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ABSTRACT
This paper summarizes the search for the Peaks of
Eternal Light (PELs) on the lunar South Pole. Already
predicted in the 19th century, the question of existence of
such peaks has revived after the Clementine and Lunar
Prospector missions and detailed ground based radar
imagery. These peaks can be considered primary targets
for future robotic or manned missions. For the first time
now, a detailed analysis has been made of the existence,
whereabouts and characteristics of these peaks. Also
tools have been developed to analyse the surface and
slopes of the polar areas at pixel-level based on orbital
imagery. Mission planners of the arising multitude of
(commercial) lunar or Mercury missions can use this
information and these tools to derive engineering
implications.
DPEL
h
0m
No PEL exists
0m
0 km R-> 20
km
Fig. 2: Maximum polar PEL diameter D [m], function of
lander height h [m] and local surface radius r [km]
50
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
40 S ub S olar L ongi tud e
60 200
Pixel value
80
150
100 3
120
1 2 100
140
50
160
180 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sub Solar Lo ngitude
50 100 150 200 250
200
Pixel value
Fig. 4: Cumulative image & identified areas month 1 150
2
100
Identified Illumin Max Best pixel Max Coordinat
site ation Pixel of area Pixel es
50
value value
Area1 ~72% 100 (137,87) 65 89.43S
0
Month1 140W 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sub Solar Longitude
Area1 91% 130 (131,157) 60
Month2 Fig. 5: 'MIS': Pixels of Month 2, Area 2. (121,177), (122,177)
Area2 71% 110 (120,131) 100 89.69S (best pixel), (124,177). Clearly a East-West ridge is
Month1 163W displayed, (122,177) being the top with slopes to both sides.
Area2 ~90% 255 (122,177) 85
Month2
Area3 67% 245 (107,130) 100 89.79S 135
Month1 158W
Table 3: Main conclusions
140
The reflection intensity is depending on the angle
between Sun and orbiter (around 90 degrees), the slope
of the surface, reflection coefficient of the surface and 145
the surface roughness. Hapke8 has developed the
generally accepted model for lunar bi- directional
150
reflection. From this function it can be understood that
for the Clementine images, the reflection will be higher if
a slope is steeper. Therefore, while the Sun is turning
155
around the horizon, the SSL of the highest reflection in a 75 80 85 90 95
MIS will coincide with the slope direction. The MIS is
thus a powerful tool to characterise slopes, and, when Fig. 6: Zoom on Area 1, Month 1. The 8 black pixels are
illuminated most often (first month images): (137,87),
following the slopes up, to locate a mountain top (Fig. 6). (141,87), (143,87), (144,87), (145,86), (145,87), (146,86),
As the PEL is itself so small and dark, it can not be (147,86). Best pixel is (137,87). Indicated are slope directions
noticed directly and will not necessarily be the pixel with and relative angles from the MIS (see text).
highest cumulative score. However, from the MIS, its
whereabouts can be deduced indirectly. The PEL is A preliminary calculation yields a slope estimate of 9° at
expected in the pixel with the lowest maximum the penumbra center, 1.4 km from the PEL, i.e. a circular
reflection or slope: signs of a flat mountain top. As peak shape would have a radius of 13 km.
expected such pixels are found close to the pixels with From Fig. 2 it can be seen that a typical lander height is
highest cumulative score. In fig. 5, (122,177) is a pixel not sufficient for ‘eternal light’. In fact, the panels need
that shows two very small peaks at 180d apart, indicating to be at a height of 5 m for minimal landing site diameter
two opposite slopes, or actually: the top of a ridge! The DPEL. One can however choose to increase the landing
tops were identified precisely and located on a high-res site diameter by building a structure of say 20 m. [Due to
image (40 m), Fig. 8. the low lunar gravity this may not even be so hard to
[13] explains in more details other data that can be achieve]. If so, the acceptable landingsite is of 700 m
extracted from these plots. Of potential importance is the diameter.
method developed to calibrate the slope angles and
estimate the surface curvature from penumbra size, that
can be easily identified in the MIS.
