INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SKILLS

STUDENT MANUAL

COMPILED BY C. MOCHOGE

Cleophas Mochoge Page 1

CCM 201: COMPUTERS SKILLS

Course Instructor: Cleophas O. Mochoge

Purpose: To introduce the student to the fundamental concepts in computer.

Course Objectives
By the end of the course the student should be able to:
1. Understand the various areas of application of computers in business enterprises.
2. Understand the history and essential features of computers
3. Gain practical skills on the use of various applications such as Word, Excel, Database etc.
Course outline:
1. Introduction to Computers:
 Definition of a computer and computer systems.
 Categories of computers
 Generations of computers
 Features/ characteristics of computers
 Application of computers
 Advantages and disadvantages of computers
 Levels of programming language

2. Computer Hardware
 Hardware definitions and portability
 The desktop and hardware components
 The central processing unit(CPU)
 The computer memory-RAM and ROM
 Input and output devices
 Storage devices
3. Computer Software
 Definitions and types of software
 Systems and applications software in business
 Categories of software
 Using software to access to access the WWW
 Database management Systems
 Data vs Information and their Uses
 Utility programs
4. Number system
 Introduction
 Decimal Number System
 Binary-decimal Conversion

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  Binary Addition
 Binary Subtraction

 Complements
o 9’s complement
o 10’s complement
o 1’s complement
o 2’s Complement
 Signed and unsigned number representations
 Fixed-point representation of numbers
 Floating point representation of numbers
 Binary to Octal Conversion
 Octal to Binary Conversion
 Binary to Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Binary

5. Computer in Information Technology

 Computer and Communication systems
 The system concepts and definitions
 Elements of computers and communication systems
 Networks & Network Topologies
 The digital age and society
 Impact of computer in education and society
 Communications and Technological convergence
 Telecommunications and use of online resources
 Computers and ICT
6. Operating systems
 definitions, classification and types
 functions of an operating system(OS)
 choosing the best operating system for Computer
 MS-DOS,MS Windows(95, 98,2000/XP/2003)
 Windows NT and UNIX
 Advantages and disadvantages of OS

7. Practical on business application packages

 MS Word, MS Excel,
 SQL server programming
 Projects to be done and presented in diskettes

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TEACHING METHODOLOGY:
 Lectures
 Tutorials
 Analysis and Development exercises
 Lab Practical

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT:
Course text, Handouts, White board, Presentation slides, Journals, Internet

ASSESSMENT STRATEGY:
Continuous Assessment Tests : 30%
End –of-semester examination : 70%
Total : 100%

Core Reading Materials

Operating Systems 2nd edition(1997)
Pradeep K. Sinha and Priti Sinha, “Computer Fundamentals: Fourth Edition”, BPB Publications,
2007.
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Richard F. Gilberg, “COMPUTER SCIENCE – A Structured
Programming approach using C”, Indian Edition, Thomson 3rd edition
Peter Norton's introduction to computers / Peter Norton. New Delhi : Tata McGraw-Hill, 2001.
xxx, 610 p.
Recommended Reference Materials:
Digital electronics and logic design / B. Somanathan Nair. New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India,
c2002. xiv, 434 p
Fundamentals of digital electronics and microprocessors : [for B.E./B.Tech., B.I.T., B.C.A.,
M.C.A., A.M.I.E., I.E.T.E. and B.Sc. (Computer Science & Information Technology) students of
all Indian universities] / Anokh Singh, A. K. Chhabra. New Delhi : S. Chand & Company, 2003.
Database System Concepts” by Abraham Silberschatz, Hendry F Korth, S. Sudharshan Fifth
Edition MC Graw Hill International edition-1997

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1. Discuss the computer 6. Describe the categories of

Overview generations computers and their uses
2. Define the term computer 7. Identify the various types of
3. Explain the importance of computer users
computer literacy
4. Identify the components of a
computer
5. Explain the characteristics of
computer
6. Explain why a computer is a
powerful tool

Although computers are thought to be modern devices, centuries ago many people contributed to
their development. Charles Babbage, for example, in 1882, development the structure of a
computing device that was the basic of modern computer. Samwel Morse invented telegraph in
1837, GEORGE Boole the Boolean Algebra in 1850, Alexander Graham Bell the telegram in
1876, Gugliemo Marconi the Radio in 1896 were all the 19th century inventors that contributed to
the development of today's computer.

FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS 1946-1956(The Vacuum Tube Years)

The earliest computing device was the Abacus which was invented more than 2000 years
ago. Its still used in Asia to perform complex calculations. The first electronic computer build for
general data processing was invented by Remington Rand, a SU company, for the US Bureau of
the census in 1951. These first computers used vacuum tubes that looked like ca head light bulbs.
Vacuum tubes were invented the same time the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison and
worked very similar to light bulbs. It's purpose was to act like an amplifier and a switch.
Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes could take very weak signals and make the signal
stronger (amplify it). Vacuum tubes could also stop and start the flow of electricity instantly
(switch). These two properties made the ENIAC computer possible.
The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to be cooled by gigantic air conditioners.
They were slow and took a lot of space. It had less power than today’s digital watch, took up a
large room and contained thousands of vacuum tubes. These computers were programmed
using machine codes which is computers native language and requires no translation. It is
difficult to read these codes and write them.
Later on, the assembler language was developed which was easier to write programs. A
translator, called an assembler, converted the code into a machine code. It was still difficult,
however, its still used when very efficient and compact code is required. In 1954, the IBM
designed the first high level programming language which requires a compiler to generate the
equivalent machine code. It was argued such a language could not produce efficient code.

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However, FORTRAN (Formula Translation) was designed to generate efficient machine code.
High level languages are much easier than assembly language.

Characteristics:
i. They are very large in size
ii. Produce a lot of heat
iii. They used magnetic drums to store data.
iv. They used punched cards as their input device
v. Breakdown chances were so high.
vi. They required experts to run them e.g. Universal Automated Computers (UNIVAC)
vii. Speed was 40,000 operation/second, for data processing.

SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS 1957-1963(The Era of the Transistor)

More computer, faster, reliable and less expensive computers replaced the vacuum tube PDP-1
was one of the earliest members of this new generation .It did not require very tightly controlled
environments and was faster and cheaper than the earlier ones. They could be located in offices
and factories.
When the first communication satellite, the Telstar, was launched it opened the way to remote
computing and networks IBM developed their mainframe computers with a shared operating
system a firm could upgrade their computer systems without changing their software which was
very expensive. This turned out to save much and hence became popular in the market.
Early computers used magnetic core memories and relied on magnetic tapes and punched
cards for input. The disk drive emerged towards the end of the second generation. Features like
the ability to hold a dialogue with your compute and time sharing, found in today’s computers
were developed in the second generation.

Characteristics:
i. It was more reliable compared to the first generation computers
ii. They are small in size than first generation computers
iii. The internal memory was in form of magnetic tape.
iv. Data processing speed was 200,000 operation per second.
e.g. Atlas and IBM
THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS 1964-1971(Integrated Circuits - Miniaturizing the
Computer)
The introduction of IBM’s system 360 series in 1964 marked the beginning of the 3rd
generation. The integrated circuit had many discrete electronic components such as transistors,
resistors and diodes were fabricated on the same silicon chip or water or crystal. It increased
speed, reduced cost and size and made it easier to construct computers with off-the-shelf
integrated circuits. The modern monitor (Cathode Ray Tube) begun to be used for both input and
output. Pascal was developed by Nicholas Wirth in 1971.

Characteristics:
i. They used magnetic tapes for output.

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 ii. Their processing speed was about 1million operation per second.
iii. They had higher internal storage capacity
iv. It had multitasking capability.

FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS1972-2010s(The Microprocessor)

The invention of very large-scale integrated circuit led the way to the development of the
revolutionary processor, which shrank the size of computers by a quantum leap. Computers
would now be placed on office desks or even loaded in briefcases and carried home or on a
journey. They became much cheaper. Today, micro-computers are more powerful than the first
mainframes. The following events took place in this generation.
 Intel corporation developed the first microprocessor (the humble 4004). In 1971 Xerox
introduced the first ‘user-friendly’ programming language called small talk, still used for
pro-typing today.
 Microsoft was formed in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul Allen.
 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak formed Apple in 1977.
 Viscalc, the first electronic spreadsheet was developed by Dan Briklin and Dan Fylstra.
 Wordstar was developed by Seymour Rubenstein
 IBM introduced its famous personal computer PC in 1981
 Apple introduced its Macintosh computer in 1984.
 Intel developed the 32-bit 80386 microprocessor in 1986 and the Pentium processor in
1993. Its current processor is the Pentium III.
UNIX, DOS, Windows and MacOS are all operating systems emerged in the 4th generation.
Communication and networking spread rapidly with the development of Ethernet in the
1980’s. The Internet, a new computer network created in the US in 1969 begun. World Wide
Web was invented in 1992 by Dr Tim Berners Lee of the European Partical Physical lab
(CERN) ushered in the beginning of the 5th generation.

Characteristics:
i. They are small in size e.g. laptops.
ii. They have higher level of multitasking.
iii. It has a higher processing speed.
iv. It has a higher internal storage capacity.
v. They are made by specific companies e.g. Toshiba, HP, Compaq

THE FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS (2010s- Current)

The web is a system of information servers on the internet. Millions of interconnected
computers world-wide constitute the internet. The Internet is a Wide Area Network and is
different from other Wide Area Networks (WANs) in that computers on the Internet use a
communication procedure or protocol called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP).
Characteristics:
i. They are predicted to human capacity.

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 ii. Their key feature will be artificial intelligence i.e perform tasks that requires them to
think.
iii. They will accept voice as input and output.
iv. The input will also be from a remote device.

Definition of a computer
A computer is a programmable machine. It is a fast electronic calculating machine that accepts
data, processes it according to a set of internally stored instructions and produces the resultant
output information. The two principle characteristics of a computer are:
 It responds to specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
 It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).

Definition:
A computer therefore can be defined as device that operates upon information or data. Data
can be anything given and accepted by the computer as input. Data comes in various shapes
and sizes depending upon the type of computer application. A computer can store, process
and retrieve data as and when desired.

Information Technology.
"Information Technology," and is pronounced "I.T." It refers to anything related to
computing technology, such as networking, hardware, software, the Internet, or the people
that work with these technologies.

Information technologies (IT) are tools used to build information systems. Information
technologies include hardware, software, database, networks, and other related components.
Information systems use and integrate these technologies to meet the information needs of
different users. The information technology, then, must support the goal of the information
system, which is to provide accurate, timely, relevant, complete, well-formatted information
that users value.

Computer literacy is the knowledge and understanding of computer systems and the ways
they function. It focuses primarily on knowledge of information technology. This knowledge
includes an understanding of computer terminology, recognition of the strengths and
weaknesses of the computer, and an ability to use the computer.
Information systems literacy is knowledge of how and why data, information, knowledge,
computer, and information technology are used by organizations and individuals.
Information system
An information system is a specialized type of system and can be defined in a number of
different ways. An information system can be defined technically as a set of interrelated
information technology components that collect (or retrieve), process, store, and distribute
data and information and provide a feedback/control mechanism to meet an objective. From a
business perspective, information systems can be defined as a combination of hardware,
software, and telecommunications networks which people build and use to collect, create,
and distribute useful data and information, typically in organizational settings. Information

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 systems support managers and workers make decisions, control operations, analyze
problems, visualize complex subjects, and create new products and services. An information
system contains information about an organization and its surrounding environment.

All general-purpose computers require the following components:

Central processing unit (CPU) - The heart of the computer, the component that actually
executes instructions.
Memory- Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs.
Input device- Usually a keyboard or mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data
and instructions enter a computer.
Output device- A display screen, printer, or other such devices that lets you see what the
computer has accomplished.

