt ,tw;iwj; jPu;g;gjw;F Mrpupau;fs; cstpay;rhu; nkhopapay; gw;wp
mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ.

,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jypd; NghJ Kjypy; nra;a Ntz;baJ ahnjdpy; jhq;fs; fw;Fk; nkhop
fbdkhd xU nkhop vd;w vjpu;kiwahd kdg;ghq;if khw;WtjhFk;. mNjNghy; Mrpupau; jhq;fs;
fw;gpf;Fk; nkhop> mk;nkhop rhu;e;j r%fk;> fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL Nghd;wit njhlu;gpy; Kjy;
tFg;gpNyNa khztu; kj;jpapy; Neu;kiwahd vz;zj;ij> kdg;ghq;if Vw;gLj;jptpLjy;
mtrpakhfpd;wJ. mJkl;Lkd;wp khztu;fsJ jha;nkhop> mk;nkhoprhu;e;j r%fk;> gz;ghL>
fyhrhuk; Nghd;wit njhlu;gpy; Mrpupau; Neu;kiwahd vz;zj;ijAk; kdg;ghq;ifAk;
nfhz;bUg;gijAk; khztu;fs; mwpar; nra;jy; mtrpakhFk;.

khztu;fs; r%fj;jpy; nrd;W NgRfpd;w nghOJ Vw;gLfpd;w rpf;fy;fisj; jPu;g;gjw;F Kjypy;

mtu;fSf;Ff; fw;gpf;Fk; Ngr;R tof;F epak tof;F my;yhkYk; gpuNjr tof;F my;yhkYk;
ghu;j;Jf;nfhs;Sjy; mtrpahfpd;wJ. MfNt nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpj;jhy;
nghUj;jkhdjhf mikAk;. mj;NjhL cstpay; uPjpapy; mk;khztu;fisf; fw;wy; nraw;ghLfSf;Fj;
jahu;g;gLj;Jjy; Mrpupaupd; jiyaha filikahf cs;sJ. khztu;fs; Ngrg;NghtJ jha; nkhopay;y.
,uz;lhk; nkhop. Mjyhy; gpioahfg; NgRtJ gw;wp rpe;jpf;f Ntz;bajpy;iy. Muk;gj;jpy;
gpioahfg; NgrpdhYk; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; gapw;rp ngw;W jtWfisj; jpUj;jpf;nfhs;syhk; vd
mtu;fis Cf;fg;gLj;Jjy; mtrpakhFk;.

myF 6

6.0. r%f nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;

ghl mwpKfk;

,uz;lhk; nkhoj;Jiwapy; <gLfpd;wtu;fSf;F r%f nkhop gw;wpa tpsf;fk; mtrpakhfpd;wJ.

Fwpg;ghfr; r%f nkhopapaypy; Kf;fpa tplaq;fshf tpsq;Ffpd;w nkhop> nkhopf; nfhs;iffis
cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsHr;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy;> eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy; Nghd;w
tplaq;fisAk; nkhopapd; r%fg; gzpfs; gw;wpAk; mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ.
mj;NjhL Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpf;fpd;wnghOJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l gpuNjrj;Jf;Fupa Ngr;R
tof;fpidg; fw;gpg;gjh? my;yJ nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidg; fw;gpg;gjh? my;yJ epak
tof;iff; fw;gpg;gjh vd;gJ ngUk; rpf;fyhf mike;Js;sJ. ghlj;jpl;lk; tbtikg;gtu;fSf;Fk;
fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSf;Fk; ,J ngUk; rpf;fyhfNt mike;Js;sJ. MfNt ,t;tpaypy; Nkw;
$wg;gl;Ls;s tplaq;fs; gw;wpa tpsf;fq;;fs; Kd; itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

Nehf;fk;

1. khzu;fSf;Fr; r%f nkhopapay; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jy;

Mfpatw;Wf;fpilahyhd njhlu;ig njspTgLj;Jjy;.

2. r%f nkhopapay; Jiwapy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; nkhopf; nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop

tsu;r;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkply; Nghd;wit gw;wpa tpsf;fj;ijg; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jy;.

3. nkhopapd; r%fg; gzpfs; gw;wp tpgupj;jy;.

4. nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;ig mwpar; nra;jy;.

5. Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapidf; fw;gpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba nghJ tof;F gw;wp

njspTgLj;jjy;.

6.1. nkhopf; nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsu;r;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkply;

kdpj ehfupfj;NjhL tsu;r;rp ngw;w tplakhf nkhop fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mjdhy; nkhopAk; r%fKk;
,uz;luf; fye;jit vdf;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. nkhopapd; tsu;r;rpf;Fr; r%fKk; r%f tsu;r;rpf;F
nkhopAk; ,d;wpaikahjit vd;gij mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L r%f nkhopapay; ,aq;Ffpd;wJ. r%f
nkhopapaYf;Fj; Njitahd mbg;gilj; juTfisj; jUgitahf mikg;G nkhopapaYk; tpsf;f
nkhopapaYk; cs;sd. r%f nkhopapay;> nkhop NgRk; kf;fsJ r%fj;jpd; mikg;G>
mr;r%fj;jpd; gpd;dzp> mr;r%fk; vt;thW ,aq;Ffpd;wJ Nghd;w tplaq;fisAk; juTfisAk;
jUfpd;wJ. MfNt nkhopapay; kw;Wk; r%fk; rhu;e;j juTfisAk; tplaq;fisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk;
xUq;fpizj;j nkhopapay; Ma;T my;yJ nkhopapay; fy;tp r%f nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
cjhuzkhf> xU r%f kf;fspd; Ngr;R tof;fpid Ma;T> Kjyhtjhf gy;NtW Ma;thsu;fs; Ma;T nra;J
Kd; itj;Js;s fpis nkhopapay; gw;wpa nfhs;iffisg; gad;gLj;jp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. mjd;
gpd;du; mr;r%ff; $WfisAk; gbepiy mikg;GfisAk; mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Ngr;R tof;FfisAk;
mjd; $WfisAk; ,dq;fz;L r%f nkhopapay; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; jug;gLfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; nkhopg;
gad;ghlhdJ> r%f mikg;ghYk; r%ff; $WfshYk; #oy;fshYk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLtJ vd;gJ
njspthfpd;wJ.

