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The words KQT}TEC; aei \\>Evmai, xaxa e^gia, yaoTEoeg dgyai in Tit 1:2
are traditionally attributed to Epimenides, and, for example, Nestle - Aland 27
(ad locum) refers to his work "de oraculis / nf.Q\. However, we
can only discern a shadow of the man, a pre-Socratic philosopher, or of
several men. We do not have his works, and a work JIEQ\v is never
mentioned in ancient sources. Clement of Alexandria mentions Epimenides,
but not his work; Jerome is the first who certainly attributes the work to
Epimenides. This article proposes a new reconstruction of the history of the
tradition. In the beginning was the proverb that the Cretans were famous
liars, and in the second stage, this reputation was used to construct a logical
paradox. In the next stage, Epimenides, the famous Cretan philosopher, was
involved in the paradox. It is thus not correct to claim that Tit refers to
Epimenides' work JIEQ\: Epimenides is only ahistorically involved
in this paradox. Consequently, the verse does not prove that the writer knew
Classical literature well.
The Problem
Many early Jewish writers eagerly quoted Greek authors in their works,
either approving or rejecting their words. When all these quotations are
collected and analyzed, it is possible to conclude something about their
attitude to Classical culture1. The New Testament only contains a few
obvious quotations from Greek literature. The genuine Pauline letters
only have one, the verse quoted in 1 Cor 15:33. The Antilegomena do not
add much to the evidence. However, in Tit "Paul" writes:
1 I have analyzed Philo's and Josephus's way of dealing with Classical texts in three
articles: "Philo and Classical Drama", in Ancient Israel, Judaism, and Christianity in Con-
temporary Perspective: Essays in Memory of Karl-Johan Illman (eds. JACOB NEUSNER, ALAN
J. AVERY-PECK, ANTTI LAATO, RISTO NURMELA, and KARL-GUSTAV SANDELIN) (Lanham 2006)
137-152; "Philo and Greek Poets" (JSJ, 41(2010)301-322); and "Josephus and Greek Poets",
The Intertextuality of the Epistles, BRODIE; Sheffield 2006) 46-60. Philo's and Josephus'
works reveal a drastically different background: Whereas Philo quotes Classical poets often
and from memory, Josephus had apparently never received a formal Greek education, in
which Classical poets were studied.
"For there are many rebellious people, mere talkers and deceivers, especia-
lly those of the circumcision group. They must be silenced, because they are
ruining whole households by teaching things they ought not to teach - and
that for the sake of dishonest gain. Even one of their own prophets has said:
KQTjTec; ae\, xaxa 6rjQia, yaoTEQEg apycti
This testimony is true. Therefore, rebuke them sharply, so that they will
be sound in the faith and will pay no attention to Jewish myths or to the
commands of those who reject the truth. To the pure, all things are pure, but
to those who are corrupted and do not believe, nothing is pure. In fact, both
their minds and consciences are corrupted" (Tit 1:10-15).
Scholars disagree how much this quotation tells about the attitude
of the writer to Greek literature and how much he knew of it. On the
one hand, Clement of Alexandria, Epiphanius and Socrates Scholasticus
already used the passage to prove how well Paul knew classical authors2,
and in the modern research, for example, HOLTZ takes the quotation as a
sign of "missionarische Klugheit"3 and HOCK considers it meaningful4; to
be true, apparently erroneously considering it a word of the Lucan Paul.5
According to HOCK,
the saying ... may go back to the pre-Socratic philosopher Epimenides, re-
flects, in any case, the maxim habit learned at school.6
On the other hand, several scholars have claimed that the verse does
not attest that "Paul" was educated. According to SCHMIDT, for example,
the mocking words on the Cretans does not say anything about the educa-
7 K.L. SCHMIDT "Paulus und die antike Welt", Vortrage der Bibliothek Warburg, Vortrage
1924-1925 (Leipzig 1927) 46.
8 J. JEREMIAS, Die Briefe an Timotheus und Titus (NTD 9; Gottingen 1981) 70.
9 M. DIBELIUS, Die Briefe des Apostels Paulus: An Timotheus I - II: An Titus (Tubingen
1913) 207
10 See below p. 123-124.
11 On Epimenides, see KERN, "Epimenides", PRE 6 (1909)173-178; R. PARKER, "Epime-
nides", DNP 3 (1997) 1144.
12 H. DIELS and W. KRANZ, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker 1-3. 12th ed. Dublin /
Zurich 1966) 31-37.
13 Eratosthenes, (Catast. 27) writes on the work as follows: 'Em|ievi6r|c; 6 TCX KQTITIXCC
icnoQcov.
