Chapter 3

FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL

OF INDUCTION MOTOR

3.1. Introduction

The control of AC machine is basically classified into scalar and vector

control. The scalar controls are easy to implement though the dynamics are
sluggish. The objective of FOC is to achieve a similar type of controller with
an inner torque control loop which makes the motor respond very fast to the
torque demands from the outer speed control loop. In FOC, the principle of
decoupled torque and flux control are applied and it relies on the
instantaneous control of stator current space vectors. Control of induction
motor is complicated due to the control of decoupled torque and flux
producing components of the stator phase currents. There is no direct
access to the rotor quantities such as rotor fluxes and currents. To
overcome these difficulties, high performance vector control algorithms are
developed which can decouple the stator phase currents by using only the
measured stator current, flux and rotor speed.

In this chapter, the mathematical model of induction motor based on

space vector theory and the principle of indirect FOC are presented. The
simulation model of the induction motor drive is developed using the
principle of indirect FOC.

3.2. High Performance Drive

A system employed for motion control using electric motor as a prime

mover is called electric drive. The function of an electric drive system is the

16
controlled conversion of electrical energy to a mechanical form and vice
versa through
gh a magnetic field. Electric drive is a multi-disciplinary
disciplinary field of
study requiring proper integration of knowledge of electrical machines,
actuators, power electronic converters, sensors and instrumentation, control
hardware and software and communication
communication links as shown in Fig. 3.1. The
drive system showing the same performance can be designed in various
ways, like other engineering designs. High performance drive refers to the
drive system’s ability to offer precise control in addition to a rapid dynamic
response and a good steady state response. High performance drives are
considered for critical applications due to their precision of control.

Fig. 3.1 Electric drive system

Several control strategies

str as shown in Fig.3.2 are found in the variable
variab
speed drive industry, which includes i) open loop inverter with fixed V/f
control, ii) open loop inverter with flux vector control, iii) closed loop inverter
with flux vector control and iv) DTC. The controls, namely, FOC, DTC, non-
linear control and Predictive
edictive Control (PC) are to be implemented with closed-
closed
loop feedback control to obtain high precision, good dynamics and steady
state response. FOC predominantly relies on the mathematical modeling of

17
AC machine, while DTC makes direct use of physical interaction
interaction that takes
place within the integrated system of the machine and its supply.

a) DC drive

b) AC drive – scalar control

c) AC drive – Field Oriented Control

d) AC drive – Direct Torque Control

Fig. 3.2 Electrical drive control techniques

technique

18
3.3. Induction Motor Drive

3.3.1. Physical Layout of Induction Motor

In an induction motor induction refers the field in the rotor is induced

by the stator currents and asynchronous refers that the rotor speed is not
equal to the stator speed. The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase
induction motor is cylindrical in shape and have slots on its periphery. The
slots are not made parallel to each other but are a bit skewed to prevent
magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and make the working of motor
more smooth and quiet. The magnetic path comprises a set of slotted steel
laminations pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The
magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents, lower losses and lower
heating. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars,
this aluminum, brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are
placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor.
The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by copper or aluminum
rings called the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength, these
rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete
closed circuit resembling a cage and also the squirrel cage rotor winding is
made symmetrical. As the bars are permanently shorted by end rings, the
rotor resistance is very small and it is not possible to add external
resistance. Even though the aluminium rotor bars are in direct contact with
the steel laminations, practically all the rotor current flows through the
aluminum bars and not through the laminations. It is necessary to keep the
bars tightly in the slots because loose bars can be damaged quickly by
mechanical vibrations and thermal cycling.
The only parts of the squirrel cage motor that can wear are the
bearings. The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of
squirrel cage three phase induction motor very simple, robust, requires less
maintenance and eliminates sparking. These motors are widely used in
industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable, economical and have the
advantage of adapting any number of pole pairs. Fig. 3.3 shows the cut
sectional view of a typical induction motor.

19
 Fig. 3.3 Cut sectional view of a typical induction motor
(Source: www.ctiautomation.net)

3.3.2. Dynamic Model in Space Vector Form

Mathematical description of induction motor is based on space vector

notation. When describing a three phase induction motor by a system of non
linear equations, following assumptions are made:

i. The three phase motor is symmetrical,

ii. Only the fundamental harmonics is considered, while the higher
harmonics of the special field distribution and of the Magneto Motive
Force (MMF) in the airgap are disregarded,
iii. The spatially distributed stator and rotor windings are replaced by a
concentrated coil,
iv. Effects of anisotropy, magnetic saturation, iron losses and eddy
currents are neglected,
v. Coil resistance and reactance are taken to be constant,
vi. In many cases, especially when considering steady state, the current
and voltages are taken to be sinusoidal.
Considering the above assumptions, the stator and rotor voltage
equations can be written as:
ur
v v dψ a
Va (t ) = Rs ia + (3.1)
dt
ur
v v dψ b
Vb (t ) = Rs ib + (3.2)
dt

20
 ur
v v dψ c
Vc (t ) = Rs ic + (3.3)
dt

To describe the model of the induction motor, generally the space

vector method is adopted. This approach has the advantages like: i) analysis
is possible at any supply voltage and ii) number of dynamic equations can
be reduced.