kdpjdpd; gupzhk tsHr;rpNahL Njhw;wk; ngw;w nkhopahdJ> nky;y nky;y tsHr;rpg; ghijia
Nehf;fp Kd;Ndw;wkile;jJ. nkhop tsHr;rp vd;gJ nkhop vt;thW tsHr;rp ngw;W te;Js;sJ
vd;gjhFk;. nkhop tsHr;rpAld; neUq;fpa njhlHGilaJ r%f tsHr;rp. Vnddpy;; r%fk; tsHr;rp
mila mila nkhopAk; tsHr;rp milAk;. r%f tsHr;rpahdJ jha;nkhop %yk; ,lk;ngWtNjhL
mr;r%fk; rhHe;j gz;ghL> tpOkpak; vd;gdTk; tsHr;rp ngWk;. MfNt r%f tsHr;rpapd;
mbg;gilapNyNa nkhop tsHr;rpAk; mlq;fpAs;sJ.

nkhop tsHr;rpapy; Kjd;ikg; gq;F tfpg;gJ nkhopj; jpl;lkplyhFk;. nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; vd;gJ xU

nkhopiar; r%fj; Njitf;F Vw;w tifapy; Kiwahf xOq;FgLj;JtjhFk;. njhlf;ff; fhyq;fspy;
nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; gw;wpa vz;zq;fs; r%fj;jpy; ,Ue;j nghOJk; mit xU Kiwikahd tifg;gLj;jyhf
mike;jpUf;ftpy;iy. Mdhy; ehsiltpy; gy;NtW ehLfspd; nkhopg; gad;ghLfs; kw;Wk;
jpl;lkpLjy;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy; jpwikahfr; nray;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mt;thW
nkhopiaj; jpl;lkpl;L tsHr;rp ngwr; nra;tjw;Fg; gy;NtW nfhs;iffs; cUthf;fg;gl;ld. mtw;wpd;
mbg;gilapNyNa nkhopj;jpl;lkply; midj;J ehLfspYk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; vd;gJ xUtifahd nkhopg; guhkupg;G my;yJ
Kfhikj;Jtk; vd;W epê];Lgpdp (1968) Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;. mtH fUj;Jg;gb nkhopj;
jpl;lkpLjy; %d;W ngUk; gpupTfspy; mlq;Ffpd;wJ.

 nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;
 nkhop tsHr;rp
 nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjiy eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy;

,g;gpupTfspd; mbg;gilapNyNa nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; nray;gLj;jg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. gy nkhopfs;

Ngrg;gLk; ehLfspy; nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;Ffpd;w nghOJ me;ehl;by; thOk; midj;J
kf;fspd; eyd;fisf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;sy; NjitahFk;. nrk;nkhopfs;> ngUk;ghd;ik kf;fshy;
Ngrg;gLfpd;w nkhopfs;> rpWghd;ik kf;fshy; Ngrg;gLfpd;w nkhopfs;> goq;Fb ,dj;jtHfspd;
nkhopfs; vd midj;J tifg;gl;l nkhopfisAk; tifg;gLj;jiy mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopf;nfhs;iffs;
cUthf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjYk; ,t;thNw nray;gLj;jg;gly; NjitahFk;. NkYk; ,f;fhy
kf;fspd; mwptpay;> r%ftpay;> nghUshjhuk;> murpay; Nghd;w midj;Jj; NjitfisAk;
epiwNtw;Wk; tifapy; nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;FjYk; nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjYk; ,lk;ngwy; Ntz;Lk;.
Njrpa nkhopfs;> Ml;rp nkhopfs;> caHfy;tp gapw;W nkhopfs;> kf;fs; fUj;Jg; gupkhw;w
nkhopfs;> ngUk;ghd;ik nkhopfs;> rpWghd;ik nkhopfs; vd;w mbg;gilapy;
nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;FjYk; nkhopiaj; jpl;lkpLjYk; gd;nkhopr; r%fq;fis cila ehl;by; nkhop
njhlHghd Kuz;ghLfs; Njhd;whjpUf;f toptFf;Fk;.

nkhop tsHr;rpg; gbKiwfs;

nkhop tsHr;rpahdJ Kf;fpakhd %d;W gbKiwfisf; nfhz;lJ. mitahtd>
m). vOj;JUthf;fk;
M). GJikahf;fk;
,). epiyNgwhf;fk;

(m). vOj;JUthf;fk;
vOj;JUthf;fk; vd;gJ r%fj; Njitf;Nfw;g vOj;Jfis cUthf;Fjy; MFk;. mjhtJ r%fk; kw;Wk; mjd;
Njitfs; Nghd;wit ehSf;F ehs; khw;wk; mile;j tz;zKs;sd. mJ jtpu xU r%fk; gy;NtW
r%fq;fSld; ,ilj;njhlHGfisAk; Vw;gLj;jpf;nfhs;fpwJ. ,J r%f khw;wkhFk;. cjhuzkhf ,yq;iftho;
rpq;fs kf;fs; cyf ehLfSldhd ,ilj;njhlHghy; Mq;fpy nkhopr;nrhw;fs; gytw;iw epj;jKk;
gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;. cjhuzkhf> Fanta, File, Form, Fathima, France Nghd;w nrhw;fisf;
Fwpg;gplyhk;. ,r;nrhw;fs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLtjhy; F vd;w Mq;fpy
nkhop vOj;Jf;F ,izahd rpq;fs vOj;J Njitg;gl;lJ. mjw;fika> F vd;w Mq;fpy vOj;jpw;;Fg;
gjpyhf * vd;w rpq;fs vOj;ij cUthf;fpdhu;fs;. mjdhy; NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s Mq;fpyr;
nrhw;fs; ,d;W rpq;fs nkhopapy;>