Impact Printers use metal pins to strike an inked ribbon to make dots on a piece of paper. It has
the lowest print quality of all of the printers. It is rarely used today because of the poor print
quality, but still used in business to print multi-part forms Examples include dot matrix and
daisy wheel printers.
Non-Impact printers use drops of magnetic inked cartridges to produce dots on a page to
produce text or images. The print quality is almost the same as a laser printer's. The only
Problem is with the ink; it is very expensive. The ink is water soluble and will run if the paper
gets wet. For producing color documents, it has the highest quality at a reasonable price. They
include inkjets, laser, and thermal printers

Mass storage device- Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common
mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
Elementary Structure of a Computer

Functional/Logical parts of a digital computer

The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system. All other computer
system devicessystem
Computer are called peripherals, and are connected directly or indirectly into the system
unit.

CPU

Communication
Devices

System Unit
Control Arithmetic &
Unit Logic Unit
Input Registers (storage area) Output
Devices Devices

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 Main Memory
(Primary storage)

Secondary
Storage Devices

 Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer that processes data.
Consists of main memory, the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/
processing.
 Control Unit – Controls execution of programs.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program
instructions.
 Registers – These are high-speed storage circuitry that holds the instruction and the data
while the processor is executing the instruction.

 Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.

 Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is
processed by the computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.

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 Storage capacity abbreviations

 KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand)

 MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million)
 GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)
 TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)

Communication devices
 Modem - Modems allow computers (digital devices) to communicate via the phone
system (based on analog technology). It turns the computers digital data into analog,
sends it over the phone line, and then another modem at the other end of the line turns
the analog signal back into digital data.
 Fax/modem - basic digital/analog modem enhanced with fax transmission hardware that
enables faxing of information from computer to another fax/modem or a fax machine
(NOTE: a separate scanner must be connected to the computer in order to use the
fax/modem to transfer external documents)

Computer Memory
Memory capability is one of the features that distinguish a computer from other electronic
devices. Like the CPU, memory is made of silicon chips containing circuits holding data
represented by on or off electrical states, or bits. Eight bits together form a byte. Memory is
usually measured in megabytes or gigabytes.

A kilobyte is roughly 1,000 bytes. Specialized memories, such as cache memories, are
typically measured in kilobytes. Often both primary memory and secondary storage capacities
today contain megabytes, or millions of bytes, of space.

Types of Memory
Volatile Memory types Non Volatile

RAM ROM

DRAM SDRAM EDO PROM EPROM

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also referred to as
main memory, primary storage or internal memory. Its content can be read and can be
changed and is the working area for the user. It is used to hold programs and data during

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 processing. RAM chips are volatile, that is, they loose their contents if power is
disrupted.
Typical sizes of RAM include 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB and 512MB.
a. EDO – Extended Data Out
b. DRAM – Dynamic RAM
c. SDRAM – Synchronous

22 ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and cannot be changed.
ROM chips is non-volatile, so the contents aren’t lost if the power is disrupted. ROM
provides permanent storage for unchanging data & instructions, such as data from the
computer maker. It is used to hold instructions for starting the computer called the
bootstrap program.

ROM: chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit states, are set by the
manufacturer and cannot be changed. States are permanently manufactured into the chip.

PROM: the settings must be programmed into the chip. After they are programmed,
PROM behaves like ROM – the circuit states can’t be changed. PROM is used when
instructions will be permanent, but they aren’t produced in large enough quantities to
make custom chip production (as in ROM) cost effective. PROM chips are, for
example, used to store video game instructions.

Instructions are also programmed into erasable programmable read-only memory.

However, the contents of the chip can be erased and the chip can be reprogrammed.
EPROM chips are used where data and instructions don’t change often, but non-
volatility and quickness are needed. The controller for a robot arm on an assembly line
is an example of EPROM use.

a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is written onto only once using
special devices. Used mostly in electronic devices such as alarm systems.
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –Can be written onto
more than once.

3. Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor can access more
quickly than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored in cache since they can be retrieved
more quickly, improving the overall performance of the computer. Level 1 (L1) cache is
located on the processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located between the processor and RAM.

Control Bus
The control bus is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of the other functional areas
of the computer. It is used to transmit a variety of individual signals (read, write, interrupt,
acknowledge, and so forth) necessary to control and coordinate the operations of the
computer.