3.3.3. Space Vector Definition

The three phase symmetric system represented in a natural

coordinate system by phase quantities such as currents, voltages and flux
linkages of AC motors can be analyzed in terms of complex space vectors
[77]. Any three time varying quantities, which always sum to zero and are
spatially separated by 120° can be expressed as space vector. The space
vector can be defined by considering the instantaneous values ua, ub, uc. A
three phase system defined by ua(t), ub(t), uc(t)) can be represented uniquely
by a rotating vector. The space vector u may represent the motor variables
(voltage, current and flux). The vector control principle on AC motor take the
advantages of transforming the variables from the physical three phase a-b-c
system to a stationary coordinate α-β or rotating reference frame d-q [78],
which is equivalent to the armature and field currents of a DC motor. Space
vector and its component are shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Space vector representation for three phase variables

21
 The complex stator current vector ‘u’, which represents the three
phase sinusoidal system, is represented as:

2
u=
3
(
ua (t ) + ub (t )e j 2π /3 + uc (t )e− j 2π /3 ) (3.4)

where,
ଶ
is the non power invariant transformation constant (normalization
ଷ
factor) and ua(t), ub(t) and uc(t) are arbitrary phase quantities in a
system of natural coordinates satisfying the condition,

ua (t ) + ub (t ) + uc (t ) = 0 (3.5)

3.3.4. Circuit Model on a Stationary Reference Frame

Equations for a two pole induction machine with a short circuited

rotor in stator reference frame using space phasor rotation are [79] shown
below. By applying space vector Vs, the stator voltage equation written in
stator axis can be written as in (3.6). The squirrel cage induction motor rotor
is shorted and so there is no rotor excitation, the rotor voltage equals zero.
Figs. 3.5 and 3.6 show the stator current space vector and equivalent circuit
of an induction motor. From this equivalent circuit it is clear that each
motor winding has two current paths.

Magnetizing path: Each stator winding has an iron core, thus will have a
high inductance. The inductances of each winding are important to the
operation of the motor, because when drawing current they generate the
rotating magnetic field essential to the operation of the motor. The
magnetizing current is reactive, i.e., it lags behind the applied voltage by
90⁰.
Load path: This current path transforms from the stator to the rotor by
transformer action, and flows through the rotor bars. The more load on the
motor, the higher the slip, and the higher the load current. Load current is
real, i.e., it is in phase with the applied voltage.
Total current: The total current in each winding of a motor is the vector sum
of the load current and the magnetizing current. Generally the magnetizing

22
component is constant and does not change with load. It ensures that the
motor always runs at a lagging power factor.
Using the space vector method the induction motor model can be
written as:
ur
v v dψ s
Vs (t ) = Rs is + (3.6)
dt
ur
v v dψ r
Vr (t ) = Rr ir + (3.7)
dt

Fig. 3.5 Stator current space vector

Fig. 3.6 Equivalent circuit of Induction motor

From Fig. 3.5, the flux current equations are represented as:
23
 uur ur ur
ψ s = Ls is + Lm ir e jε (3.8)
uur ur ur
ψ r = Lr ir + Lm is (3.9)

Complete set of motor equation is obtained by transforming the above

equations into a common rotating reference frame and bringing the rotor
values into the stator side,

v v
v v dis d (ir e jε )
Vs (t ) = Rs is + Ls + Lm (3.10)
dt dt
v v
v v dir d (is )
Vr (t ) = Rr ir + Lr + Lm (3.11)
dt dt
v v
v jε dir jε d (is )
0 = Rr ir e + Lr e + Lm (3.12)
dt dt
Equation of the dynamic rotor rotating with an angular speed ωr , can
be represented as:

d ωr (Td (t ) − TL (t ) − Bωm )
= (3.13)
dt J
dε
ωr = (3.14)
dt

where, Ls = Lm(1+σs)