Mq;fpyk; rpq;fsk; xyp ngaHg;G jkpo;;

Fanta *ekagd ngd;l;lh ghdk;
File *hs,a igy; Nfhg;G

Form f*da¾ï NghHk;

gbtk;
Fathima *d;a;ssud ghj;jpkh ghj;jpkh

vd toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;thW r%fj;jpd; Njitf;Nfw;g vOj;Jfis cUthf;FjNy vOj;JUthf;fk;

vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J Nghd;w vOj;JUthf;fk; jkpo;nkhopapy; ,Jtiu ,lk;ngwtpy;iy. Mdhy;
,t;thwhd vOj;Jfspd; Njit Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. Vnddpy; Fanta, France, Frank, Fathima, Cauliflower,
German, Japan Nghd;w nrhw;fisj; jkpo;nkhopapy; vOJtjw;Ff; fbdkhf cs;sJ. Mjyhy;
mtw;Wf;Fupa jkpo; vOj;Jfs; Njitahf cs;sd.

(M). GJikahf;fk;
ehSf;F ehs; tsHr;rpailAk; Gjpa njhopy;El;gq;fSf;Nfw;g xt;nthU JiwapYk; Gjpa Gjpa
nrhw;fs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ehSf;F ehs; gy;NtW Gjpa
nrhw;fs; cUthfpatz;zKs;sd. mr;nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w midj;J ehLfSk;
mr;nrhw;fSf;Fupa Gjpa nrhw;fisj; jkJ jha;nkhopapy; cUthf;f Ntz;ba epiy Vw;gl;Ls;sJ.
Mq;fpy nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; midj;J ehLfSk; midj;Jj; JiwfSk; mtw;Wf;F ,izahd nrhw;fis
cUthf;Ffpd;wd. mJNt fiyr; nrhy;yhf;fk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhff; fzpdpj; Jiw rhHe;j
Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fSf;Fj; rpq;fs kw;Wk; jkpo;nkhopfspy;; fPo;tUk; fiyr;nrhw;fs;
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

Mq;fpyk; rpq;fsk; xypngaHg;G jkpo;

 Computer mß.Klh gupfzf;fa fzpdp
Thchnology ;dËKkh jhf;~za njhopy;El;gk;
Cell phone cx.u ÿrl;Kh [q;fk Juf;fj;jda miyNgrp
,t;thW Gjpa Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fSf;Fupa fiyr;nrhw;fis cUthf;Ftjd; %yk; Fwpg;gpl;l Jiwfs;
tsHr;rpailfpd;wd. Gjpa njhopy;El;g tsHr;rpf;F Vw;w tifapYk; mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
Vw;gLk; NjitfSf;F Vw;gTk; fiyr;nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;w nghOJ nkhop GJikahf;fk;
ngWfpd;wJ.

(,). epiyNgwhf;fk;
epiyNgwhf;fk; vd;gJ nkhopapd; xt;nthU epiyiaAk; vspik> rPHik> gad;ghl;Lj; jpwik
Kjypatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; jug;gLj;JtjhFk;. nkhopia ,t;thW jug;gLj;Jfpd;w nghOJ
mk;nkhop epiyNgwhf;fk; ngWfpd;wJ. epiyNgwhf;fj;jpw;nfdr; rpy nfhs;iffis tiuaWj;Jf;
nfhz;L mf;nfhs;iffspd; mbg;gilapy; nkhopj;jpl;lq;fisr; nray;gLj;Jjy; nkhopapd;
gad;ghl;Lf;Fr; nrk;ik gaf;Fk;. nkhopfspy; epiyNgw;Wj; jd;ik Vw;gLj;Jtjpy; fPo;f;fz;l %d;W
Kjd;ikahd $Wfs; JizGupfpd;wd.

 nkhopahw;wy; my;yJ nkhopj;jpwd;

 nkhop tof;Ffspy; fhzg;gLk; nghJj;jd;ikfs;
 nkhopg; gad;ghl;by; Njitahd mstpw;F Vw;gLk; tsHr;rp

NkYk; nkhopg; gad;ghl;bw;nfd epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;tjpy; gy gpupTfs; cs;sd. mitahtd:

vOj;J tof;fpy; nkhopg; gad;ghl;bw;Nfw;g epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;.

Ngr;R tof;fpy; rKjhaj;jpd; Njitf;Nfw;g epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;.
fiyr;nrhy;yhf;fj;jpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;.
nrhw;fsQ;rpaq;fis cUthf;Ftjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;.
fy;tpj;Jiwapy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;nfd ,yf;fzq;fs;> ghlg;Gj;jfq;fs;> mfuhjpfs; Kjypadtw;iw
cUthf;Ftjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;.
guty; nra;jpj; njhlHgpy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;nfdr; nrhw;fs;> ,yf;fzr; RUf;fq;fs;> vspjhd
nrhw;nwhlH mikg;Gfs; Nghd;wtw;iw epiyNgwhf;ff; nfhs;ifapd; topahf cUthf;fy;.
Ml;rpj;Jiwf;fhd nkhopg; gad;ghl;by; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;.
ePjpj;Jiwapy; gad;gLj;jf; $ba Kiwapy; ehl;L nkhopfspy; Ntz;ba Gjpa nrhw;fs;>
nkhopf;$Wfs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;.
 tsUk; mwptpay; Jiwapd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F Vw;wthW GJg;GJr; nrhw;fs;
Nghd;wtw;iw mikg;gjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;.

