CHARECTERISTC OF SEMICONDUCTOR BASED DEVICES

1st week: Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor

Abstract

In this experiment some of given material is grouped in to conductor, semiconductor and

insulator based on their electrical conductivity. This is done by examining the IV characteristics

of the given material. When the resistance of the material is calculated from the IV

characteristics with the application of Ohms law, it is arranged as conductor, semiconductor and

insulator with an increasing order of resistivity.

Introduction

Using some procedure with equipment and materials such as: Au, n-doped GaN, Lead resistor, SiO2, n-

type doped Si, undoped Si, SMU (Agilent B2902A) electrical property are measured. Using Ohms law

materials resister was calculated and divided into their group based on this value.

Background

Understanding electrical properties of materials is obtaining the relation between current and

voltage of the devices. Material can be classified as conductor, semiconductor and insulator based

on electrical conductivity. A conductor is an object or type of materials which permits the flow of

electric charge in one or more direction. Most of metals are conductor because of partially filled

states and available energy levels, with energy near the Fermi level. Electron in a partially filled

band gives materials electrical conductivity. This makes metals like gold are conductor.

Insulator internal electrical charge does not move freely due to the absence of partially filled

band. Even though, these materials have high number of electrons, due to this filled bands is not

close enough to the next higher empty band that electrons can make it into the next higher band,

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this makes very hard for insulator material such as Silicon dioxide SiO2 to conduct electric

current.

The other type of materials is semiconductor that found between insulator and conductor in their

electrical conductivity. The completely filled band is close enough to the next higher empty band

that electrons can make it into the next higher band. This yields an almost full band below an

almost empty band called valence band whereas the empty band will be called the conduction

band. This gives the materials unique property, one of which is the ability to change conductivity

by the addition of impurity (doping) and increasing temperature. A pure semiconductor is poor

conductor due to small number of electrons will get sufficient energy to excite to conduction band

from the valence band. This is modified by doping which will decrease the band gap. The other

method of increasing semiconductor conductivity is due to increase in thermal energy electron

will get high energy to overcome the barrier in semiconductor which leads to increase electrical

conductivity whereas in metal resistivity will increase due to increase in temperature that leads to

decrease in the electrical conductivity.

1. The band structure found in metals in which there is available electron states above and

adjacent to filled states, in the same band. (b) The band structure of metals wherein there is

an overlap of filled and empty outer bands. (c) The band structure of insulators; the filled

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valence band is separated from the empty conduction band by a relatively large band gap (2

eV). (d) The electron band structure found in the semiconductors, which is the same as for

insulators except that the band gap is relatively narrow (2 eV).

Experimental procedure

1. The experiment was begun by the SUM (Agilent B2902A) device set up.

2. The voltage was swept from-2Vto 2Vand with current of 1A.

3. By using the elevator clip each given material was connected to the SUM (Agilent B2902A) in

order to obtain the IV characteristics.

Result

a) Iv curve for different materials

1.50 0.01
1.00 0.00
current

0.50 430 Ω
0.00
0.00 Lead
GOLD 0.00
-0.50 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.2 k Ω
-4.00 -2.00
0.00 0.00 2.00 4.00
-1.00 Lead
-1.50 0.00
voltage
-0.01

0.10 6.00E-05
4.00E-05
0.05 n-doped undoped
2.00E-05
Si Si
0.00 0.00E+00
-4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 n-doped -4.00-2.00E-05
-2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 SiO2
-0.05 GaN current
-4.00E-05
-0.10 -6.00E-05

b) Calculate resistance from obtained IV characteristics

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Au n-doped Resistor Resistor SiO2 Undoped n-doped Si in 

Resistor 0.3163 19.342

GaN (430Ω)
425.2112 1.182 k
(1.2KΩ) 40.4274G 48.952k
Si 149.944

Type Conductor semiconduct Insulator Insulator insulator semiconduc Semiconductor

or tor
Discussion

a. Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity, materials property that oppose conductivity, which

shows that gold is a good conductor of electricity whereas SiO2 is good insulator.

b. Conductivity is affected by doping level that is why undoped Si has high resistance compered

to n-doped Si.

c. Lead resister is an insulator with small amount of current will pass through that is why we use

it in circuit to decrease voltage drop across parallel circuit.

d. The resistance tells us how hard it is for an electrical current to flow that primarily depends on

two factors; what material is made and its shape. But resistivity is an intrinsic property, it only

depend on the material which it is made, not on the geometry of the material.

e. The conductance of a component is a measurement of how easily a current can flow through

the component whereas conductivity is a property of the material also known as specific

conductance .Conductance depends on the dimensions of the conductor, but conductivity does

not depend on the dimensions. Conductance is measured in Siemens while conductivity is

measured in Siemens per meter.