62 Erkki Koskenniemi
tiiis (1,109-115). The late work, written about 200 AD, has, of course,
only little to do with the historical figure of Epimenides, but it collects
the tales of him in the ancient tradition, and it can be completed with
sporadic earlier mentions. Epimenides was allegedly born in Cnossus,
Crete, and, seeking his father's lost sheep, he went to sleep in a cave for
57 years. This story is often told using different details, and especially
the number of years vary (cf. Pausanias 1,14,4 [40 years]; Plutarch Mor.
784A [50 years]): The Jewish variant of this story, in which Baruch sleeps
for 66 years (4 Bar. 5), is well known. According to Diogenes Laertius,
Epimenides healed pestilence in Athens14 in the 46th Olympiad, i.e. 596-
593 BC (1,110), and Maximos of Tyrus (c. 38) also knew this tradition.
Aristotle, too, knows Epimenides (Athenaion politeia 1) and dates him
to the time of Alcmeonids, i.e. in the first years of the 6th century, as do
Pausanias, Diogenes Laertios, Plutarch and also Cicero (de legibus 2,28).
Jamblichus seems to make Epimenides a pupil of Pythagoras, or at least
his follower (VP 135-136). Epimenides is often considered one of the
famous seven sages15. On the other hand, Plato puts his floruit shortly
before the Persian wars, i.e. about one hundred years later than Aristotle
and most writers mentioned above (eXOcbv 5e JIQO tow HeQaixcov 66tcx
eteaiv jiQoteQov, Leges 462d), and KERN still preferred Plato's date in his
.PRE-article16. Historically, we thus only have the shadow of the man17 or
perhaps of several men18. However, the tradition seems to have been well
fixed later on, and Epimenides, that is, the one who was known in the
ancient philosophic tradition, was the man from the 6th century.
As usual, Diogenes Laertius mentions the works attributed to the phi-
losopher, none of which are preserved entirely19. A work iTeQi xQT)O|icbv,
mentioned in NESTLE - ALAND, is not named at all, although Diogenes
Laertius refers to several, extensive works, as to Theogony mentioned by
Jeremias20. The source of the title IIeo\V is apparently Jerome,
who writes dicitur autem iste versiculus in Epimenidis Cretensis poetae
Oraculis reperiri ... denique ipse liber Oraculorum titulo praenotatur
(Comm. in ep. ad Tit.. PL 7,606,). Obviously, Jerome had not himself
seen the work, but uses an indirect source21. The only writer known to me,
who mentions a Greek title, XQT]O|IOI of Epimenides, is Socrates Scholas-
ticus ('Eftei jtoGev OQ|io6|ievoc; eXeye KQijtec; ael tyevoTai, xaxa
Qyai, ei |ir] io\jg 'Ejrijievi5oD tot) KQTITOC;, av6Qoc;
Xc^o^o^c;, Historia ecclesiastica 3,16 PG 67,421. DIELS and
KRANZ (who do not mention Socrates Scholasticus at all) have the frag-
ment quoted in Tit in a section 'Ejti(ievi6ov ©Eoyovia r\ An
old assumption is that the verse is taken from the prologue of the work22.
It is not easy to understand the reason for identifying these works, but
it explains why scholars use both names23. The work HEQ\V m
NESTLE - ALAND is still a mystery to me (even Jerome's words would sug-
gest a title Oracula I XQT]O(IOL, or Liber Oraculorum, if any), because,
for example, neither the Suda nor Photius mention it either24. JACOBY, for
his part, assumes four works (XQT]O|ioi, ©eoyovia, KQrjtixd and IlEQl
To6ou. TeA,xiviaxr) LOTOQICX), and attributes the quotation to XQr)O|j,oi.
QUINN supposes that the writer of Tit has used a florilegium without any
direct contact to Epimenides' work25, but it is difficult to prove even that
19 Some scholars have rejected the attribution to Epimenides, because the verse is not
written in Cretan dialect (LOCK, Pastoral Epistles, 134). The observation is, of course, cor-
rect, but overlooks the fact that people writing, for example, epic used Homeric language
regardless where they lived. The genre and not the native city defined the language used in
Greek poetry.
20 Diogenes Laertios mentions the poetic works On the Birth of the Curetes and Cory-
bantes, Theogony (5000 lines), On Minos and Rhadamanthus and and the epos of Argos
and lason (6500 lines) and the prose works On Sacrifices and Cretan Constitution.
21 According to C. ZIMMER ("Die Liigner-Antinomic in Titus 1,12", Linguistica Biblica
59 [1987] 80), Jerome's words base "nur auf ein ungewisses Horensagen".