,t;thW epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;tjd; %yk; xU nkhopia tsHr;rpg; ghijapy; ,l;Lr; nry;yyhk;.

6.2. nkhopapd; rKjhag; gzpfs;

6.2.1. rKjhak;
gy cWg;gpdHfs; NrHe;jJ FLk;gk;;;;; gy FLk;gq;fs; NrHe;jJ r%fk;; gy r%fq;fspd; njhFg;G
rKjhak;. xU r%fj;jpy; thOk; kdpj ,dk;> mt;tpdj;jpd; ehfupfk;> tsHr;rp> tuyhW> gz;ghL>
fiy> fyhrhuk;> tho;tpay;> rKjhaepiy> nghUshjhuk;> fy;tp Nghd;w midj;ijAk; ntspg;gLj;Jk;
Kf;fpaf; $W nkhopahFk;. NkYk; nkhop xU r%fj;jpw;Fs;Sk; gy r%fq;;fSf;Fs;Sk; njhlHGfis
Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. mjd; %yk; nkhopf;$WfSf;Fk; r%ff;; $WfSf;FkpilNa kpf neUf;fkhd
njhlHGfs; Vw;gLfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; ,yq;ifapy; tof;fpYs;s jkpo; rpq;fs nkhopfs;
fPo;tUkhW ,U r%fq;fSf;fpilNa caHe;j rKjhag; gzpfis Nkw;nfhz;l tz;zKs;sd.

(m). fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wf; fUtp

nkhopapd; Kjd;ikahd gad;ghL fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wkhFk;. fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wk; vd;gJ
Mq;fpyj;jpy; Communication vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ. ,r;nrhy; ,yj;jPd; nkhopr;nrhy;yhd
Communis vd;gjpypUe;J Njhw;wk; ngw;wjhFk;. ,yj;jPd; nkhopapy; ,r;nrhy;Yf;Fg;
nghJthf;F> gfpHe;Jnfhs;> nray;tpisT> gad;> nra;jpiag; gug;G vd;Dk; nghUs;fs; cs;sd.
MfNt xUtUf;F> ,UtUf;F> gyUf;F ,ilNa my;yJ gy mikg;GfSf;fpilNa ,lk;ngWk; nra;jpg;
gupkhw;wKk; mjdhy; Vw;gLk; GupjYk; fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wk; vdg;gLk;.

xU nra;jpiaj; njuptpg;gtH jhd; $w tUk; fUj;;ij my;yJ nra;jpiaf; Nfl;NghH my;yJ ngWeUf;Fr;
rpy FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;jpf; $WtNjhL Nfl;NghuJ fUj;JfisAk; ngw Kay;tjhFk;.
nkhopapay; #oypy; nra;jpiaj; jUeUk; (Source) ngWeUk; (Receiver) kdpjHfshf
mikfpd;wdH.

,yq;ifiag; nghWj;jstpy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfisj; jha;nkhopahff; nfhz;ltHfs; jq;fSf;Fs;

fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wj;jpy; <LgLtjw;Fk; jhq;fs; tho;fpd;w gd;nkhopr; r%fj;jpy; VidatHfSld;
fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wj;jpy; <LgLtjw;Fk; Fwpg;gpl;l nkhopfs; gad;gLfpd;wd. gy;ypdr; r%fj;jpy;
,dq;fSf;fpilNa njhlHghLtjw;F nkhopNa Kjd;ikf; fhuzpahf cs;sJ. me;j tifapy; ,yq;ifapy;
,dq;fSf;fpilNa njhlHghly; mw;Wg; NghdikahNyNa Gupe;JzHT Vw;glhky; ,d Kuz;ghLfs;
Njhw;wk; ngw;wd vd;gij ed;FzHe;J nfhz;l rpq;fstHfSk; jkpoHfSk; mk;nkhopfis ,uz;lhk;
nkhopfshff; fw;gjpy; kpFe;j MHtk; fhl;b tUfpd;wdH. MfNt gy;ypd> gy;fyhrhur; rKjhaf;
fl;likg;gpy; ,d xw;Wikf;F fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wk; kpfTk; Kf;fpakhFk;. mjw;F nkhop kpfTk;
gad;ghLilajhf tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; mg;gzpiar; nrt;tNd
nra;aj; njhlq;fpAs;sikiaj; jw;fhyj;jpy; fhz Kbfpd;wJ.

(M). ,U r%fq;fspd; tho;tpaiy ntspg;gLj;Jjy;

jkpo;nkhopahdJ ,yq;ifapy; thOk; jkpoHfspd; tho;tpaiyg; glk;gpbj;Jf; fhl;Ltjhf mike;Js;sJ.

aho;g;ghzj; jkpoHfshfl;Lk; kiyafj; jkpoHfshfl;Lk; ,yq;ifapy; tho;fpd;w Vida jkpoHfs; kl;Lk;
K];ypk;fs;> mtHfsJ jdpj;jd;ik> fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL> kjk; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;F
,yq;ifapy; tof;fpYs;s jkpo;nkhop ngupJk; cjtpahf cs;sJ. mNjNghy; rpq;fs nkhop ,yq;ifapy;
tho;fpd;w rpq;fs kf;fspd; tho;tpay;> gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> kjk; Nghd;wtw;iw ntspg;gLj;Jtjhf
mike;Js;sJ.

