Syeda Munazza Ahmad

Define Motivation

Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Motivation is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or
reading a book to gain knowledge.

Components of Motivation

Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon) probably
immediately realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not enough.
Achieving such a goal requires the ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep
going in spite of difficulties.

There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

1. Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology

class.

2. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An
example of persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a
degree although it requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.

3. Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For
example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will
study regularly, participate in discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities
outside of class. The first student lacks intensity, while the second pursues his
educational goals with greater intensity.

Theories and concepts of Motivation

Drive- Reduction theory

Drives and Homeostasis

 The maintenance of homeostasis is particularly important in directing behavior.

 Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological

system.
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 In a body system, a control center (which is often part of the brain) receives input from
receptors (which are often complexes of neurons).

 The control center directs effectors (which may be other neurons) to correct any
imbalance in the body detected by the control center.

 The purpose of biological drives is to correct disturbances of homeostasis. Unsatisfied

drives are detected by neurons concentrated in the hypothalamus in the brain. These
neurons then produce an integrated response to bring the drive back to its optimal level.

 For instance, when you are dehydrated, freezing cold, or exhausted, the appropriate
biological responses are activated automatically (e.g., body fat reserves are mobilized,
urine production is inhibited, you shiver, blood is shunted away from the body surface,
etc.).

 While your body automatically responds to these survival drives, you also become
motivated to correct these disturbances by eating, drinking water, resting, or actively
seeking or generating warmth by moving.

Drive-Reduction Theory

• Drive-reduction theory, first proposed by Clark Hull in 1943, proposed that the purpose of
biological drives is to correct disturbances of homeostasis.

• According to Hull, physiological needs result in psychological drive states that direct
behavior to meet the needs and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis.

 When a physiological need is not satisfied, a negative state of tension is created; when the
need is satisfied, the drive to satisfy that need is reduced and the organism returns to
homeostasis.
 For example, if it’s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below
normal. Low blood sugar induces a physiological need and a corresponding drive state
(i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek out and consume food.
 Eating will eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will return to
normal.
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 In this way, a drive can be thought of as an instinctual need that has the power to motivate
behavior.

Primary and Secondary Drives

 Drive-reduction theory distinguishes between primary and secondary drives. Primary

drives are innate biological needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, and desire for sex) that are
usually necessary for survival.
 Secondary drives, on the other hand, are not usually necessary for survival and are
often linked to social or identity factors (e.g., the desire for wealth). Secondary drives
are associated with primary drives because the satisfaction of secondary
drives indirectly satisfies primary drives.
 For example, the desire for wealth is not necessary for survival; however, wealth
provides you with money that can be used to acquire food, shelter, and other basic
needs, thereby indirectly satisfying these primary drives

Instinct Theories

 According to the instinct theory of motivation, all organisms are born with innate biological
tendencies that help them survive. This theory suggests that instincts drive all behaviors.
 Instincts are goal-directed and innate patterns of behavior that are not the result of learning or
experience. For example, infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps them seek out a
nipple and obtain nourishment, while birds have an innate need to build a nest or migrate
during the winter.

Observations About Instinct Theory

 The instinct theory suggests that motivation is primarily biologically based. We engage in
certain behaviors because they aid in survival.
 Migrating before winter ensures the survival of the flock, so the behavior has become
instinctive. Birds who migrated were more likely to survive and therefore more likely to pass
down their genes to future generations.
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 In other words, the behavior must occur naturally and automatically in all organisms of that
species. For example, infants have an innate rooting reflex that leads them to root for and
suck on a nipple. This behavior is unlearned and occurs naturally in all human infants.

Arousal theory

 While drive-reduction theory focuses primarily on biological needs as

motivators, arousal theory examines the influence of the neural transmitter
dopamine as a motivator in the body.
 Traits like impulsivity and sensation-seeking predispose people to engage in
activities that they find physiologically arousing.
 Research shows that there tends to be an optimal level of arousal for peak
performance; when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer.

