Running head: NON-GLUTEN PROTEINS 1

Non-gluten Proteins and their Influence on Bread Properties

Anna M. Fabus

Introductory Food Science

Professor Kull

March 28, 2018

NON-GLUTEN PROTEINS 2

Non-gluten Proteins and their Influence on Bread Properties

Roughly one in one hundred and thirty-three people have celiac disease not counting

those with gluten sensitivity. Since the food they eat has to be gluten free, it is only made with

non-gluten proteins. These protein isolates have several effects on bread outcome. While using

albumin, collagen, pea, lupine, and soy flours several observations were made regarding

rheological properties of dough.1 Without the gluten protein, there is a decrease in the gas

retaining properties of dough which hurts the structure.1 This is undesirable in the food industry,

so they are constantly experimenting to find new ways to improve it.

Processing aids can be added in gluten free flours to improve texture and sensory

properties. Some of these are emulsifiers, stabilizers and enzymes acting on proteins.1 Other

gluten free ingredients like corn mixed with hydrocolloids also improves bread structure and

density.1 Mixing different kinds of gluten free flours can have similar effects like chestnut and

chia.2 Acorn flour causes bread structure strengthening and desired texture.3 Orange pomace

which is high in fiber adds structure to bread products.2 Dairy products added into gluten free

flours also strengthens structure, improves texture and color.1 Caseins are one of the most

frequently applied to the flours because of their emulsifying properties.1 Shortening when added

to gluten free proteins was showed to increase its likeliness to gluten products.2 Adding apple

pomace flour to other gluten free proteins is shown to increase the expansion characteristics of

the final product to make it more comparable to gluten proteins. Legume seeds (soy and pea) can

cause an increase in water absorption and modifies mechanical properties.1 There are several

ways to increase a gluten free protein’s likeliness to a gluten protein.

The materials used in this study were corn starch, potato starch, guar gum, pectin, freeze

dried yeast, sucrose, salt, and plant oil. The different flours were albumin, collagen, pea, lupine,
NON-GLUTEN PROTEINS 3

and soy.1 To make the dough a specific recipe was followed and it was modified a little for each

kind of flour to create the same amount of dry sample including the control.1 The amount of

water was also adjusted to make the breads the right consistency for baking.1 This step is

important because only certain amounts of water-binding substances create a positive effect on

density. Too many binding substances and it causes the end product to deflate.3 Another mixture

was also made to find the effect of each protein without yeast and the same amount of water.1

After fourteen loaves were made, they were tested for volume, structure, color, hardening, and

sensory.

Gluten free proteins in bread can hold water and stabilize starch gel. Structure formation

refers to the protein’s swelling and emulsifying properties.1 All except lupine protein had a large

influence on the volume of the bread.1 This was also exhibited in another test in which

buckwheat and lupin cakes were compared. It showed that lupin cakes at forty percent had

similar sensory results to twenty percent buckwheat when the lupin cakes at twenty percent had

more dry matter initially.2 Albumin had an increase in volume because it can decrease surface

tension and increase gas retention and stability.1 Strawberry seeds add volume to bread products

due to their natural sugars interacting with the yeast producing more carbon dioxide which

relieves tension as well.2 It is also proven that the finer the flour used, the less retention of carbon

dioxide which results in lower overall volume.2 Another way to increase carbon dioxide levels is

to whip the mixture longer and at a lower speed to incorporate as much air as possible.2

Whipping past the optimal time causes the mixture to deflate and loose these properties.2 Egg

albumins absorb carbon dioxide which aids in binding bread structure. The low denaturization of

albumin also strengthens bread structure.1 Pea protein has a negative impact on crumb structure

because it is excessively compact.1 This is why another article suggests that it is best used for
NON-GLUTEN PROTEINS 4

pasta because it has a weak structure and is tender in the noodles.2 The closest in porosity,

volume, cell density, and percentage of pores compared the control group containing gluten was

albumin protein.1 Lupin, pea, and soy proteins hovered in the middle. In general, the larger the

pore density, the smaller the pore. Collagen showed the lowest cell density and the largest pores.1

Other factors are also taken into consideration when creating gluten free products.

Color is a big selling point in the bread industry. Albumin has a light color while collagen

and soy have a darker color which is more desirable.1 Acorn proteins produced a dark yellow tint

to the baked product.3 Lupine proteins produce a yellowish color in baked products which is

neither light nor dark.1 This is very important to producers because they wish to have consumers

buy as much of their bread as possible.2

The sensory test evaluates three of the five senses (appearance, taste, and smell) of each

protein included in the baked products and determines costumer preference.2 Pea and lupine

proteins had a higher acceptance value than the others even though their porosity was higher.1

Products that added pea protein for their yellow color increased the acceptance of the product.1

Albumin was also highly accepted even though it had a lighter crumb because of its denser

structure.1 The smell of the proteins in collagen, soy, and lupin were the most desirable.1 Flavor

of lupin protein was the most comparable to the control group.1 Soy was the most disliked flavor

out of the bunch.1 Another study showed that green banana flour flavor is desirable in pastas.2

The storage of gluten free bread is also important to producers.2

NON-GLUTEN PROTEINS 5

The proteins used significantly affect the process of crumb hardening.1 Gluten free

proteins often harden faster because of the larger amount of starch present.2 Collagen and lupin

were the most similar to the control group while albumin and pea were harder on the day of

baking.1 In addition, coarser maize flour has a softer crumb than fine which could have had an

impact on the previously mention tests as well.2 Dough including the finer flour resulted in lower

particle size and loaf volume.2 As days passed, the collagen and control samples hardened the

least.1 Lupine protein had a slightly more intense hardness. Albumin and soy significantly

hardened.1 Pea protein which was one of the most accepted consumer proteins hardened the most

during storage.1 Overall, gluten free proteins, given their composition, have different

characteristics in baked products.1

Gluten free proteins are constantly being experimented on to achieve a more gluten-like

structure and appeal for costumers.2 With the supplementation of gluten free proteins overall

cohesiveness decreased.1 Decrease in the cohesiveness of gluten free proteins was not a surprise

because they simply do not have the same bonding capability as gluten proteins.2 Processing aids

are often used to enhance gluten free protein characteristics. Combining gluten free proteins can

help achieve this goal.2 Lupine and pea proteins had an especially hard time retaining their

carbon dioxide levels to improve texture.1 The color of each protein used was unique in color
NON-GLUTEN PROTEINS 6

appeal. Pea was the most appealing color which added a yellow hue to the baked product.1

Albumin which was the densest of the gluten free proteins had one of the most desired

mouthfeels.1 Aroma of collagen, lupine, and soy proteins were the most desired of those tested.1

The control, collagen, and lupine proteins had the least changes during storage. Pea protein was

the hardest stored which resulted in it being the chewiest.1 In summary, gluten free proteins offer

a variety of characteristics and choices for customers based on research.

NON-GLUTEN PROTEINS 7

References

Anna Fabus

“Non-gluten Proteins and their Influence on Bread Properties”

1. Rafał Ziobro, Lesław Juszczak, Mariusz Witczak, Jarosław Korus. Non-gluten proteins as

structure forming agents in gluten free bread. Association of Food Scientists &

Technologists. 2015; 53: 571-580.

2. Norah O’Shea, Elke Arendt, Eimear Gallagher. State of the Art in Gluten-Free Research.

Journal of Food Science. 2014; 79.

3. Jarosław Korus, Mariusz Witczak, Rafał Ziobro, Lesław Juszczak. The influence of acorn

flour on rheological properties of gluten‑free dough and physical characteristics of the

bread. European Food Research and Technology. 2015; 240: 1135-1143.