(,). fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy;

,yq;ifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;lhk; nkhopfshff; fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

Fwpg;ghfg; NghH Kbtile;jjd; gpd;dHj; jkpoHfs; rpq;fs nkhopiaAk; rpq;fstHfs; jkpo;
nkhopiaAk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gjpy; kpFe;j MHtk; fhl;b tUfpd;whHfs;. Vnddpy; ,q;F
tho;fpd;w ,dq;fs; jq;fSf;fpilNa ciuahlhikahy; Vw;gl;l vjpHkiwahd Gupe;JzHNt Aj;jk;
Vw;glf; fhuzk; vd;w cz;ikia czHe;J nfhz;likahFk;. me;jtifapy; jkpo;nkhopiaj;
jha;nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ jkpo;r; r%fj;jpw;fhd gzp epiwNtWtjhfTk; mk;nkhopia
,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ rpq;fsr; r%fj;jpd; Njitia epiwNtw;WtjhfTk; cs;sJ.
mjd; %yk; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo;nkhop jkpo;r; r%fj;jpw;Fk; rpq;fsr; r%fj;jpw;Fk; rpwe;j rKjhag;
gzpia Mw;Wfpd;wikia mwpe;Jnfhs;s Kbfpd;wJ. NkYk; ntspehl;ltHfSf;Fj; jkpo;nkhop
nkhop fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cyfr; rKjhaj;jpw;Nf gzp Mw;WtjhfTk; mike;Js;sJ. mNjNghy;
rpq;fs nkhopiaj; jha;nkhopahff; fw;gpg;gjd; %yk; rpq;fsr; r%fk; ed;ik ngWfpd;wJ. mjidj;
jkpoHfSf;F ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ jkpo;r; r%fk; gadilfpd;wJ.
mk;nkhopia ntspehl;ltHfSf;Ff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cyfr; rKjhak; gadilfpd;wJ.

,t;thW jkpoHfs; rpq;fs nkhopiaAk; rpq;fstHfs; jkpo;nkhopiaAk; fw;Wf;nfhs;tjd; %yk;

Kuz;gl;l ,U r%fq;fs; jq;fSf;Fs; njhlHghliy VwgLj;jpf; nfhz;L rpwe;j Gupe;JzHitAk;
el;GzHitAk; tsHj;J ,d ey;ypzf;fj;jpid Nkk;gLj;jyhk;. mjd;%yk; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo;> rpq;fsr;
r%fq;fs; ,d xw;WikNahLk; mikjpNahLk; jq;fsJ tho;f;ifiaj; njhlu KbAk;. mJ ,yq;ifapd;
epiyahd rkhjhdj;jpw;F topNfhYtJ kl;Lkd;wpg; Gyk;ngaHe;J may;ehLfspy; mfjpfshfj;
Jd;gq;fSf;fpilNa tho;e;J nfhz;bUf;Fk; jkpoHfSf;F kPz;Lk; ,yq;ifapy; te;J tho;tjw;F Xu;
ce;Jjiy Vw;gLj;Jk;. me;jtifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nray;ghlhdJ
Kuz;gl;l ,U r%fq;fSf;fpilNa ey;ypzf;fj;ijAk; xw;WikiaAk; Vw;gLj;Jk; kpfg;ngupa rKjhag;
gzpia Mw;wpf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.

(<). Áy;fisg; gilj;jy;

,yq;ifapy; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfspNy gy;NtW Áy;fs; gilf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,yf;fpaq;fs;> ,yf;fz

Áy;fs;> Gyk;ngaH kf;fs; rhHe;j ,yf;fpaq;fs;> ehl;Lg;Gw ,yf;fpaq;fs;> fy;tpapay; rhHe;j
Áy;fs;> etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; rhHe;j Áy;fs; Nghd;w gy;Jiw Áy;fs; gilf;fg;gl;l tz;zKs;sd.
mjd;%yKk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; jq;fsJ r%fq;fSf;Fg; gad;ghLiladthf mike;Js;sd.

(c). nkhop ngaHg;G

gy;NtW rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; Mq;fpy Áy;fis jkpo; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHg;gjd; %yk; jkpo;
kw;Wk; rpq;fsr; r%fq;fSf;F kpfTk; gaDila xU nray;ghl;bid <l;lf; $bajhfTs;sJ. mjhtJ
rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; Mq;fpy nkhopapy; cs;s mupa nra;jpfisj; jkpo;r; r%fk; mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;F
xU kpfg;ngupa tha;ghf mJ mike;J tpLfpd;wJ. mNjNghy; jkpo; nkhopapYs;s gy Áy;fisr;
rpq;fs nkhopapy; nkhopngaHf;fpd;w nghOJ jkpo;nkhop> mjd; njhd;ik Nghd;wtw;iwr;
rpq;fsr; r%k; mwpe;Jnfhs;s tha;g;ghf mikfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhd nkhopngaHg;Gfs; %yk;
,UnkhopfspYKs;s gy mupa Áy;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpYs;s nra;jpfis mk;nkhop rhHe;j
r%fq;fs; mwpe;Jnfhs;s Kbfpd;wJ.

,ae;jpu nkhopngaHg;G ,d;W kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j nkhopngaHg;G Kiwahf tsHr;rpaile;J

tUfpd;wJ. ,yq;ifapYk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; njhlHghd ,ae;jpu nkhopngaHg;Gr;
nray;ghLfs; jw;nghOJ njhlq;fg;gl;Lg; gyH mjpy; <Lgl;Ls;sikia mwpa Kbfpd;wJ.
me;jtifapy; nfhOk;G gy;fiyf;fofk; Kd;dzpapy; nray;gLfpd;wik ,q;Ff; Fwpg;gpl;Lf;
$wj;jf;fjhFk;.