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Data Bus
The bidirectional data bus, sometimes called the memory bus, handles the transfer of all data and
instructions between functional areas of the computer. The bidirectional data bus can only
transmit in one direction at a time. The data bus is used to transfer instructions from memory to
the CPU for execution. It carries data (operands) to and from the CPU and memory as
required by instruction translation. The data bus is also used to transfer data between memory
and the I/O section during input/output operations.
Address Bus
The address bus consists of all the signals necessary to define any of the possible memory
address locations within the computer, or for modular memories any of the possible memory
address locations within a module. An address is defined as a label, symbol, or other set of
characters used to designate a location or register where information is stored. Before data or
instructions can be written into or read from memory by the CPU or I/O sections, an address
must be transmitted to memory over the address bus.
 Buffers are inbuilt to the CPU and the other input/out devices to provide temporary storage
for input and output data to free the CPU for other processes.
 Registers are high-speed areas inside the CPU that store data serially temporarily just before
and after processing.
 Cache memory are used in high speed processors to store copies of frequently used
instructions for the CPU to access them instead of accessing the programs from the slow
DRAM or Hard disk.

INPUT HARDWARE
Input unit consist of devices that translate data into a form the computer can process(machine
language or computer language).The people-readable form may be words, but the computer-
readable form consists of 0s and 1s or ON/OFF electrical signals.
Input hardware may be categorized into types
Keyboards
Pointing devices
Source data-entry devices
KEYBOARDS
A Keyboard is a device that converts letters, numbers , and other characteristics into
electrical signals that are machine-readable by the computer’s processor. It may look like a
typewriter to which some special keys have been added or it may look like the keys on a bank
a ATM.
POINTING DEVICES
Pointing devices control the position of the curser or pointer on the screen. They include
 Mice, trackballs, pointing sticks and touch pads.
 Light pens
 Digitized tablets
 Pen-based systems
SOURCE DATA-ENTRY DEVICES
They refer to the many forms of data entry-devices that are not keyboards or pointing devices.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

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The central processing unit or processor consist of two units: the control unit and the arithmetic
and logical unit(ALU).

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

The ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations on data passing through it. Arithmetic
instructions include, addition, subtraction, division etc while logical instruction include logical
AND, logical OR and shift operations.
CONTROL UNIT
The main function of the control unit is to fetch, decode and execute the successful instructions
of a program stored in the memory; it sequences the operation of the entire system. In particular
it generates and manages the control signals necessary to synchronizes operations, as well as the
flow of the program instructions and data within and outside the ALU. The CU controls the flow
of information on the address and data buses, and interprets and manages signals presented on
the control bus. The three standard buses use to interconnect a microprocessor system are the
data bus, and the control bus. The control bus is generally connected to the ALU and the CU is
known as the central processing unit (CPU).Thus microprocessor is basically A CPU on a chip.
It consists of:
22 An 8-bit register known as instruction register. Instructions from the address bus are
loaded into this register which is made ready for the instruction decoder.
22 Instruction decoder which decodes the instruction received from the instruction register
and directs the control unit to produce the necessary control signals.

Language translators
Although machine language is the only language the CPU understands, it is rarely used anymore
since it is so difficult to use. Every program that is not written in machine language must be
translated into machine language before it can be executed. This is done by a category of
system software called language translation software. These are programs that convert the code
originally written by the programmer, called source code, into its equivalent machine language
program, called object code.
There are two main types of language translators: interpreters and compilers.

Interpreters
While a program is running, interpreters read, translate, and execute one statement of the
program at a time. The interpreter displays any errors immediately on the monitor. Interpreters
are very useful for people learning how to program or debugging a program. However, the line-
by-line translation adds significant overhead to the program execution time leading to slow
execution.

Compilers

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A compiler uses a language translation program that converts the entire source program into
object code, known as an object module, at one time. The object module is stored and it is the
object module that executes when the program runs. The program does not have to be compiled
again until changes are made in the source code.

Software trends and issues

Open source software coming to the scene. This is software that is freely available to anyone
and can be easily modified. The use of open source software has increased dramatically due to
the World Wide Web. Users can download the source code from web sites. Open source
software is often more reliable than commercial software because there are many users
collaborating to fix problems. The biggest problem with open source software is the lack of
formal technical support. However, some companies that package open source software with
various add-ons and sell it with support are addressing this. An example of this is Red Hat
Linux operating system.