Lr = Lm(1+σr)
In further consideration viscous coefficient will be negated as B=0. The
electromagnetic torque is expressed by:

d ωr 2P v v
Td (t ) = J + TL (t ) = Lm Im  is (ir e jε ) * (3.15)
dt 32

The applied space vector method is used as a mathematical tool for

the analysis of the electric machines. The complete set of equations can be
expressed in the stationary coordinate α-β system. The motor model
equations defined with respect to α-β reference frame is written as:

ur
v v dψ sα
Vsα (t ) = Rs isα + (3.16)
dt
ur
v v dψ sβ
Vsβ (t ) = Rs isβ + (3.17)
dt

24
 ur
v dψ rα uuuv
0 = Rr irα + + ωr ψ r β (3.18)
dt
ur
v dψ r β uuuv
0 = Rr irβ + − ωrψ rα (3.19)
dt
d ωr Td (t ) − TL (t ) 1  2 P Lm 
dt
=
J
= 
J  3 2 Lr
( )
ψ sα isβ −ψ sβ isα − TL  (3.20)

where, ψ sα = Ls isα + Lmirα

ψ sβ = Lsisβ + Lmir β

ψ rα = Lr irα + Lmisα

ψ r β = Lr ir β + Lmisβ

The complex space vector is resolved into components of α and β.

r
is = isα + jisβ (3.21)
r
ir = irα + jir β (3.22)
uur
Vs = Vsα + jVsβ (3.23)
uur
ψ s = ψ sα + jψ sβ (3.24)
uur
ψ r = ψ rα + jψ r β (3.25)

In the stationary α-β coordinate system, the input to the motor is the
stator voltage. The above equation is transformed into:

ur
dψ sα v v
= Vsα (t ) − Rs isα (3.26)
dt
ur
dψ sβ v v
= Vsβ (t ) − Rs isβ (3.27)
dt
ur
dψ rα v
= − Rr irα − pωrψ r β (3.28)
dt
ur
dψ r β v
= − Rr ir β + pωrψ rα (3.29)
dt

d ω r 1  2 P Lm 
dt
= 
J  3 2 Lr
( )
ψ sα isβ −ψ sβ isα − TL  (3.30)


25
 The output signals such as flux, speed and torque depend on both the
inputs, by the orientation of the coordinate system to the stator or rotor flux
vectors decoupling of flux and torque can be achieved.

3.3.5. Equivalent Circuit on a d-q Reference Frame

The principle of vector control of AC machine can be controlled to give

dynamic performance comparable to the separately excited DC motor. There
are at least three fluxes, rotor, airgap and stator and three currents, stator,
rotor and magnetizing in an induction motor. For high dynamic response,
interactions among current, fluxes, and speed must be taken into account
in determining appropriate control strategies. Independent control of motor
flux and torque can be obtained by this method and it is possible by
connecting coordinate system with rotor flux vector. Fig. 3.7 shows the
vector diagram of induction motor in stationary α-β and rotating d-q
coordinates. The rotor synchronous speed is equal to the angular speed of
the rotor flux vector. The reference frame d-q is rotating with the angular
speed equal to rotor flux vector angular speed ωe, which is defined as
follows:

dθ
ωe = (3.31)
dt

Fig. 3.7 Vector diagram in stationary and rotating reference frame

26
 The voltage and current complex space vector is resolved into
components of d and q as:
v v − j γ −θ
V s ( t ) e − jθ = V s e ( 1 ) = V sd + jV sq ( ) (3.32)
v v − j γ −θ
Rs is e − jθ = Rs is e ( ) = Rs isd + jisq ( ) (3.33)
v − j ε −θ
R r ir e ( ) = Rr ird + jirq
( ) (3.34)

Induction motor model equation in d-q reference frame is written as

follows:
v v
v − jθ v − jθ dis − jθ d (ir e jε ) − jθ
Vs (t )e = Rs ie + Ls e + Lm e (3.35)
dt dt
v v
v j (ε −θ ) dir j (ε −θ ) d (is e − jε ) j (ε −θ )
0 = Rr ir e + Lr e + Lm e (3.36)
dt dt

d ω r Td (t ) − TL (t ) 1  2 P Lm 
dt
=
J
= 
J  3 2 Lr
(
ψ rd isq − ψ rq isd − TL  ) (3.37)


The stator flux linkages are given by:

ψ sq = Lsisq + Lmirq (3.38)

ψ sd = Ls isd + Lm ird (3.39)

ψˆ s = (ψ 2
sd
+ ψ sq2 ) (3.40)

The rotor flux linkages are:

ψ rq = 0 = Lr irq + Lmisq (3.41)

ψ rd = ψ r = Lr ird + Lm isd (3.42)

ψˆ r = (ψ 2
rd
+ ψ rq2 ) (3.43)

The airgap flux linkages are:

ψ mq = Lm isq + Lm irq (3.44)

ψ md = Ls isd + Lmird (3.45)

ψˆ m = (ψ 2
md
2
+ ψ mq ) (3.46)

27
 The motor torque can be expressed by rotor flux magnitude and stator
current component, if the rotor can be kept constant as in the case of DC
machine, then the torque control can be accomplished by controlling the
current component.