The Reward System

 Arousal theory proposes that motivation is strongly linked to biological factors

that control reward sensitivity and goal-driven behavior.
 Reward sensitivity is located in the mesolimbic dopamine system.
 Individual differences in neurological activity in this area can influence
motivation for certain goal-driven behaviors that will elicit a reward or satisfy a
craving.
 In this way, the reward system spurs physiological arousal, which motivates the
individual to engage in whatever behavior is necessary to satisfy or relieve that
arousal.
 For example, substance use is associated with overactivity in the dopamine
system; depending on how strongly an individual's brain interprets that as a
"reward," they may be more or less motivated to continue using that substance.
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Optimal Levels of Arousal

 Theories of learning assert that there is an optimal level of arousal that we all try to
maintain. If we are under-aroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of
stimulation.
 On the other hand, if we are over-aroused, we will engage in behaviors to reduce our
arousal
Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal is very high or very
low, performance tends to suffer.
 Researchers Robert Yerkes and John Dodson discovered that the optimal arousal level
depends on the complexity and difficulty of the task to be performed. This relationship is
known as Yerkes-Dodson law, which holds that a simple task is performed best when
arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal
levels are lower.

Incentive Theory

 Motivations are commonly separated into two different types based on the nature of the
motivator: intrinsic(arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external factors).

 Incentive theory argues that behavior is primarily extrinsically motivated: people

are more motivated to perform activities if they receive a reward afterward, rather than
simply because they enjoy the activities themselves.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivators

 Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal
satisfaction that
they bring.
 According to Deci (1971), these behaviors are defined as ones for which the reward is the
satisfaction of performing the activity itself. Intrinsic motivation thus represents
engagement in
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an activity for its own sake. For example, if you are in college because you enjoy learning
new things and expanding your knowledge, you are intrinsically motivated to be there.
 Extrinsically motivated behaviors, on the other hand, are performed in order to receive
something from others or avoid certain negative outcomes. Theorists define extrinsic
motivation as "engaging in an activity to obtain an outcome that is separable from the
activity itself"
 Extrinsic rewards are often used to impact someone who shows little interest in a potentially
useful activity.

 For example, if a child shows no interest in memorizing new vocabulary words, her teacher
might employ external rewards to get her to engage in and work hard on that activity.

 Similarly, a child might be motivated to do his chores by the extrinsic motivation that he
will get his allowance afterward, rather than any intrinsic sense of accomplishment. Grades
offer extrinsic motivation as well: students are generally motivated to do a better job if they
know their performance will be judged

Incentive Theory and the Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

 Incentive theory is based on the idea that behavior is primarily extrinsically

motivated. It argues that people are more motivated to perform activities if they
receive a reward afterward, rather than simply because they enjoy the activities
themselves.

 Studies have shown that intrinsic motivation will decrease over time if extrinsic
incentives are introduced for behaviors that an individual already found motivating.

 The efficacy of extrinsic motivators varies depending on factors such as self-esteem,

locus of control, self-efficacy, and neuroticism.

Cognitive Theories

1. Attribution Theory

Attribution theory and motivation

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 Attribution theory was developed by the social psychologists Heider, Kelley,

Jones and Ross.

 The theory is concerned with how people explain or attribute various causes to
events.

 According to the 'attribution theory' it is normal for people to look for

explanations or causes - that can be attributed to their own success or failure.

 An assumption of the attribution theory is that people will interpret their

environment in such a way as to maintain a positive self-image.

 There are three main categories of attributes for explaining success or failure:

 Internal or external

 Stable or unstable

 Controllable or uncontrollable

 Examples of internal factors may be that you are either stupid or bright or
not interested etc.
It seems women tend to point to internal factors more than the seemingly
more self-confident men.
External factors are anything or anybody else you can blame.