Summary

Materials are conductor if their resistance, that opposes conductivity, is very low. Such materials

are metals which have high carrier concentration. This makes them useful in every day activity.

But semiconductors are materials which have resister between insulator and conductor that will
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be affected by doping level.

Reference

1. Prof. Sei Kwang Hahn., Polymer lab. Manual.

2. M.C. Callister, Introduction To Materials Engineering, 7th edition

3. www.accuratus.com/materials.html

4. Electronic Devices and CircuitTheory7th Edition

5. Wikipedia

2nd week: Metal-Semiconductor Ohmic and Schottky

contacts
Abstract

Metal–semiconductor junction can be Ohmic or Schottky contact. The classification

depends on the barrier height of Schottky. To show this we use materials like Schottky

barrier diode (GaN-based), Ohmic contact on n-GaN probe station, SMU (Agilent

B2902A). This is determined from the IV characteristics of the given materials. The

carrier transport play great role in Schottky diode. The contact can be Ohmic or Schottky

based on the work function of metals relative to semiconductor if the work function of

metal is less than that of semiconductor it will be Ohmic otherwise it is Schottky.

Introduction

Using some procedure with equipment and materials like Schottky barrier diode (GaN-based),

Ohmic contact on n-GaN probe station, SMU (Agilent B2902A). Metal-semiconductor contact

can be Ohmic or Schottky based on the work function of metals relative to semiconductor.

Background

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Whenever a metal and a semiconductor are in intimate contact, there exists a potential barrier, i.e.

Schottky barrier height (ФB) which sets the starting point for the excess energy an electron require

to pass from the semiconductor to metal. Only a small number of carriers have enough energy to

get over the barrier and cross to the other material. When a bias is applied to the junction, it can

have one of two effects: it can make the barrier appear lower from the semiconductor side, or it

can make it appear higher. The bias does not change the barrier height from the metal side. The

result of barrier appear lower in semiconductor is a Schottky Barrier (rectifying contact), where

the junction conducts for one bias polarity, but not the other. Almost all metal-semiconductor

junctions will exhibit some of this rectifying behavior. Schottky Contacts make good diodes, and

can even be used to make a kind of transistor, but for getting signals into and out of a

semiconductor device, we generally want a contact that is Ohmic. Ohmic contacts conduct the

same for both polarities. (They obey Ohm's Law). There are two ways to make a metal-

semiconductor contact look Ohmic enough to get signals into and out of a semiconductor (or

doing the opposite makes a good Schottky contact): lowering the barrier height by using materials

whose barrier height is small or make the barrier very narrow by doping it very heavily (1019

dopant atoms/cm3 or more).

Fig. Schottky contact and Ohmic contact of metal-semiconductor junction.

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Experimental procedure

1. Under optical microscope the Ohmic contact and Schottky contact of given material was

seen.

2. The experiment was continued by the SUM (Agilent B2902A) device set up.

3. The IV characteristics of the Ohmic metal-semiconductor junction was Measured.

4. The IV characteristics of the Schottky metal-semiconductor junction was Measured.

Result and Discussion

0.04
cerrent

0.02

0.00 Schottky
-4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 CH1 Current
-0.02

-0.04

voltage

a. Schottky barrier diode (GaN-based), is Schottky diode as it is nonlinear IV curve whereas

metal-metal contact is a linear which is governed by Ohm that is why it is called Ohmic

contact.

b. Schottky contact shows nonlinear; there must be a turn on voltage, because of Schottky

barrier height (ФB) which sets the starting point for the excess energy an electron require

passing from the semiconductor to metal.

c. For 3.5eV n-type semiconductor and metals with work function higher than 3.5eV junction

will make Schottky contact of rectification since if forward bias is applied to the junction

electrons will start to move from semiconductor to metal at least at voltage equal to

Schottky barrier. Whereas if metals work function is less than 3.5eV electron in n-type

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semiconductor is at higher energy level that is why electrons start to move to metals at any

applied volt.

Summary

There are two types of metal–semiconductor junction contact: the Ohmic and Schottky

contact. The classification depends on the barrier height of Schottky. This is determined

from the IV characteristics of the given materials. A Schottky diode is a single metal-

semiconductor junction, used for rectifying with IV characteristics do not demonstrate a

linear I-V curve. But if the IV curve demonstration is linear then it is Ohmic contact.

The carrier transport play great role in Schottky diode. If the metal work function is less

than that of semiconductor the junction will cause Ohmic contact whereas the other cases

it causes Schottky contact.

Reference

1. Prof. Sei Kwang Hahn., Polymer lab. Manual.

2. Electronic Devices and CircuitTheory7th Edition

3. Wikipedia

3rd week: p-n junction

Abstract

The p-n junction is commonly used as diodes; circuit element that allow a flow of electricity in

one direction. This is explained as forward and reverse biased. The IV character of the Si is

measured and its turn on voltage is 0.75V whereas its break down voltage is -0.80V with

saturation current 1.18 x10-7mA.