2 P Lm
Td =
3 2 Lr
(
ψ rd isq −ψ rq isd ) (3.47)

d ωr 1  2 P Lm 
dt
= 
J  3 2 Lr
( )
ψ rd isq −ψ rq isd − TL  (3.48)


Dynamic equivalent circuit for d and q axis is shown in Fig. 3.8 (a)
and (b) and block diagram of induction machine in d-q coordinate system is
shown in Fig. 3.9. The complete motor dynamic equation can be obtained by
separating the real and imaginary components of the voltage and current
complex space vector as:

v di d
Vsd = Rs isd + Ls sd + Lm ird − Lsωeisq − Lmωeirq (3.49)
dt dt

v disq d
Vsq = Rs isq + Ls + Lm irq + Lsωeisd + Lmωeird (3.50)
dt dt

dird d
0 = Rr ird + Lr + Lm isd − Lr (ωe − ωr ) irq + Lm (ωe − ωr ) isq (3.51)
dt dt

dirq d
0 = Rr irq + Lr + Lm isq + Lr (ωe − ω r ) ird + Lm (ωe − ωr ) isd (3.52)
dt dt

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.8 Dynamic equivalent circuit (a) d-axis circuit (b) q-axis circuit

28
 Fig. 3.9 Block diagram of Induction machine in d-q coordinate system

The rotational voltage term across stator and rotor is expressed as:

ψ sd ωe = ( Lsisd + Lmird ) ωe (3.53)

ψ sqωe = ( Ls isq + Lmirq ) ωe (3.54)

ψ rd (ωe − ωr ) = ( Lr ird + Lmisd )(ωe − ωr ) (3.55)

ψ rq (ωe − ωr ) = ( Lr irq + Lmisq ) (ωe − ωr ) (3.56)

The machine dynamic voltage in matrix form is represented as:

Vsd   Rs + pLs −ωe Ls pLm − Lmωe  isd 

Vsq   ωe Ls Rs + pLs Lmωe pLm  i 
 =   sq  (3.57)
 0   pLm − (ωe − ωr ) Lm Rr + pLr − (ωe − ωr ) Lr  ird 
    
 0  (ωe − ω r ) Lm pLm (ωe − ωr ) Lr Rr + pLr   irq 

3.3.6 Field Oriented Control Concept of Separately Excited DC Machine

In separately excited DC machine, the axis of the armature and field

current are orthogonal to one another. Ideally a vector controlled induction
motor drive operates like a separately excited DC motor drive as shown in
Fig. 3.10. This means that the magneto motive forces established by the
currents in these windings are also orthogonal. If iron saturation and
armature reaction effect are ignored, developed torque can be expressed as:

29
 Td = kI f I a (3.58)

where, If - field current

Ia - armature current

Fig. 3.10 Block diagram of separately excited DC motor

The field flux ψf produced by the current in the field coils is

perpendicular to the armature flux ψa. The ampere turns resulting from the
armature current has no effect on the field flux because the spatial direction
in which the armature mmf oriented has an angular displacement of π/2
radians with respect to the spatial direction of the field flux. Therefore
changes in armature current irrespective of whether they are caused by the
controller or by changes in load do not affect field flux. It is for this reason
that DC machines are said to have decoupled or independent control over
torque and flux. These stationary space vectors are orthogonal and
decoupled in nature. This decoupling that naturally exists in the DC motor
between the field flux and the armature current, irrespective of the angular
position of the shaft, that gives the machine its high dynamic performance
capability. Induction motors are coupled non linear multivariable systems
whose stator and rotor fields are not held orthogonal to one another. In
order to achieve decoupled control over the torque and flux producing
components of the stator currents, a technique known as Field Oriented
Control (FOC) is used. The main drawback of this technique is the reduced
reliability of the DC motor – the fact that brushes and commutators wear
down and need regular servicing. DC motors can be costly to purchase since
they require encoders for positional feedback.
30
3.3.7 Description of Field Oriented Control