Data resources
Data
Data the raw material for information is defined as groups of non-random symbols that represent
quantities, actions, objects etc. In information systems data items are formed from characters that
may be alphabetical, numeric, or special symbols. Data items are organized for processing
purposes into data structures, file structures and databases. Data relevant to information
processing and decision-making may also be in the form of text, images or voice.

Information
Information is data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to the recipient and is
of real or perceived value in current or prospective actions or decisions. It is important to note
that data for one level of an information system may be information for another. For example,
data input to the management level is information output of a lower level of the system such as
operations level. Information resources are reusable. When retrieved and used it does not lose
value: it may indeed gain value through the credibility added by use.

The value of information is described most meaningfully in the context of a decision. If there
were no current or future choices or decisions, information would be unnecessary. The value of
information in decision-making is the value of change in decision behaviour caused by the
information less the cost of obtaining the information. Decisions however are usually made
without the “right” information. The reasons are:

 The needed information is unavailable

 The effort to acquire the information is too great or too costly.
 There is no knowledge of the availability of the information.
 The information is not available in the form needed.

Much of the information that organizations or individuals prepare has value other than in
decision-making. The information may also be prepared for motivation and background
building.

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TYPES OF COMPUTERS
There are three types of computers:
 Analog
 Digital
 Hybrid

Digital computers
They are computers that process data that is represented in the form of discrete values (e.g.
0123..) by operating on it in steps. Or they are computers that operate on information in binary
form. Digital data consists of data represented by on/off,1/1, true/false. They are computers
deigned to process data in numerical form.
In general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can solve most complex
equations at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable
fraction of the speed of light. On the other hand, the precision of analog computers is not good;
they are limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision.

Analog computers
Analog means continuously varying in strength and /or quantity. Sound, light, temperature, and
pressure can fall anywhere along a range. Analog computers are akin to measuring instruments
such as thermometers and voltmeters with pointers on circular dials. They process data in the
form of electrical voltages; which are variable like the variable positions of a pointer n a dial.
The output of analog computes is often in smooth graphs from which information can be read.
Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs
are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical
variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs.

Analog computers operate by measuring rather than counting. Analog computers refers to
gradual type of change rather than changes in the form of steps which can be counted digitally.
An example of a simple mechanical computer is the moving pointer type speedometer of any
automobile vehicle.

In general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can solve most complex
equations at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable
fraction of the speed of light. On the other hand, the precision of analog computers is not good;
they are limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision.

Hybrid computers
Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital
computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical
operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.
Note that hybrid computers should be distinguished from hybrid systems. The latter may be no
more than a digital computer equipped with an analog-to-digital converter at the input and/or a

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digital-to-analog converter at the output, to convert analog signals for ordinary digital signal
processing, and conversely, e.g., for driving physical control systems, such as servomechanisms.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word
processing

Classification by generation
This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological advances.
The computers are categorized as First generation through to Fifth generation.

a) First generation. Computers of the early 1940s. Used a circuitry of wires and vacuum
tubes. Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of space, were very slow and expensive.
Examples are LEO 1 and UNIVAC 1.

b) Second generation. Computers of the early 1950s. Made use of transistors and thus were
smaller and faster. (200KHz). Examples include the IBM system 1000.

c) Third generation. Computers of the 1960s. Made use of Integrated Circuits. Speeds of up
to 1MHz. Examples include the IBM system 360.

d) Fourth generation. Computers of the 1970s and 1980s. Used Large Scale Integration
(LSI) technology. Speeds of up to 10MHz. Examples include the IBM 4000 series.

e) Fifth generation. Computers of the 1990s. Use Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
technology and have speeds up to 400MHz and above.

Classification by power and size/ configuration

22 Supercomputers. the largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data
very quickly. Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include
Cray and Fujitsu.

22 Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a
carefully controlled environment and specialist staff to operate them. It used for
centralized processing for large commercial organizations. Manufacturers include
International Business Machine (IBM).

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 22 Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes
and microcomputers. Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the
main computer in medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include
IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL).