Introduction
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In this experiment the p-n junction is studied through measuring its IV characteristics. If

forward voltage is applied to the p-n junction no current will pass through till the voltage

reaches a potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called

built-in potential that is why the graph shows non linearity as Ohmic like metals. To do this we

use materials like: rectifying diode (700V, 1A) and SMU (Agilent B2902A).

Background

The p-n junction is elementary “building block most semiconductor electronics device such as

diodes, transistor, solar cell, LEDs and, integrated circuit.

The p–n junction possesses some interesting properties that have useful applications in modern

electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped

semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and

hence non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By

manipulating this non-conductive layer, p–n junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit

elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.

This property is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias, where the term bias refers

to an application of electric voltage to the p–n junction.

In a p–n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in

which a potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called

built-in potential. After joining p-type and n-type semiconductors, electrons from the n region

near the p–n interface tend to diffuse into the p region. As electrons diffuse, they leave positively

charged ions (donors) in the n region. Likewise, holes from the p-type region near the p–n

interface begin to diffuse into the n-type region, leaving fixed ions (acceptors) with negative

charge.

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The regions nearby the p–n interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the

space charge region or depletion layer.

Fig. p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied.

Experimental procedure

1. First the experiment was started by SMU (Agilent B2902A) device set up.

2. Characteristics of given diode IV curve for both biases forward and reversed bias was

investigated.

3. The saturation current, turn-on voltage, and breakdown voltage of materials was

investigated.

Result and Discussion

a. The IV characteristics of Si p-n shows rectification on the forward bias.

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1.50

1.00

Current
0.50

0.00 FORWARD BIAS

-2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 REVERSE BIAS
-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
Voltage

b. Saturation current or the reverse saturation current is part of the reverse current in a

semiconductor diode caused by diffusion of minority carriers from the neutral regions to

the depletion region. This current is almost independent of the reverse voltage.

Turn-on voltage: at any forward voltage, some current will flow, but until the depletion

potential is reached, the forward current vs. voltage will be comparable to the leakage

current that flows when voltage is applied in the reverse direction. Once the depletion

potential is reached, the diode can be considered to be "turned on".

Breakdown voltage: is the minimum reverse voltage to make the diode conduct in reverse.

Obtain or calculate saturation current, turn-on voltage, breakdown, and series resistance

from the IV characteristics

Series resistance is the slop of the of IV characteristics of straight line drawn from turn on

voltage.

c. A full wave rectification electrical circuit which contains four diodes can perform

rectification by AC input but it gives output as DC.

Saturation current =1.18 x10-7mA

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Turn on voltage=0.75V

Series resistance=4.45mA/V

Breakdown voltage=-0.80V

Summary

The p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor electronic devices

such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites

where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor,

the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p–n junctions in series, in the form n–p–n or p–n–

p. A diode is a special case of a p–n junction. The forward and the reverse biased properties of

the p-n junction can be used as a diode. This junction is used to allow electric charge to flow

only in one direction because for the reverse biased junction barrier become greater and charge

flow is least.

Reference

1. Solid state light emitter diode, Bill Wilson

2. Material engineering Semiconductor lab guide.

3. Material science and engineering introduction William Dr. Callister

4. Electronic Devices and CircuitTheory7th Edition

5. Wikipedia

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4th week: Characteristic of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Abstract

LED is a semiconductor when p-type semiconductor is connected to n-type semiconductor.

When p-n junction is connected to voltage, current start to flow across the junction and it starts to

emit light due to recombination of hole and electron on the depletion region. Using the SMU

(Agilent B2920) device the spectrum of the given; blue, red, yellow and green LED

characteristic is obtained from the IV characteristics. The result shows that the intensity of red

occur at 680nm, yellow at 660nm, yellow at 610nm, green at 510nm and blue at 460nm wave

length. wave length. And their turn on voltage is 1.85V, 2.01V, 2.43V and 2.66V for red, yellow,

green and blue LEDs respectively.

Introduction

Light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device used in a Varity of application, instrument

and circuit. When current passed through a forward biased LED, it emits light in visible, infrared

or ultraviolet region because of combination of holes and electrons in depletion region. In this

laboratory we study the various LED with the current passing through it and measure of the

intensity with materials like: GaN-based blue LED, Blue LED, Red LED, Green LED, yellow

LED and SMU (Agilent B2902A), CCD spectroscope.

Background

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that resembles a basic p-

n-junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. When light emitting diodes anode has a

voltage, more positive than its cathode lead by at least the forward voltage, current will flow.

Electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of

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photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the

energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used

to shape its radiation pattern.

Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such

as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light

LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the

visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Experimental procedure

1. The IV characteristics of the GaN-based blue LED was Obtained

2. The IV characteristics of GaN-based blue LED and Si p-n diode was Compared.

3. The spectrum of blue LED was obtained.

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Result and discussion

a. Spectrum of colors

1.2
1 Blue

0.8 Green
intensuty

0.6 Red
0.4 Yelow
0.2
0
-0.2 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
wave length

b. IV characteristic of LED can be shown as follows:

0.12

0.10

0.08
Yellow LED
0.06
Current

Blue LED
0.04 Green LED

0.02 Red LED

0.00
-2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
-0.02
Voltage

a. The IV characteristic shows that LEDs are semiconductor device with a p-n

junction in which injected carrier recombines radiatively.

b. From the graph we can see that the intensity of red is occur at 660nm, yellow at

610nm, green at 510nm and blue at 460nm wave length. And their turn on voltage

is 1.8V, 1.99V, 2.35V and 2.65V for red, yellow, green and blue LEDs

respectively.

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c. Series resistance is 0.048, 0.00357, 0.0013 and 0.398, for red green, blue and

yellow respectively.

d. Saturation current is 2.28*10-7, -1.7*10-7, 2.91*10-7 and 1.89*10-7 for red, yellow,

green and blue respectively.

e. Relation between turn-on voltage and peak wave length is:

where e=1.62*10-19C, h=6.63*10-34J.S, C=3*108 m/s, λ is in nanometer and VT is

turn on voltage in (V).

f. Using this formula turn-on voltage is 1.85V, 2.01V, 2.43V and 2.66V for red,

yellow, green and blue respectively.

Summary

When current start to flow across the junction the LED either start to emit light or generate heat.

This is due to recombination of hole and electron on the depletion region. And each color: red,

yellow, green and blue wave length was 680nm, 600nm, 530 and 420 respectively. These value

shows that red have small energy whereas blue have high energy. Therefore green and blue color

is not good for eyes due to their energy.

Reference

1. Material engineering Semiconductor lab guide.

2. Material science and engineering introduction William Dr. Callister

3. Electronic Devices and CircuitTheory7th Edition

4. Wikipedia

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5th week: How is white light made with LEDs?

Abstract

White light is a natural light which can be made in two ways from the LEDs, the first one

is blue LED with yellow phosphorus and the second is red, green and blue LEDs. Both

methods can make white light, i.e. spectrum having wave length ranges in visible light.

During the RGB the optical pointer is needed that can point the light that come out of the

three LED bulbs in to one point, then it is easy to measure the spectrum and also to look

white light.

Introduction

White light is made from the LEDs circuit, through RGB and blue LED with yellow

phosphorous. In order to perform this blue, red and green LED lamps are connected in parallel

on the breadboard to form RGB circuit. By combining all the three lamps to point on one

concentrated point IV curve was measured. To form white in other way a small box with

cover glass is prepared and the blue LED passes through the cover glass which has the yellow

phosphorous on it.

Background

White light is obtained from the LEDs in two main ways, this are the RGB realization

and realization of blue LED with yellow phosphorus. The RGB realization is the output

of several different LEDs, typically red, green and blue, is mixed together. This can be

done by combining packaged emitters with suitable optics or by placing all the 3

individual light, red, blue and green in the same package in order to get one light from

the this different colure light. Since red light has high wavelength from there stand it is

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very sensitive to high voltage because of this it need resistor for its safety. The second

methods to get white light are by realization of blue LED with yellow phosphorus

method. The light emitted from the blue LED is inserted in the small cube like box with

small light transparent glass, and by putting the yellow phosphorus on the glass. When

the light comes out from the LED and passes through it form a white light.

Experimental procedure

1. Blue, red and green Light LED lamps simultaneously was parallel connected on the

breadboard

2. The spectrum of the RGB LED lamps system was measured.

3. The spectrum of blue light and yellow phosphorus was measured.

Result AND Discussion

a. White from blue color and yellow phosphorous:

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
intensity

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
wave length

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b. White color from RGB:

1.2
BLUE
1 GREEN

intensity 0.8 RED

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-0.2
wave length

c. White light is a combination colors and its spectrum ranges from 400nm to 700nm

wave length. For both case it shows this ranges such tat blue having less wave length

in both case and yellow phosphorous and red having high wave length in the

first(YB) and second (RGB) case respectively.

Summary

Generally white light is a combination of colors that ranges in visible spectrum; can be

made in two ways from the LEDs, the first one is blue LED with yellow phosphorus and

the second is red, green and blue LEDs in parallel connection but red is seriously

connected with resister since red lamp is very sensitive to high voltage in order to protect

the lamp from damage, i.e. need minimum energy to turn on is 1.6v.

Reference

1. Material engineering Semiconductor lab guide.

2. Material science and engineering introduction William Dr. Callister

3. Wikipedia

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