The principle of FOC system of an induction motor is that the d-q

coordinate reference frame is locked to the rotor flux vector, this results in
decoupling of the variables so that flux and torque can be separately
controlled by stator direct axis current isd and quadrature axis current isq
respectively like in the separately excited DC machine. Performance of DC
machine can also be extended to an induction motor if the machine is
considered in a synchronously rotating reference frame where the sinusoidal
variables appears as DC quantity in steady state. The induction motor with
the inverter and vector control in the front end is shown in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.11 Field oriented control of induction motor

With FOC, direct axis component of the stator current is analogous to

field current and quadrature axis component of stator current is analogous
to armature current of a DC machine, therefore torque can be expressed as:

Td = k ' I sq I sd (3.59)

Basic equations describing the dynamic behaviour of an Induction

machine in a rotating reference frame aligned to the rotor flux axis is
described above. For obtaining linear relationship between control variables
and torque, coordinate transformation to new field coordinates are of prime
importance in vector control. The induction motor model is often used in
vector control algorithms, for this, the reference frame may be aligned with
the stator flux linkage, rotor flux linkage or the magnetizing space vector.
The most accepted reference frame is the frame attached to the rotor flux
linkage, this can be achieved by deciding ωr to be the speed of rotor and
locking the phase of the reference system so that the rotor flux is aligned

31
with the d axis. In this, the torque can be instantaneously controlled by
controlling the current isq after decoupling the rotor flux and torque
producing component of the current components [80]. To perform the
alignment on a reference frame revolving with rotor flux requires information
on the position of the rotor flux. The reference frame d-q aligned with the
rotor flux is shown in Fig. 3.12. A condition for elimination of transients in
rotor flux and the coupling between the two axes is to have the flux along
the q axis must be zero, thus the field orientation concept in rotating
reference frame is,

ψ rq = 0 (3.60)

ψ rd = ψ r (3.61)

Fig. 3.12 Field orientation in d-q reference frame

dψ rq
=0 (3.62)
dt
ψ rq = Lr irq + Lm isq = 0 (3.63)

Maximum peak of torque per ampere is attained when the magnetizing

current imr, which is responsible for the magnetizing flux generation, is equal
to the torque producing component of the stator current isq at steady state
condition. The rotor inductance can be expressed in terms of mutual
inductance and rotor leakage coefficient σr as:

Lr = lr + Lm = σ r Lm + Lm = Lm (1 + σ r ) (3.64)

ψ rd = Lr ird + Lmisd = Lm (1 + σ r ) ird + Lmisd = Lmimr (3.65)

32
 imr − isd
ird = (3.66)
(1 + σ r )
Up to the rated speed rotor magnetizing current is kept constant to get
the fast control over electromagnetic torque of the machine because the
dynamics of the magnetizing current involves a big time constant. The
magnetizing current is responsible for the magnetizing flux generation. From
the voltage loop equation the magnetizing current dependency on the d
component of stator current is obtained as:

dψ rd
+ Rr ird = 0 (3.67)
dt

dimr
τr + imr = isd
dt (3.68)

Lr
where, τr =
Rr

isd
imr =
(1 + sτ r )

3.3.8 Determination of the Rotor Flux Angle

Knowledge of the rotor flux angle is essential for accurately applying

the Clarke and Park transformations. If this angle is incorrect, the flux and
torque producing components of the stator current are not decoupled and
true field oriented control is not achieved. Induction motors are
asynchronous machines so the flux speed is not equal to the mechanical
speed of the rotor due to the effect of slip. In this reference frame, the d axis
is moving at the same relative speed as the rotor phase ‘a’ winding and
coincides with its axis. When the rotor is at standstill, rotor phase current
and rotor d axis current are at fundamental frequency, but at normal
running speed it gradually change to slip frequency, which is useful in
studying transient phenomena in the rotor. In induction motor, mechanical
speed is defined as the difference between rotor flux speed and slip angular
speed and rotor flux linkage can be with the physical quantity as:

ωr = ωe − ωslip (3.69)

33
 d
ψ rq + (ωe − ωr )ψ rd + Rr irq = 0
dt (3.70)

d
ψ rd + (ωe − ωr )ψ rq + Rr ird = 0
dt (3.71)

Rotor currents ird and irq can be written in terms of isq and isd as:

ψ rq Lm
irq = − isq
Lr Lr (3.72)

ψ rd Lm
ird = − isd
Lr Lr (3.73)

Rotor current ird and irq can be eliminated from (3.70) and (3.71) as

d R L
ψ rq + (ωe − ωr )ψ rd + r ψ rq − m Rr isq = 0
dt Lr Lr (3.74)

d R L
ψ rd + (ωe − ωr )ψ rq + r ψ rd − m Rr isd = 0
dt Lr Lr (3.75)