(c). mfuhjp

 jkpo;> rpq;fs xUnkhop mfuhjpfs;

 jkpo; - rpq;fs kw;Wk; rpq;fs - jkpo; ,Unkhop mfuhjpfs;

 jkpo; - rpq;fsk; - Mq;fpyk; kw;Wk; rpq;fsk; - jkpo; - Mq;fpyk; Kk;nkhop
mfuhjpfs;

vd ,yq;ifapy; gy mfuhjpfs; fhye;NjhWk; Njhd;wpa tz;zKs;sd. Fwpg;ghfj; jw;fhyj;jpy;

mbf;fb mfuhjpfs; ntspaplg;gLfpd;wd. Vnddpy; ,yq;if muR ghlrhiy khztu;fSk; mur
mYtyfq;fspy; njhypy; GupAk; murhq;f Copau;fSk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfis ,uz;lhk;
 nkhopfshff; fw;wypy; Nju;r;rp ngWjy; fl;lhakhFk; vd;w Gjpa nkhopf; nfhs;ifia
eilKiwg;gLj;jpAs;sikahy; kf;fs; mk;nkhopfisf; fw;gjpy; mjpf MHtk; fhl;Lfpd;wdH. mjdhy;
mk; nkhopr; nrhw;fspd; nghUz;ikia mwpe;Jnfhs;tjw;F mfuhjpfs; Njitahfpd;wd. jkpo;
kw;Wk; rpq;fs mfuhjpfspd; Njitia czHe;J muRrhH kw;Wk; muRrhuhg; gy;NtW
epWtdq;fs; mfuhjpfis cUthf;fp ntspapl;l tz;zKs;sd. mtw;Ws; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; $ba
mfuhjpfshf> fy;tp mikr;R kw;Wk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; Mfpait ,ize;J 2018 Mk; Mz;L
ntspapl;Ls;s jkpo;-rpq;fs (,uz;lhk; nkhop) mfuhjpAk; murfUk nkhopfs; jpizf;fsj;jpdhy;
ntspaplg;gl;Ls;s mfuhjpfSk; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; $baitahf tpsq;Ffpd;wd. tpsq;Ffpd;wd.
mt;tfuhjpfs; gs;spf;$l khztHfs; Kjy; njhopy;GupgtHfs; tiu kpfTk; gaDiladthf mike;Js;sd.

(C). fiyr;nrhy;yhf;fk;

jw;fhyj;jpy; vq;Fk; etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; vjpYk; etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; vd;w xU epiyg;ghL

epyTfpd;wJ. mjdhy; xt;nthU kzpj;JspapYk; Gjpa Gjpa fiyr;nrhw;fs; Njhd;wpatz;zKs;sd.
Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ehs;NjhWk; Gjpa fiyr;nrhw;fs; cUthfpatz;zKs;sd. MfNt
mtw;Wf;F ,izahd nrhw;fis me;eje;j nkhopapy; cUthf;f Ntz;baJ fhyj;jpd; Njitahf cs;sJ.
cjhuzkhf fzpdpAld; njhlHGila Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fSf;Ff; fPo;tUk; fiyr;nrhw;fs; jkpo; kw;Wk;
rpq;fs nkhopfspy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

Mq;fpyk; rpq;fsk; xypngaHg;G jkpo;

internet wka;¾cd,h md;jH[hya ,izak;

email úoahq;A ;eme,A tpj;Aj; njg;ghy; kpd;dQ;ry;

website fjí wvúh ntg; mltpa tisj;jsk;

Mq;fpy nkhopr;nrhy;Yf;F ,izahd jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fsr; nrhw;fisj; jUfpd;wd vd;w

tifapYk; mk;nkhopfs; rKjhaj;jpw;F cjTfpd;wd.

6.3. nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;G

xU r%fj;jpy; fhyq;fhykhf ,Ue;J tUk; gof;f tof;fq;fs;> czT Kiwfs;> fiyfs;> topghl;L Kiwfs;
Nghd;wtw;wpd; njhFg;G gz;ghL vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,yFtpy; khw;wkilahj gz;ghL
mr;r%fj;jpw;nfdr; rpwg;ghf mike;j $Wfisj; jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,t;thwhd gz;ghl;Lf; $Wfis
xd;wpizg;gJ nkhopahFk;. Mjyhy; gz;ghl;bw;Fk; nkhopf;Fk; ,ilNa neUq;fpa njhlHGz;L.

gz;ghL vd;gJ gue;j nghUisf; nfhz;l xU nrhy; MFk;. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; Culture vdg;gLk;
nrhy; gz;ghl;ilf; Fwpg;gjhf mike;Js;sJ. rpy mwpQHfs; culture vd;w nrhy; fyhrhuk; vd;gijf;
Fwpg;gjhff; fUJtNjhL fyhrhuk; NtW> gz;ghL NtW vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLtH. NtW rpyH
fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL Mfpa ,uz;LNk xd;Wjhd; vd typAWj;Jfpd;wdH. MapDk; xU r%fj;jpd;
khw;wkilAk; $Wfs; fyhrhuk; vd;Wk; khw;wkilahj $Wfs; gz;ghL vd;Wk; kpf ,yFthff;
fyhrhuj;ijAk; gz;ghl;ilAk; gpupj;jwpayhk;. MfNt khWtJ fyhrhuk;; khwhjJ gz;ghL. Xu;
,df;FOtpd; tuyhW> r%ff; fl;likg;Gfs;> kj topghLfs;> ek;gpf;iffs;> fiy> nkhop> njhopy;rhH
njupTfs;> fUtpfs; vd midj;ijAk; cs;slf;fpaJ gz;ghL vdyhk;. ,J nghUs;rhH gz;ghL>
FwpaPLrhH gz;ghL> mbg;gilg; gz;ghL> fyg;Gg; gz;ghL> gy; gz;ghL vdg; gy
tifg;gLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; nkhopNahL gz;ghl;il ,izj;Jg; ghHg;gjw;F NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s
gz;ghL vd;w nrhy;ypy; cs;slq;Fk; tplaq;fs; gad;jukhl;lh. nkhopAk; gz;ghLk; vd;fpd;w
Nehf;fpy; gz;ghL vd;gJ xU kdpjd; jhd; rhHe;j rKjhar; nray;ghl;by; gq;Nfw;Fk; tifahd
mwpT vdyhk;. mjhtJ jhd; thOk; r%fj;jpy; jd;Dld; thOk; kdpjHfshy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLk;
xj;j elj;ij gw;wpa mwpTk; gpw kdpjuhy; Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;glf; $ba r%fr; nray;ghLfs;
gw;wpa mwpTkhFk;. ,j;jifa mwpT rKjhaj;jpy;> rKjhaj;jhy; ngwg;gl;l xd;whf ,Uf;Fk;. ,ij
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwit Muha;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