22 For example, KERN, "Epimenides", 1976 (with references to the older literature).
23 The argument of JACOBY to attribute the verse to "XPHZMOI (KAGAPMOI)" is the
passage in Jerome (p. 390).
24 RENEHAN warned the editors in his article (1973) of the words that Nestle - Aland still
uses in the latest edition: "A classical scholar would note in the apparatus criticus simply
'Epimenides, frag. 1 DIELS and KRANZ,' and this is best."
64 Erkki Koskenniemi
The Quotation
30 According to Epiphanius, Paul's words in 1 Cor 14:18 ("I thank God that I speak in
tongues more than all of you") refer to his extensive Greek education, and he quotes the
hexameter as evidence for that.
31 See below, p. 128-129.
32 On Eustathius (ca 1115-1195), the monk, who wrote learned commentaries on
Homer's works, see I. VASSIS, "Eustathius", DNP 4 (1998) 313.
66 Erkki Koskenniemi
must elaborately explain why Paul quotes the verse and says that the
testimony is true (pp. 676-677). If Epimenides receives a role in this
propaganda at all, it is a positive one: Jerome calls Epimenides 'heroic'.
(Epimenidis, cuius heroici hemistichium posted Callimachus usurpavit,
Comm. in ep. ad Tit. PL 7,606). Apparently Jerome believed that Epi-
menides had attacked Zeus' cult, but Callimachus tried to protect it and
modified the verse. However, the occasional attribution of the verse to
Epimenides seems to be only guesswork by the Fathers33, which does not
help but rather prevents us from defining the formation of the tradition.
After all, it should be possible to present a better proposal.
1) The beginning of the tradition was apparently that Cretans were
considered proverbial liars. The tradition seems to have been very old, be-
cause Odysseus, when conceiving his origin in the Odyssey, pretends to
be a Cretan34. The reputation of the Cretans as liars was boosted, because
they allegedly claimed that Zeus' tomb was on the island, which was, of
course, considered the greatest of all lies. That was the reason why "Cretan
liars" are mentioned so often in Greek and Latin sources (see Plutarch,
Aemilius Paulus 23; Lucian, Philopseudes 3; Timon 6; Ovidius, Amores
3,10,19; Ars amatoria 1,298. Actually, HQT^TL^ELV denoted, besides deriv-
ing from Cretan dialect (Dio Chr. 11,23), mostly lying (Polyb. 8,19,5;
Plut. Aem. 23,10; Plut. Lys. 20,1). The word of "Cretan liars" was thus
a well-known slogan, which was used to denigrate Cretans. Apparently,
the words already lived as a verse KQf|t£c; aei apeucrrai, which was later
continued in different forms - that precisely Epimenides made it into a
full-blown hexameter35 is only speculation. The early Christian tradition
willingly adopted the tradition of Zeus' tomb as truth and tried to prove
that Gentile gods were only mortal men. Christians, if not Jews already
before them, knew and used the tradition to rebuke idolatry.
2) If we only read the hexameter, there is no trace of a logical problem.
However, in a second stage of the tradition, the slogan was used to con-
struct one, when the words were attributed to a man from Crete: Does a
liar tell a truth or not, when calling himself a liar? The tradition of this
kind of logical problem is well attested in the Greek world, however, not
in the times of the historical Epimenides, but rather since Zeno of Elea
(fifth century B.C.)36. His teacher Parmenides had apparently preceded
Plato and others in distinguishing between the deceptive everyday reality
and the world which really existed. Zeno tried to prove the deceptibility
of perceptions by presenting logical problems. They were later common
in smaller Socratic schools, which cannot be classified with certainty; at
any rate Diodorus of lasus mediated the tradition to his pupil Zeno of
Citium, the founder of the Stoic school37. The oldest form of the liar-
paradox is connected with Eubulides of Miletus (fourth century B.C.)38,
and a form of it was known to Cicero39. It was famous, and, according to
Seneca (Ep. 45,10), "countless works were written about it"40. The para-
dox was commonly known, but it had historically nothing to do with
Epimenides. To connect it with a man who lived about 600 B.C. requires
pushing the date of these kinds of paradoxes to a much earlier one than
we otherwise know of them.
3) Later, the paradox was connected with Epimenides, and the sec-
ondary link is easily explained. Apparently, the bad reputation of Cre-
tans preceded the paradox: Because the Cretans were known as liars,
they were an ideal subject for the liar-paradox, and later the word was
connected with the most famous Cretan philosopher, who was an ideal
person to take the role of the famous liar, who told the truth - or did he?