Substituting the expressions for irq and ird into (3.62) and (3.64) gives

 Lm2  Lm
ψ sq =  Ls −  isq + ψ rq (3.76)
 Lr  Lr

 Lm2  Lm
ψ sd =  Ls −  isd + ψ rd (3.77)
 Lr  Lr

Slip speed is calculated based on the following two equations:

ψ rd (ωe − ωr ) + Rr irq = 0 (3.78)

ψ rq = 0 (3.79)

To determine the rotor flux angle, first we need to calculate the slip
using the following equation:

Lm isq 1 isq
ωslip = = (3.80)
τ r ψ rd τ r imr

1 isq
ωe = ωr + ωslip = ωr + (3.81)
τ r imr

Then rotor flux angle can be calculated as:

34
 θ = ∫ ωe dt (3.82)

d ωr 2 P Lm
J = imr isq − TL (3.83)
dt 3 2 (1 + σ r )
The fundamental equations for vector control, which allows the
induction motor to act like a separately excited DC machine with decoupled
control of torque and flux making the induction motor to operate as a high
performance four quadrant servo drive. The expression for the
electromagnetic torque of the machine becomes:

2 P Lm
Td = imr isq (3.84)
3 2 (1 + σ r )

Rated torque of the motor is obtained by selecting the magnetizing

current to achieve the maximum torque per ampere ratio. If the magnetic
saturation is not taken into consideration, the maximum peak of torque per
ampere is achieved when the magnetizing current is equal to the torque
producing component of the stator current at steady state condition for all
permitted ranges of stator currents.

3.4. Basic Scheme of Field Oriented Control of Induction

Motor

Field Oriented Control or Vector Control (VC) techniques are being

used extensively for the control of induction motor. This technique allows a
squirrel cage induction motor to be driven with high dynamic performance
comparable to that of a DC motor. In FOC, the squirrel cage induction motor
is the plant which is an element within a feedback loop and hence its
transient behavior has to be taken into consideration. This cannot be
analyzed from the per phase equivalent circuit of the machine, which is valid
only in the steady state condition. The induction motor can be considered as
a transformer with short circuited and moving secondary where the coupling
coefficients between the stator and rotor phases change continuously in the
course of rotation of rotor. The machine model can be described by
differential equations with time varying mutual inductances but such model
is highly complex. For simplicity of analysis, a three phase machine which is
supplied with three phase balanced supply can be represented by an

35
equivalent two phase machine. The problem due to the time varying
inductances is eliminated by modeling the induction motor on a suitable
reference frame. The basic idea behind the FOC is to manage the
interrelationship of the fluxes to avoid the issues mentioned above, and to
squeeze the most performance from the motor. The basic principle of FOC is
to maintain a desired alignment between the stator flux and rotor flux.

In FOC, the stator currents are transformed into a rotating reference

frame aligned with the rotor, stator or air-gap flux vectors to produce d-axis
component of current and q-axis component of current. Torque can be
controlled by the q-axis component of stator current space vector and flux
controlled by the d-axis component of current vector. The basis of FOC is to
use rotor flux angle to decouple torque and flux producing components.
Basically, there are two different types of FOC methods depending on the
calculation of this rotor flux angle. Field orientation achieved by direct
measurement of flux is termed Direct FOC (DFOC). The flux orientation
achieved by imposing a slip frequency derived from the rotor dynamic
equations is referred to as Indirect FOC (IFOC). IFOC is preferred to DFOC
since the fragility of Hall sensors detracts the inherent robustness of an
induction machine.

3.4.1. Direct Field Oriented Control

In DFOC, an estimator or observer calculates the rotor flux angle.

Inputs to the estimator or observer are stator voltages and currents. In
DFOC, rotor flux vector orientation can be measured by the use of a flux
sensor mounted in the air gap like Hall-effect sensor, search coil and other
measurement techniques introduces limitations due to machine structural
and thermal requirements or it can be measured using the voltage
equations. Saliency of fundamental or high frequency signal injection is the
other flux and speed estimation technique, but this method fails at low and
zero speed level. The method may cause torque ripples and mechanical
problems when applied with high frequency signal injection. The advantage
of this method is that the saliency is not sensitive to actual motor
parameters. Flux sensor is expensive and needs special installation and

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maintenance. Rotor flux cannot be directly sensed by this method but from
the directly sensed signal it is possible to calculate the rotor flux, which may
result in inaccuracies at low speed due to the dominance of stator resistance
voltage drop and due to variation of flux level and temperature and makes it
expensive. Fig. 3.13 shows DFOC drive system.

