Biophysics

Practical works

01 Introduction
25.02 – 1.03.2019
Physical quantities
1) Measuring physical quantities
QUANTITIES AND UNITS IN PHYSICS

Physics is an experimental science.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
The notions lie space, time, speed, mass, strength, temperature and
many more are called physical quantities. With the help of the
physical quantites, the physics laws can be mathematically
expressed through equations.

The trajectory is not physical because it can not be measured.

MEASURING PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
A physical measurement involves two operations:
1) choosing the unit of measure;
2) comparing the unit of measure with the physical quantity to be to be
measured.
Example: We want to measure the length of a room.
1) In principle, any stick can be taken as a measuring unit.
2) The stick ranged 7 times across the room plus about a quarter of a
stick.
The result of the measurement can be expressed as such:
room length = 7.25 sticks.
The chosen measure unit does not make sense to everyone.
ONE USES STANDARD MEASURING UNITS!!!
Definition:
Measuring means to compare experimentally the physical quantity
to be measured by the physical quantity of the same type that was
chosen as measuring unit .
Observaţia 1. The measurement unit is a physical quantities of the
same type as the physical quantity to be measured.
• For measuring lengths, a certain length, rigorously defined, is used.
• For measuring time one uses a certain time unit, which rigorously defined.
• For energy measurement one uses a certain energy rigorously determined.

Observaţia 2. When expressing the result of the measurement, the

numerical value is necessarily associated with the unit of
measurement.
2) Direct and indirect measurements.
a) Direct measurement. In the example given above, the length of
the camera could be measured directly by comparing it with an unit
of length (the stick). Time can be measured directly by comparing it
to the time unitetc.

b) Indirect measurement. If we want to measure the volume of the

room in which we live, we do not directly compare the volume of
the room with the unit of volume, 1 m3, but we compare the length,
width and height of the camera with the unit of length. The volume
is computed. Example: If the length is a m, width b m and the height
is c m, then V= a m• b m • c m = abc m .3

Most physical quantities are measured indirectly.

3) Fundamental physical quantities
and derived physical quantities.
Speed is the ratio of space to time
(1.1)
The physical quantities whose units of measurement have been rigorously
defined and through which the units of measurement of all other physical
quantities are expressed are called fundamental physical quantities.
The physical quantities whose units of measurement are expressed by means of
units of measure of the fundamental physical quantities are called derived
physical quantities.
The units of measure of fundamental physical quantities are called
fundamental units of measurement.
The units of measure of derived physical quantities are called derived units of
measure.
3) Units systems.
UNITS SYSTEMS
The fundamental physical quantities and their units of measurement
determine the units system.

Fundamental quantities Unit

length meter (M)
mass kilogram (K)
time second (S)
MKS Units system or (SI)
In Romania and in most countries of the world, it was agreed to use
only the MKS unit system, called the International System (SI).
 Fundamental quantitiy Unit
the length centimeter (c)
the mass gram (g)
the time second (s)
The CGS unit system
BIOLOGY (LIFE SCIENCES)
Fundamental quantities Unit
the length meter (M)
the force kilogram-force (Kf)
the time second (S)
The MKfS unit system
In the study of heat and thermodynamics it is necessary to add to
these three fundamental quantities, another one that characterizes
the thermal phenomena, the temperature and its SI unit of
measure : the Kelvin [grade] (K).
In electromagnetism it is necessary to add yet another fundamental
quantity, the electric current intensity and its SI unit of measure :
the amper (A).
Also, in the study of light phenomena (in optics), it is necessary to
introduce the sixth fundamental physical quantity, the luminous
intensity with the corresponding fundamental unit calle candle (cd).
Finally, in order to describe the quantity of matter one introduces
another unit called the mole.
 Fundamental quantity Unit
the length meter (M)
the mass kilogram (Kg)
the time second (S)
the temperature grade Kelvin (K)
the electric current intensity ampere (A)
the luminous intensity candle (cd)
The MKS or SI unit system
4) Standard unit of measurement for
length (definitions, advantages and
disadvantages).
1.2. THE STANDARDS OF THE FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
1.2.1. THE LENGTH STANDARD UNIT
Old standard:
The meter is the length equal to the distance between two lines
drawn on the international standard at the International
Measurement and Weighing Office of Sèvres (France).
The distance between the two lines on the standard meter was
defined as 1/40 000 000 of the length of the Earth meridian.
New standard :
The meter is the length exactly equal to 1 650 763.73 red – orange
light wavelengths emitted by 86Kr.
 Disadvantages of the old Advantages of the new
standard standard
Its length depends on temperature The wavelength of the radiation
(dilation). emitted by atoms is always the
same.
Copies executed after the The radiation wavelength is
standard meter are not exactly measured easily.
one meter long. So the only valid
meter is the standard kept in
Sèvres.
Following a war or natural As long as there is Krypton in
catastrophe, the standard meter nature, there will be the standard
could be destroyed. meter.
5) The standard time measurement
unit.
1.2.2. TIME STANDARD UNIT
Old standard:
One second is exactly 1/31 556 925,9747 of the 1900 tropical year