22 Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure
activities. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They include
desktops, laptops and palmtops.

Data representation in computers

Data exists as electrical voltages in a computer. Since electricity can exist in 2 states, on or off,
binary digits are used to represent data. Binary digits, or bits, can be “0” or “1”. The bit is the
basic unit of representing data in a digital computer.

A bit is either a 1 or a 0. These correspond to two electronic/magnetic states of ON (1) and OFF
(0) in digital circuits which are the basic building blocks of computers. All data operated by a
computer and the instructions that manipulate that data must be represented in these units. Other
units are a combination of these basic units. Such units include:

 1 byte (B) = 23 bits = 8 bits – usually used to represent one character e.g. ‘A’
1 kilobyte (KB) – 210 bytes = 1024 bytes (usually considered as 1000 bytes)
 1 megabyte (MB)– 220 bytes = 1048576 bytes (usually considered as 1000000
bytes/1000 KB)
 1 gigabyte (GB)– 230 bytes = 1073741824 bytes (usually considered as 1,000,000,000
bytes/1000 MB)
 1 terabyte (TB) – 240 bytes = 1099511627776 bytes (usually considered as one trillion
bytes/1000 GB)

Bit

This refers to a binary digit used to represent data in a digital computer. A bit may be a “0”

or a “1”.

Byte

This refers to a combination of 8 bits used to represent characters (e.g. the letter ‘A’) in a

digital computer.

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Bit patterns (the pattern of 1s or 0s found in the bytes) represent various kinds of data:
 Numerical values (using the binary number system)
 Text/character data (using the ASCII coding scheme)
 Program instructions (using the machine language)
 Pictures (using such data formats as gif, jpeg, bmp and wmf)
 Video (using such data formats as avi, mov and mpeg)

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
All computers have certain common characteristics irrespective of their type and sizes. They can
be programmed to do complex, tedious and monotonous tasks. Computers are what they are
because of the following characteristics:
1. Word length
A digital computer operates on binary digits 0s and 1s. It can understand information only in
terms of 0s and 1s. A binary digit is called a bit. A group of 8 bits is called a byte. The
number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called its word length.
Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. World length is the measure of the
computing power of a computer.
2. Speed
Computers can calculate at very high speeds. A microcomputer, for example, can execute
millions of instructions per second over and over again without any mistake. As the power of
a computer increases, the speed also increases.
3. Storage
Computers have their main memory and auxiliary memory systems. A computer can store a
large amount of data. With more and more auxiliary storage devices, which are capable of
storing huge amounts of data, the storage capacity of a computer is virtually unlimited.
4. Accuracy
The accuracy of a computer is very high. Errors in hardware can occur, but error detecting
and correcting techniques will prevent false results. In most cases, the errors are due to the
human factors rather than the technological.
5. Versatility
Computers are versatile machines. They can perform activities ranging from simple
calculations to performing complex CAD modeling and simulation to navigating missiles and
satellites. In other words, they are capable of performing almost any task, provided the task
can be reduced to a series of logical steps (program).

6. Automation
The level of automation achieved in a computer is phenomenal. Once a task is initiated,
computers can proceed on its own till its completion. Computers are capable of these levels
of automation, provided they are programmed correctly.
7. Diligence