Fig. 3.13 DFOC drive system

3.4.2. Indirect Field Oriented Control

The field orientation concept implies the current components supplied

to the machine should be oriented in such a manner as to isolate the stator
current magnetizing flux component of the machine from the torque
producing component. This can be obtained by the instantaneous speed of
the rotor flux linkage vector and the d axis of the d-q coordinates are exactly
locked in rotor flux vector orientation. In IFOC, the rotor flux angle is
obtained from the reference currents, rotor flux vector is estimated by using
the field oriented control current model equations and requires a rotor speed
measurement. In this, flux position can be calculated by considering
terminal quantities in motor model such as voltage and currents, but it is
very sensitive to rotor time constant. When rotor time constant is not
accurately set, detuning will takes place in the machine and the loss of
decoupled control of torque and flux causes a sluggish performance. IFOC of
the rotor currents can be implemented using instantaneous stator currents
and rotor mechanical position. It does not have inherent low speed problems
and is preferred in most applications.

The flux control through the magnetizing current is by aligning all the
flux with d axis and aligning the torque producing component of the current
with the q axis. The torque can be instantaneously controlled by controlling
the current isq after decoupling the rotor flux and torque producing

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component of the current components. The flux along the q axis must be
zero and the mathematical constraint is,

ψ rq = 0 (3.85)

The rotational position information is measured from slip frequency.

The flux and torque can be controlled independently by providing the slip
frequency. The block diagram of IFOC drive system is shown in Fig. 3.14.

Fig. 3.14 IFOC drive system

Properties of the FOC methods are,

i. It is based on the analogy to the control of separately excited DC
motor,
ii. Coordinate transformations are required,
iii. PWM algorithm is needed,
iv. Current controllers are necessary,
v. Sensitive to rotor time constant,
vi. Rotor flux estimator is essential in DFOC and
vii. Mechanical speed is required in IFOC.
The goal of FOC is to perform real time control of torque variations
demand, to control the mechanical speed and to regulate phase currents. To
perform these controls, the equations are projected from a three-phase non-
rotating frame into a two coordinate rotating frame. FOC uses a pair of
conversions to get from the stationary reference frame to the rotating
reference frame which is known as Clarke transformation and Park
transformation. This mathematical projection (Clarke and Park

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transformation) greatly simplifies the expression of the electrical equations
and removes their time and position dependencies.
The control task can be greatly simplified by first using the Clarke and
Park transforms to perform a two-step transformation on the stator
currents. The first is from a three phase to a two phase system with the
Clarke transform, and then translating them into the rotor reference frame
with the Park Transform. This enables the controllers to generate voltages to
be applied to the stator to maintain the desired current vectors in the so-
called rotor reference frame. The voltage command is then transformed back
by the inverse Park and Clarke transform to voltage commands in the a-b-c
stator reference frame, so that each phase can be excited via the power
converter.

3.4.3. Clarke Transformation

This transformation block is responsible for translating three axes to

two axes system reference to the stator. Two of the three phase currents are
measured because the sum of the three phase currents equal to zero.
Basically the transformation shift from a three axis, two- dimensional
coordinate system attached to the stator of the motor to a two axis system
referred to the stator. The measured current represents the vector
component of the current in a three axis coordinate system which are
spatially separated by 120°. Clarke transformation transforms the rotating
current vector in a two axis orthogonal coordinate system, so that the
current vector is represented with two vector components which vary with
time. The space vector can be transformed to another reference frame with
only two orthogonal axis called α-β, where the axis ‘α’ and axis ‘a’ coincide
each other. Fig. 3.15 shows the stator current space vector and its
component in stationary reference frame and the Clarke transformation
module.

The projection that modifies the three phase system into two
dimensional orthogonal system is expressed as:

2 
3
( )
isα = Re  ia (t ) + ib (t )e j 2π /3 + ic (t )e− j 2π /3 

(3.86)

39
 2 
3
( )
isβ = Im  ia (t ) + ib (t )e j 2π /3 + ic (t )e− j 2π /3 

(3.87)