xUtH NgRfpd;w nkhopapd; mikg;igg; nghWj;Nj mtH ghHf;Fk; cyfKk; mikAk;. mNjNghy;
xU r%fj;jpd; gz;ghL> mtu;fs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w nkhopapy; ntspg;gLk;. me;jtifapy;
nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;bw;Fk; neUq;fpa njhlHG cz;L. nkhopiag; Gupe;Jnfhs;tjw;Fg;
gz;ghLk; gz;ghl;ilg; Gupe;Jnfhs;tjw;F nkhopAk; ,d;wpaikahjit. kdpjd; jd; nray;ghLfis
nkhop %yNk ntspg;gLj;Jfpwhd;. nkhopapd; gad;ghbd;wp kdjdhy; cyfpy; tho KbahJ.
me;jtifapy; kdpjdpd; fUj;Jfis cUthf;FtJk; vz;zq;fis cUthf;FtJk; nkhopNa. vz;zq;fis
cUthf;FtJ vd;gJ jdpj;j xU nray;ghL md;W. mJ xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzq;fspd; fl;likg;ghy;
mikf;fg;gLtJ. mj;jifa ,yf;fzf; fl;likg;igf; nfhz;L kdpjd; cyfpYs;s nghUs;fisg; ghFgLj;Jfpwhd;.
Mf nkhopapd; mikg;gpw;F Vw;gr; rpy jd;ikfis Vw;wpr; rKjhaj;jpy; toq;fp tug;gLfpd;wJ.
me;jtifapy; nkhopapd; mikg;ghfNt gz;ghL fl;likf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,U NtWgl;l nkhop mikg;igf;
nfhz;l r%fj;jpduJ cyfg;ghHit> ,U NtWgl;ljhfNt ,Uf;Fk;. ,U NtWgl;l nkhopr; r%fj;jpdupd;
nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLk; nrhw;fs; xd;whf miktjpy;iy. xU nkhopapy; xd;iwg; gw;wp
Vuhskhd nrhw;fSk; NtWnkhopapy; mj;jifa jd;ik ,y;yhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk;. xU nkhopapy;
tpyq;Ffs; gw;wp my;yJ gwitfs; gw;wp cs;s nrhw;fs; NtW nkhopapy; ,y;yhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk;.
 cjhuzk;:

Mq;fpy nkhopapy; cs;s Bun (gd;)> Bread (g;nul;)> Burger (gHfH)> Pizza (gPl;rh)> Biscut
(gp];fl;)> Fried Rice (gpiul; iu];) Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; jkpo;nkhopapy; ,y;iy.
,r;nrhw;fs; Mq;fpNyaHfspd; czTld; njhlHGgl;l nrhw;fshFk;. mNjNghy; jkpo;
nkhopapYs;s $o;> Njhir> ,l;yp> rhk;ghH> Jitay;> nghq;fy; Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd
nrhw;fs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,r;nrhw;fs; jkpoHfspd; gz;ghl;Lld; njhlHGgl;l
nrhw;fshFk;. ,NjNghy; vyg;g> M];kp> Qhdfj;jh> vk;Gs; jpay;> fl;l rk;NghNy> YZ kpup];
Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,it rpq;fs nkhop NgRk; kf;fspd;
gz;ghl;Lld; njhlu;Ggl;l nrhw;fshFk;. ,NjNghy; nkhopapd; ,yf;fzf; $Wfshd jpiz> ghy;> vz;>
,lk; Nghd;wdTk; nkhopf;F nkhop khWgLtjidf; fhzyhk;. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy;
toq;fg;gLk; you vd;w nrhy; aho;g;ghzj; jkpoupd; Ngr;R tof;fpy; gpd;tUkhW
toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

eP - Kd;dpiy xUik

jd;idtpl tajpy; Fiwe;jtHfisAk; rk taJilatu;fisAk; ez;gHfisAk; tpspf;fg;

gad;gLfpd;wJ.

ePH - Kd;dpiy xUik

rk taJilatu;fisAk; MrpupaHfs; khztHfisAk; tpspg;gjw;Fk;

gad;gLfpd;wJ.

ePq;fs; - Kd;dpiy kupahij xUik> gd;ik

jd;id tpl tajpy; ngupatHfisAk; (jha;> je;ijaH) gd;ikg; nghUspy;

tpspg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLfpd;wJ.

aho;g;ghzj; jkpoHfspd; Ngr;R tof;fpy; ,t;thwhd ghFghLfs; ,Ug;gjw;Ff; fhuzk; gz;ghL