Insufficiency: The Earth's rotation period changes slightly each

year.
New standard :
133
Second is the time it takes for the atom Cs to vibrate 9 192
631,770 times.
6) The standard mass measurement
unit.
1.2.3. MASS STANDARD UNIT
Old standard:
The kilogram is the mass of a platinum iridium cylinder kept in
Sevres, France.

Insufficiency: Although the above-defined standard mass does not

depend on temperature or on its whereabouts, a calamity could
destroy it.
New standard :
27
The kilogram in SI represents (1/1,6605)∙10 atomic mass units
12
(1/12 from the C atomic mass).
7) The dimensional analysis of the
mechanical work.
1.3 DIMENSIONS AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
The dimensions of the fundamental physical quantities are
labelled without any straight brackets:
1) length: [l]=L 4) temperature: [T]=θ
2) mass : [m]=M 5) current intensity: [I]=A
3) time: [t]=T 6) light intensity: [I] =I
If the system of units is specified then the unit choice for
fundamental (and derived) quantities is no longer arbitrary. For
example, in SI, [l ] = L = m, [m] = M = kg ... [I] = l = cd.
 equation for physical quantities
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
[ ]

equation of dimensions.
[ ]
measurement units

the derived unit (1 J - Joule) is expressed in terms of fundamental

units
The dimension equation has the following general form:
[ ] (1.2)
where [D] is the dimension of the derived quantity, M, L, T, θ , ...
the dimensions of the fundamental quantities, and a, b, c, d, ...
integer and positive numbers.
8) Fill the conversion table of CGS
units into SI units (MKS).
Physical Definition Dimensions CGS Conversion MKS
quantity unit factor unit
acceleration gal m/s2
force dyne Newton
energy erg Joule
pressure barye Pascal
dynamic poise Pa∙s
viscosity
kinetic viscosity stokes m2//s
wavelength kayser m-1
*** Exercise solved in class
9) Physical scalar and vector
quantities.
SCALE AND VECTORIAL QUANTITIES

Scalar quantities are those physical quantities that can be

characterized completely by specifying only their value.
Example: mass, energy, density, temperature, etc., are scalar
physical quantities.
Vector quantities are those physical quantities that are characterized
completely by specifying their orientation: direction and sense.
Example: speed, acceleration, force, gravity field, etc. are physical
vector quantities.
PROCESSING OF EXPERIMENTAL
DATA
10) Errors (definition, classification).
ERRORS
CLASSIFICATIONS
Definition:
The error is the difference between the real value (x) of a measured
physical quantity and the measured value (xm).
 Relative error, | |
 Absolute error,
Criteria for classifying errors
(1) the relationship of between the measured value and the error
(2) the cause or the source of error.
(1) the relationship between the measured physical value
and the error
 Additive errors - which do not depend on the measured physical
quantity.
 Multiplicative errors - which depend on the measured physical
quantity.
(2) source of errors
 systematic errors
 accidental errors
 gross errors.
Systematic errors
 they either constant or variable and they usually manifest in the same
sense (either by diminishing or by increasing the physical
measurement value)
 • can also be classified in:
o instrumental errors (are strictly related to the intrinsic
characteristics of measuring devices that have a limited accuracy)
o human errors (which are inherent because each measuring device
is handled by a person who is more or less trained, more or less
careful, etc.)
o theoretical errors are related to the constants involved in
computing the physical quantities
 • are diminished by introducing correction factors that take into
account instrumental errors and theoretical errors.
Other types of errors
 Accidental or statistical errors: they usually have unknown
causes and they can not be eliminated.
 Gross errors have very high or very low values relative to the
rest of the errors associated with a series of measurements being
thus easily detected and eliminated.
11) Calculate the systematic errors of
the physical quantities expressed by
the following laws.

where R, g, K and are constant.