DEM development and Lunar Visibiliy Calculator • Automated topographic analysis using the MIS-tool
In order to make all-year round predictions of the PEL • LVC statistical visibility analysis on recent DEM
lighting from just the wintertime data of Clementine, from Cornell university radar interferometry10.
both a physical 3D model (scale 1:300,000) as well as a • PEL search on the lunar North Pole and the Poles of
DEM of the lunar South Pole were produced, in a rather Mercury
unique way - by matching shadows from a radar image
of the Arecibo observatory to those projected on a wax Acknowledgments & contact:
model by a carefully oriented beam of a parallel spot Work was funded by ESA/ESTEC, TUD and Delta-Utec. This paper is
light7 [Fig 7]. The following tools were developed that a summary and update of the paper [13], thanks to the co-authors and to
Paul Spudis (LPI), Ben Bussey (ESTEC), Quirien Wijnands (TUD) and
can process the DEM and can very well be applied to the Saina Ghandchi (CalSpace).
recently published DEMs from Margot10.
• Lunar Visibility Calculator (taking into account References
1. Clementine Webpage: http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/expmoon/
topography, shadowing/communication, ground clementine/clementine.html.
stations, lander, rover, DRS etc)2,4 2 Kruijff, M. Visibilities and lighting conditions on a modelled
• Synthetic (digital) shadow recreation using Hapke's lunar surface, EWP 1819, ESA/ESTEC/WGS, Noordwijk,
reflection function and fractal surface overlay to Netherlands 1995.
3 Lunar Prospector Webpage: lunar.arc.nasa.gov.
create all-year round/all angle realistic lunar surface 4 Kruijff, M., Ockels, W.J., Lunar Visibilities and Lighting
images for demonstration, verification and pattern Conditions, 26th LPSC, Houston, March 1995.
recognition purpose7,13. 5 Spudis, P.D., Stockstill, K.R., Ockels, W.J., Kruijff, M., Physical
It was seen that a shift of 30% in elevation results in Environment of the Lunar South Pole from Clementine data:
implications for future exploration of the Moon, 26th LPSC,
~20% of a month more illumination. Taking into account Houston, March 1995.
the findings of [2], it is imaginable that a rise of the Sun 6. Arecibo Webpage: aosun.naic.edu/home.html.
from –1.35 to 1.5 degrees has considerable influence and 7. Weerd, J.F. de, Search for ‘eternally’ sunlit areas at the lunar
the PEL may well be a true PSL. South Pole from Clementine data and the simulation of lunar
surface imagery…, Delft University of Technology, 1998.
8. Hapke, B., Bidirectional Reflectance Spectro-scopy, Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 86, No. B4, p. 3039-3054, 10 April
1981.
9. www.delta-utec.com
10. Margot, J. L., e.a. Topography of the Lunar Poles from Radar
Interferometry: A Survey of Cold Trap Locations. Science 284:
1658-1660, June 1999.
11. Feldman, W.C. e.a., Fluxes of Fast and Epithermal Neutrons from
Lunar Prospector: evidence for Water at the Lunar Poles, Science
Vol. 281, No. 5382, Sept. 1998.
12. Private communications with S. Ghandchi, CalSpace, July 2000.
Fig. 7: Lighting set-up of clay model during modeling 13. Weerd, J.F. de, Kruijff, M., Ockels, W.J., Search for eternally
sunlit areas at the lunar South Pole from recent data, IAF 98-
Identification of future work Q.4.07. Download from [9].
Fig. 8: HighRes (40m) Clementine image of South Pole area with overlay of cumulative, LowRes (200 m) images from Month
1. Indicated are best pixels in Area 1 (left) and Area 2 (right below) and Area 3. The polar grid is the best estimate at 22-9-
1998, provided by Bussey & Robinson, accurate within a few km.