Traditionally, most commentators have assumed that "Paul" has used
the word only to denigrate his opponents, or Cretans generally41. Quinn
still claims that the writer uses the Cretan sage to characterize his coun-
trymen42. In this interpretation, the writer was fully unaware of the logi-
cal problem involved in the line. However, THISELTON has convincingly
shown that the writer recognized the logical problem: To say the maxim
in the first person means a different thing than to say it in the third. To
be true, the verse itself contains no paradox, but it does, when the writer
attributes it to a Cretan "prophet". OBERLINNER accepts THISELTON'S inter-
pretation and it seems to be correct: If so, the writer uses a well-known
37 See H. WEIDEMANN, "Diodoros: Logik und Common Sense", Philosophen des Alter-
tums von der Friihzeit bis zur Klassik. Eine Einfiihrung (eds. M. ERLER and A. GRAESER.
Darmstadt 2000) 182-184.
38 On Eubulides, see K. DORING, "Eubulides", DNP 4 (1998) 211
39 Haec vera an falsa sunt: 'Si te mentiri dicis idque verum dicis, mentiris?' (Ac. 2,95).
40 See Diog. Laert. 2,108; 7,196-198; the passages in M. Tulli Ciceronis Academica, the
text revised and explained by IS. REID ( Hildesheim 1966) 290-291.
41 See the detailed survey of 24 commentaries in THISELTON, "The Logical Role", 208-214.
O. KNOCK (1. und 2. Timotheusbrief. Titusbrief [Die Neue Echter Bibel: Kommentar zum
Neuen Testament mil der Einheitsiibersetzung 14; Wurzburg 1988] 75) claims that Tit
"zitiert einen Hexameter des angesehenen kretischen Dichters Epimenides (6. Jh. v. Chr.),
der uber seine Landsleute ein vernichtendes Urteil fallte". This quotation would have been,
according to the writer, "im Munde des Apostels Paulus undenkbar". KNOCK, as one of
several commentators, is thus not at all aware that the verse contains a paradox.
42 QUINN, The Letter to Titus, 108.
68 Erkki Koskenniemi
paradox skillfully and with a certain sense of humor. However, the verse
is fully in line with the main message of Tit, according to which a bishop
should not be an empty-talker, but he should use self-control and offer a
good example for everyone43.
Regardless of whether the writer was aware of the logical problem
or not, the context of the quotation in the letter is very interesting. The
philosopher is not named, but he is characterized with the words eiJtev
tig e^ CXUTCOV JtQOcpfJTnc;. Interestingly, the entire context speaks about
intra-Christian relations, not about Greeks, but rather about Christians
and especially about Jewish ones. Jews were numerous in Crete44, where
Titus is supposed to be living. Why did the writer not consider it prob-
lematic to use the well-known tradition, that is, to call the man a prophet
and apply it to (Jewish) Christians?
First of all, if we only read the passage in Tit, it is not certain that
the words originate from a Gentile philosopher. Epimenides is not "men-
tioned", and consequently it is not certain that he is called a prophet. But
who else could this tic; e^ atitwv 7tpocpT]TT]5 have been? In spite of the con-
text, which unambiguously points to Jewish Christians, RENEHAN might
be right when identifying the prophet with Epimenides45 - in truth, with
an imprecise formulation46. The liar-paradox was certainly well-known,
or, if one does not believe that the writer was aware of the paradox, at
least the bad reputation of the Cretans was known. It is not proven that
the writer used Epimenides' work, and although it is probable that Epi-
menides is referred to, this is not beyond reasonable doubt.
Whatever the word 7ioocpT]TTic; now denotes, a Greek proverb is used to
characterize sectarian Christians. But why is the author of the verse called
a prophet? There are several alternatives. Firstly, the simplest answer is
suggested by DIBELIUS: The words were an exact characterization, and
it was reason enough to call the speaker a prophet47. This alternative is
valid even if THISELTON is right and the verse is not used to label Cretans:
The logical problem was good enough to make the author a prophet, who-
ever he was. But secondly, poets were often labeled with such epithets48,
Conclusion
Apparently the quotation is proverbial and the writer - well aware of
the logical problem - considers the content of the verse to be excellent
though deeper conclusions are hazardous. To connect it with the his-
torical Epimenides requires a lot of credulity, and we have no reason to
believe that the writer ever saw the alleged work XQT^O^IOI of Epimenides.
Consequently, although this quotation may reveal a missionary skill, it
does not prove that the writer was well aware of the Classical literary
tradition.
Erkki KOSKENNIEMI
(Abo Akademi University, Turku)
Ristakalliontie 20
SF 38100 Sastamala
FINLAND
erkki.koskenniemi@sley.fi