1. An outcome can also be perceived as stable or unstable.

If you think the outcome is stable, then it is likely to be the same the next time as
well. If, on the contrary, it is unstable, the outcome will probably be different on
another occasion.
If you tend to go for the stable explanation, you may tend to rationalise: 'it
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doesn't really matter how hard I try, I will fail anyway'.

If you point to the unstable explanation on the other hand, you think you might
succeed if you put in more or smarter efforts.

2. Success or failure factors may be either controllable or

uncontrollable.
A controllable factor you can alter or influence if you wish to do so.
An uncontrollable factor is one that you cannot easily alter.
If you e.g. depend on the teacher for success or if you compete with your peers for
the few available high grades, you explain your situation by pointing to
uncontrollable factors.
If you fail in your studies, you can thus attribute this to external, uncontrollable
factors by blaming the bad school and the poor teachers.
This situation you can perceive as stable: No matter how hard you try, these
uncontrollable external factors will ensure your failure. In other words, you have
very good explanations for your failure, and others are to blame.

Maslow’s Theory of Need of Hierarchy

 Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory
of Human Motivation" and his subsequent book Motivation and Personality. This
hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to
other, more advanced needs.

 Maslow was much more interested in learning about what makes people happy and the
things that they do to achieve that aim.

 There are five different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. starting at the lowest
level, which are known as physiological needs.
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 Maslow's hierarchy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid
are made up of the most basic needs, while the most complex needs are at the top of the
pyramid.
 Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for
food, water, sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can
move on to the next level of needs, which are for safety and security.

Deficiency Needs vs. Growth Needs

 Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating
behavior. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs, which arise
due to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid
unpleasant feelings or consequences.
 Maslow termed the highest level of the pyramid as growth needs. These needs don't stem
from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.
 Physiological Needs
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The basic physiological needs are probably fairly apparent—these include the things that are
vital to our survival. Some examples of the physiological needs include:

 Food
 Water
 Breathing
 Homeostasis
 In addition to the basic requirements of nutrition, air and temperature regulation, the
physiological needs also include such things as shelter and clothing. Maslow also included
sexual reproduction in this level of the hierarchy of needs since it is essential to the survival
and propagation of the species.

Security and Safety Needs

 As we move up to the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the requirements start to
become a bit more complex. At this level, the needs for security and safety become primary.
People want control and order in their lives, so this need for safety and security contributes
largely to behaviors at this level.

Some of the basic security and safety needs include:

 Financial security
 Heath and wellness
 Safety against accidents and injury

Social Needs

The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include such things as love, acceptance, and belonging.
At this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behavior. Some of the things that
satisfy this need include:

 Friendships
 Romantic attachments
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 Family
 Social groups
 Community groups
 Churches and religious organizations

Esteem Needs

 At the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. When
the needs at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a
more prominent role in motivating behavior.
 At this point, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and appreciation of
others. People have a need to accomplish things and then have their efforts recognized.

Self-Actualization Needs

 At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. "What a man can
be, he must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need people have to achieve their full
potential as human beings.

Work theories

Equity Theory

Psychologist John Stacey Adams developed the Adams Equity Theory in 1963. It suggests that
employees become more or less motivated based on the degree to which they believe they are
being treated equitably (or fairly) by those around them--particularly their supervisors and
managers in workplace settings. For instance, employees who feel they are putting in more effort
than their peers, yet do not believe they are being appropriately rewarded for that effort, are
likely to be unmotivated. Similarly, employees who feel their level of pay is not equitable either
internally or externally (compared to other employees or other companies) are likely to lack
motivation, according to Grensing-Pophal.

Need for Achievement

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David McClelland of Harvard proposed the n-ach theory, or the need for achievement, as a way
to explain the common tendency of people to seek higher and higher rewards for their actions. It
is particularly relevant in the work world. Similar to Maslow's hierarchy, McClelland suggested
that people move from lower to higher levels of achievement as they continue to move toward
the highest level of achievement.