*** Exercise solved in class
STATISTICAL PROCESSING OF ERRORS

The population is a set containing a very large number of type

elements and which is the object of the experimental study.

The sample is the smallest subset that can be considered

representative, ie whose properties can be expanded, without too
much error, to the entire population.

Choosing the right sample is an important step in studying a

population.
12) Position indicators for a set of
measurement values. Numerical
application for the temperature
measurement (K): 305 K, 307 K, 301
K, 310 K şi 308 K
POSITION INDICATORS
 median
 average or mean value
 mode
Median
The first step in the statistical data processing is the ordering of the
values obtained by measurement:

Median (Me) is the value of the set of measured values for which half
of the values are strictly lower and half of the values are higher than
the median.
301 K < 305 K < 307 K < 308 K < 310 K
Average or mean value

Average or mean value (noted ̅ , m or ) represents the most probable

value for a set of randomly distributed values.

If the set of measurements contains different values ,

vthe average value is calculated as the arithmetic mean of the sample of
values:

or taking into account the next notation for the sum of n values:

∑
 ̅ (∑ )

If the set of measurements contains several equal values (we call the
absolute frequency and we note by fi the occurrences for a
repetitive value), then the mean value is calculated as the weighted
average of the sample using the following formula:

with or

(∑ )
Mode
The representative parameter indicating the value occurring at the
highest frequency and describing the central trend, i.e. the the
distribution symmetry of the measurement values around a central
value, is the selection mode defined as:
̅
̅ the values set has a perfect symmetry.
̅ the values set has a negative symmetry
̅ the values set has a positive symmetry
13) Statistical errors. Numerical
application for the temperature
measurement set of values (K): 305
K, 307 K, 301 K, 310 K şi 308 K
***The numerical application is done in the classroom.
TYPES OF STATISTICAL ERRORS
Partial error (for each measurement )
̅
Absolute error

(| | | | | |) ∑| |

If the experiment consists of a very large number of measurements, the partial

errors tend to compensate, in other words:

The downside to the absolute error is that it does not provide much information
about the accuracy of the measurements.
Relative error :

̅
This type of error has the advantage of evaluating the precision of
the measurement chain.
The relative error can also be presented as a percentage error:

The final result :

̅
̅
Numerical applications
No. Value Partial error Parameter Calculated
mes. value
1. 301 average value, ̅
2. 305 absolute error,
3. 307 relative error,
4. 308 relative error %
5. 310 final result
14) Dispersion indicators. Numerical
application for the temperature
measurement set of values (K) : 305
K, 307 K, 301 K, 310 K şi 308 K
***The numerical application is done in the classroom.
DISPERSION INDICATORS

Dispersion indicator are useful for assessing the distribution of

measured values around a central value.
The most useful dispersion indicators are:
 Amplitude of the sample,
 Dispersion or variance of the sample,
 Deviation or standard deviation,
 coefficient of variation
 Mean standard deviation.
Amplitude of the sample (A)

Sample amplitude is defined as the difference between extreme

values in other words between the maximum value (xmax) and the
minimum value (xmin) :

Dispersion or variance of the sample ( ) is thus defined:

( ) ∑( )

where N = n - 1 is the number of freedom degrees of the system.

Deviation or standard deviation

√ √ ∑( )

Coefficient of variation

̅
 evaluates the homogeneity of the studied population.
o if cv < 10 % the population is homogeneous and the sample is
representative;
o if cv > 50 % the population is heterogeneous and the sample is
unrepresentative.
Mean standard deviation

√
It can be proved that with the increase in the number of
measurements, the value of the mean standard deviation is constant,
in other words the absolute error of measurement is constant.
 the mean standard deviation is not calculated for less than five
measurements (n < 5)
 over 20 measurements (n> 20) its value is independent of the
number of measurements, in other words the mean standard
deviation is independent of the precision of the measuring
device.
The confidence interval (CI)
Dispersion around the central value can also be represented in the
form of the confidence interval [ ], cu:
̅
̅
where t is the value of a statistical parameter related to the statistical
test (the Student test, test, the Fisher test etc.) applied to the set
of measurements.
Numerical applications
No. Value Partial error Parameter Calculated
mes. value
1. 301 amplitude, A
2. 305 dispersion,
3. 307 Standard deviation, s
4. 308 The coefficient of
variation %
5. 310 Mean standard
deviation
Confidence interval
(t = 0,05)
Remarks