MFk;. ez;giu tpspg;gJ Nghy; ngw;NwhiuAk; MrpupaiuAk; tpspj;jy; jkpoH gz;ghlhfhJ.
mNjNghy; MrpupHfs; $l khztHfis kjpg;Gld; tpspf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;fhf ‘ePH’ vd;w
nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;. goq;fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;L kiwe;J Nghd ‘ePH’ vd;w
nrhy;iyj; jw;fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;Jk; Xu; ,dkhf aho;g;ghzj; jkpopdk; tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. MapDk;
Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ,j;jifa xU gz;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;G ,d;ikahy; mtHfs; ,isa rNfhjud; Kjy;
ngw;NwhH> MrpupaH> ez;gH> xUtu; vd midtiuAk; ePH vd tpspg;gjw;F ‘you’ vd;w
nrhy;iyNa gad;gLj;Jfpd;whHfs;. mNjNghy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspNy tof;fpYs;s
cwTKiwr; nrhw;fs; mk;nkhopfs; NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghl;bid vLj;Jiug;gdthf mike;Js;sd.
cjhuzk;:

rpq;fsk; xypngaHg;G jkpo; Mq;fpyk;

whshd ma;ah mz;zh brother (younger)

u,A,s ky;yp jk;gp brother (elder)

wlald mf;fh mf;fh sister (younger)

kx.s eq;fp jq;if sister (elder)

udud khkh khkh uncle

kekaod nee;jh khkp aunty

,r;nrhw;fis Nehf;Ffpd;w nghOJ jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhop cwTKiwr; nrhw;fSf;Fk; Mq;fpy
nkhop cwTKiwr; nrhw;fSf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghL njspthfj; njupfpd;wJ. mt;thwhd
NtWghl;Lf;Ff; fhuzk; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs ,dj;jpd; gz;ghL MFk;. mg;gz;ghL nkhopapy;
njupfpd;wikia Nky;tUk; nrhw;fs; njspthf vLj;J tpsf;Ffpd;wd. vdNt nkhopahdJ gz;ghl;il
ntspf;fhl;Lk; xU fUtp vd;Wk; Fwpg;gplyhk;. ,jdbg;gilapy; Nehf;Ffpd;w nghOJ
xt;nthU rKjhaj;jpd; tho;f;if Kiwf;F Vw;g mr;rKjhak; gad;gLj;Jk; nkhopapy;> nrhw;fs;
,lk;ngw;wpUf;Fk;. tho;f;if Kiw vd;gJ gz;ghl;bd; xU Kf;fpaf; $W MFk;. ,jd; %yk;
rKjhaj;jpw;Fk; gz;ghl;bw;FkpilNa neUq;fpa njhlHG cz;L vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. mjdhy; xU
rKjhaj;jpy; nkhopAk; gz;ghLk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngw;witahff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

6.5. Ngr;R tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;gpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba tof;F gw;wp

njspTgLj;jjy;.

nghJthfg; Ngr;R tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;gpg;gjpy; gyu; gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;.

mjw;Ff; fhuzk; fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w Ngr;R tof;fhFk;. Fwpg;ghf
,yq;ifapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ ,r;rpf;fy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
cjhuzkhf ,d;W ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; nkhopahdJ ehL KOtJk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff;
fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. mt;thW fw;gpf;fpd;w epWtdq;fs; Ngr;R tof;F jkpo; fw;gpg;gjw;fhf
fw;wy; rhjdq;fis tbtikf;fpd;w nghOJ rpy Fwpg;gpl;l gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;fpidg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;whu;fs;.

gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;F vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l gpuNjrj;ijr; Nru;e;jtu;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; tof;fhf

mike;jpUf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> aho;g;ghz gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;fpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd;iua> vd;l
Nghd;w nrhw;fs; kiyafj;jpy; vd;l> VTl;L> vd;Dila vdg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mJNt K];ypk;
kf;fspd; Ngr;R tof;fpy; Vd;l vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,JNghy; ,yq;ifapy; gpuNjrj;Jf;Fg; gpuNjrk;
jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;F NtWgLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;if fw;gpf;f cUthf;fg;gLk;
fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; ,t;thwhd gpuNjr tof;FfNs gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. Mdhy; fw;gpgtu;
midj;Jg; gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;Ffs; gw;wpa mwpitg; ngw;wpUf;fhtpl;lhy; mtuhy; nrhw;fisr;
rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupj;J fw;gpf;f KbahJ. mJ kl;Lkd;wp Ngr;R tof;fpid fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;
khztu;fSf;Fk; mJ rpf;fiy Vw;gLj;Jk;. rpy fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; vOj;J tof;Nf Ngr;R tof;fhff;
fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. khztu;fs; mt;thwhd vOj;J tof;fpid rKjhaj;jpy; jq;fsJ md;whlj;
NjitfSf;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;;whu;fs;.

,yq;ifapy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ midj;Jg;

gpuNjrq;fSf;Fk; nghJthf cs;s Ngr;R tof;fpidg; gad;gLj;jpdhy; fw;gpg;gjw;Fk; ,yFthf
,Uf;Fk;. fw;gpg;gjw;Fk; ,yFthf ,Uf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> vd;l> thq;f Nghd;w nrhw;fisg;
gad;gLj;jpdhy; kpf ,yFthf fw;gpf;fyhk;> fw;fyhk;> gad;gLj;jyhk;. MfNt ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj;
jkpo;f; fw;gpg;gjw;F vy;yhg; gpuNjrq;fSf;Fk; gad;gLj;j Vw;wtifapy; nghJthd xU Ngr;R
tof;fpidg; gad;gLj;Jjy; mtrpakhFk;.