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 Diligence means being constant and earnest in effort and application. Human beings suffer
from weaknesses like tiredness, lack of concentration, etc. Human beings have feelings, they
become sad, dressed, bored, and negligent and it will reflect on the work they do.
Moreover human beings cannot perform the same task over and over again with the same
precision, accuracy and enthusiasm as the first time.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Due to the versatility of the computer, it has been applied in various areas like industries and
commerce in process control, health care, in Government institutions, education sectors,
communication industry, police and defense, in multimedia applications, home and leisure
and employment.
1. In Government Institutions
Computers are heavily used in Government ministries such as Finance, planning, education
etc. to store Government records and improve the efficiency of work within the civil services.
Government agencies such as Tax departments, customs and utility companies such as KPLC
all use computers to keep their records and produce bills and statements. Computers helps in
easy retrieval of Government files in registers.
2. Health Care
Medical automation offer assistance in areas of automatic diagnosis, electro-cardiogram
screening and monitoring. Doctors also retrieve specialized opinion from computer storage.
Medical records are also today stored and retrieved from computers for patient management
purposes.
In medicine today, computers are used for everything from diagnosing illness to monitoring
patients during surgery and controlling permanent prostheses.
3. Process Control
Computers are also used in the production environment to control chemical and mechanical
process. Under these applications, each computer has to be constructed to do a specific job.
They are designed to respond quickly to changes in input measurements.
4. Industry and Commerce
Computers have been used in commerce and industry sector to make work more efficient,
productive and reliable. Leading companies are using computing technology as a competitive
tool to develop products and services and in forgoing new relationships with suppliers to and
edge out competitors. Competitors are also being used in inventory management, process and
quality control and optimization schedule.
5. Education and Research
Computers are also used in education as teaching aids, and research institutions. Long
distance using computers has reduced the old correspondence courses offered by postage. In
aviation, computers are used in training pilots and flight simulators which monitor the control
movements made by pilots. Engineers also use computers to design and redesign their work.
6. Communications Industry
Computers are used in every aspect of telecommunications i.e telephone exchange today
relies on computer to switch incoming and outgoing calls. Railway corporations relies on
computers to coordinate movement of their wagons and goods. In air-line industry.
Computers are used to control air traffic and surveillance of airspace using radar equipment.

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 7. Police and Defense
Police and defense nowadays use computers in fighting crime. Police are able to keep
database on fingerprints which are automatically analyzed by computers. Also computer
based on face recognition and scene monitoring and analysis help in the police force leading
to arrest of traffic offenders and criminals. In defense, computers are used in electronic news
gathering, detection and tracking of targets, radar systems, and guided missile systems.
8. Multimedia Applications
Multimedia presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running
slide shows. Musicians and singers have teamed up with computers to create amazing range
of instruments and sounds simply by playing a keyboard. The musical instrument digital
interface (MIDI) is a system that synchronizes hardware and software that produces
electronic tones.
9. Computers at Home
Computers have found their way into the household. Most of the household appliances and
gadgets have computers in them. The computers which fine tunes the images in your
television, which automates your washing machine and microwave oven are examples
revolutions that is happening

Advantages and disadvantages of using a computer in an organization.

Computer systems have many advantages, some of which are listed as follows:
a) Computers operate at high speed, hence there may be cost savings e.g. staff costs, equipment
costs etc.
b) Computers produce accurate results (information).
c) Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
d) Computers can work on voluminous data items.
e) Computers can work on any problem (solve any problem), provided that relevant instructions set
(program) are availed to them.
f) Computers are flexible, (i.e. they can adapt to any workload without much strain).
g) Computers produce reliable information.
h) Large volumes of data can be conveniently stored, assessed and altered.
i) Computers can provide useful information to management for control and decision-making.
j) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
k) Computer systems can reduce the number of persons required for performing various
organizational activities.
l) The use of computers for office activities reduces the requirements of office space.

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As much as we say that computers are useful to humans, they come with some disadvantages are given
as follows:
a) A computer are costly, and if it is more efficient and effective to carry out the processing
tasks without employing the use of computers, then computerization is needless. Computer
prices have gone down tremendously, however, but they are still out of reach for many
poor people.
b) Due to rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can
become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
c) Changing from the old system, the manual system, to a computerized system is a gradual
process during which there is interruption in the normal working environment.
d) There is usually the fear that installing the computer into an organization might result in
replacing some human employees.
e) In case the computer system fails, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the old
manual system. For this reason, stand-by procedures are necessary, though they are
expensive.
f) Controlling a computer file’s contents is a difficult exercise due to the fact that the contents
of files of computer based systems are non-human sensible.
g) There is further fear that computer file contents may suffer from fraudulent acts by the
people who know them.
h) Manual systems, though slow, are more flexible as compared to the computerized systems.
i) Employees may resist the adoption of computers by organizations in which they work

Interrupts are usually caused by:-

 Power failure
 Errors e.g. arithmetic/logic operations
 Hardware multifunction
 User request

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