Fig. 3.15 Stator current space vector in stationary reference frame

 −1 −1  ia 
 isα  2 1 2 2  i 
i  =  (3.88)
− 3  b
 sβ  3 0 3
  ic 
 2 2

3.4.4. Park Transformation

It is used to rotate the two axis coordinate system so that it is aligned

with the rotating motor and this projection modifies a two phase orthogonal
α-β system in the d-q rotating reference frame. The stator reference frame is
not suitable for the control process. The space vector is is rotating at a rate
equal to the angular frequency of the phase currents, the components
change with time and speed. In order to gain a complete decoupling of
torque and flux, the current phasor is transformed into two components of a
rotating reference frame rotating at the same speed as the angular frequency
of the phase currents, these components do not depend on time and speed.
In FOC this is the most important transformation, the component of stator
current which is responsible for the rotor flux can be fix to the d axis. These
components depend on the α-β current vector components and the rotor flux
position. The separate flux and the torque components of stator current
vector in two coordinate time invariant system can be expressed by (3.89).
Direct torque control is possible and becomes easy with the flux component

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isd aligned with the d axis representing the direction of the rotor flux and
torque component isq aligned with the q axis perpendicular to the rotor flux.
Fig. 3.16 shows the stator current space vector and its component in
rotating reference frame and the Park transformation module.
r
i s = isd + jisq (3.89)

 isd   cos θ sin θ   isα 

i  =  − sin θ   (3.90)
 sq   cos θ   is β 

Fig. 3.16 Stator current space vector in rotating reference frame

3.4.5. Inverse Park Transformation

In this transformation, the stator voltages represented in the d-q

rotating reference frame are transformed to a two phase orthogonal α-β
system, from which we can obtain the reference vector components to be
applied to the motor phases through space vector modulation technique.
The projection that modifies the d-q rotating reference frame to two phase
orthogonal system is expressed by (3.91). Fig. 3.17 shows the Inverse Park
transformation module and the stator voltage space vector and its
component in stationary orthogonal system.

Vsα   cos θ − sin θ  Vsd 

V  =    (3.91)
 s β   sin θ cos θ  Vsq 

41
 Fig. 3.17 Stator voltage space vector from d-q to α-β

3.5. Implementation of FOC in Induction Motor Drive System

The main aspect of field oriented control method is the coordinate

transformation. Basic Field Oriented induction motor drive system is shown
in Fig. 3.18. The current vector is measured in stationary reference
frame α-β, where the components of currents isα and isβ must be transformed
to the rotating co-ordinate system d-q known as Park transformation.
Similarly the reference stator voltage vector components Vsα and Vsβ must be
transformed from the d-q system to α-β known as inverse transformation.
These transformations require a rotor flux angle ‘θ’.

Fig. 3.18 Field oriented Induction motor drive system

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 The transition from the stationary reference frame to the rotor rotating
reference frame requires the determination of position of rotor. The position
estimation can be done through sensorless control. In sensorless control, an
estimator block is needed. Two of the three phase currents are measured
because the sum of the three phase currents is equal to zero. This current is
fed to the Clarke transformation module, the output obtained from this
block is designated as isα and isβ. These two components of current act as the
input to the Park transformation block, which gives current in the rotating
reference frame. Calculation of the two components in the rotating reference
frame isd and isq is possible by finding the exact rotor flux angular position.
These components of currents are compared with the flux reference current
isd,ref and torque reference current isq,ref. The portability from asynchronous
to synchronous drive can be obtained by simply changing the flux reference
and determining the rotor flux position. The torque command isq,ref is
obtained from the speed regulator output. The output of the current
regulators are Vsd,ref and Vsq,ref, they are acting as the input to the inverse
Park transformation, where the conversion from d-q to α-β takes place. The
output of this projection gives the component of the stator vector voltage in
the α-β stationary reference frame as Vsα,ref and Vsβ,ref. The rotor flux position
is necessary for Park and Inverse Park transformations. Here space vector
modulation techniques are used, which is a sophisticated PWM method that
provides advantages such as higher DC bus voltage utilization and lower
total harmonic distortion.

3.6. Simulation Model of FOC Induction Motor Drive System

In this field oriented control simulation model, a 1.5 kW induction

motor is used, where three phase voltages are converted into two phase
reference frame voltages using Clarke transformation module. Park
transformation is used to obtain the voltages. From these voltages,
associated flux and current are calculated and then applied to
electromechanical torque equations to obtain torque speed responses. Fig.
3.19 shows the system configuration of IFOC induction machine with sensor
and the simulation is implemented using MATLAB/Simulink.

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 Fig. 3.19 System configuration of IFOC induction machine with sensor

3.7. Summary

In this chapter, review of the dynamic model of the induction motor in

space vector form and characteristic features of the FOC scheme were
presented. Mathematical transformations are carried out using Clarke and
Park transformations to decouple variables and to facilitate the solutions of
complicated equations with time varying coefficients. The simulation of the
FOC scheme is described and the simulation results are presented in the
next chapter along with the description of inverter.

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