ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

WELDING, BRAZING AND

SOLDERING
Bicycle Design and Construction
 Frame
Components
Joining Processes for Frame Tubing
 Bike Tubing

plain gage tube

Better tubes are

thicker at ends to single-butted tube
give greater
strength at joints
double-butted tube

triple-butted tube
 Important Material Properties
• Weight (density)
• Stiffness (elastic modulus)
• Strength (tensile strength, endurance limit)
• Impact resistance (hardness)
• Corrosion resistance
• Joining methods
• Recycling potential
 Manufacturing processes

Mould Granular Polymer

Primary Nozzle
Secondary
Cylinder
shaping shaping
Casting Machining
Molding Drilling
Heater Screw
PM methods Cutting

Injection moulding
No.8-CMYK-5/01 Machining

Surface
Joining Treating
Welding Painting
Adhesives Polishing
Fasteners Heat treating

Welding Painting
 Products and Manufacturing
Product Creation Cycle
Design → Material Selection → Process
Selection → Manufacture → Inspection →
Feedback
Typical product
cost breakdown
 Overview – Joining Processes
P = Permanent
JOINING TECHNIQUES
NP = Non-permanent

Metallurgical Mechanical Adhesive

Brazing Screw Fasteners Natural

P NP P
Soldering Compression Joints Elastomer
P NP P
Riveting Thermoplastic
P P
Sheet Metal Folding Thermoset
P P
Toughened
P
MECHANICAL
Screw Fasteners
These are non-permanent methods of joining
materials. There is a very wide variety of screw
fasteners available they include;
•Woodscrews
•Self-drilling/tapping screws
•Machine screws
•Furniture screws
•Bolts
•Compression Joints
MECHANICAL
Screw Fasteners
Woodscrews
MECHANICAL
Screw Fasteners
Woodscrews

Wood Screw Pozi Head CSK Wood Screws Round Head Slotted
MECHANICAL
Screw Fasteners
Furniture Screws

Furniture Screws & ‘Knock Down’ fittings

MECHANICAL
Screw Fasteners
Knock Down Fittings
MECHANICAL
Self Drilling/Tapping Screws
MECHANICAL
Machine Screws
MECHANICAL
Bolts

Hexagon Flange Bolts

Chrome Hexagonal
Hexagon Bolts
Socket Head
MECHANICAL
Nuts & Washers
MECHANICAL
Compression Fittings

Straight Coupling Equal Tee

Used primarily in plumbing applications
MECHANICAL
Pop Rivets

Pop Riveting Tool with Threaded Inserts

This is a permanent joining process

MECHANICAL
Rivets

Snap Head Rivet Countersunk Rivet

These are used for permanent joints in steel plate

METALURGICAL
Soldering
Electric Cable

Replaceable Tip
Insulated Handle

Electric Soldering Iron

METALURGICAL
Soldering

Soldering Iron Stand Soldering Wire

METALURGICAL
Soldering a Component on
A Circuit Board

Component Lead Soldering Iron

Foil Circuit Board

The soldering iron tip is placed against the lead and the circuit board
foil. Both are heated for 3 or 4 seconds
 METALURGICAL
Soldering a Component on
A Circuit Board

Cored Solder
Wire

The solder is applied to the lead opposite the soldering iron. It is the
heated lead and circuit board foil that melts the solder
 METALURGICAL
Soldering a Component on
A Circuit Board

Molten Solder

As the solder melts it flows around the connection and forms a good
conductive joint with the foil. The soldering wire and the soldering iron are
then withdrawn and the joint is allowed to cool
METALURGICAL
Brazing

Firebrick
Brazing Torch

Brazing Hearth
 METALURGICAL
Brazing

Whole of joint
area is heated
Brazing Torch
and it is the
heated joint
that melts the
Spelter
Brazing Rod (Spelter)
METALURGICAL
Brazing

Typical Brazing Applications

Adhesives
Natural Adhesives
These are made from natural ingredients rather
than being fabricated synthetically from chemicals.

Sources
•Animal based
•Fish based
•Vegetable based
 A Brief History of Welding

• Late 19th Century

– Scientists/engineers apply advances in electricity to heat and/or
join metals (Le Chatelier, Joule, etc.)
• Early 20th Century
– Prior to WWI welding was not trusted as a method to join two
metals due to crack issues
• 1930’s and 40’s
– Industrial welding gains acceptance and is used extensively in the
war effort to build tanks, aircraft, ships, etc.
• Modern Welding
– the nuclear/space age helps bring welding from an art to a science
Principle of Welding

A welding is a metallurgical process in which the

junction of the two parts to be joined are heated
and then fused together with or without the
application of pressure to produce a continuity of
the homogenous material of the same
composition and the characteristics of the parts
which are being joined .
Types of Welding

Welding processes may be classified based on the

basic principles employed as ; (i) pressure welding
and (ii) fusion welding.

In pressure welding, the parts to be joined are

heated only up to the plastic state and then fused
together by applying the external pressure.

The different types of pressure welding are :

forge welding and resistance welding.
In fusion welding which is also known as non-
pressure welding, the joint of the two parts is
heated to the molten state and allowed to solidify.

The different types of fusion welding are:

arc welding and gas welding.
 Types of Welding

Fusion Welding Pressure Welding

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Friction Welding

Gas Welding Brazing Soldering

Electroslag MIG

High Energy Beam TIG

Shielded Metal Arc – “Stick”

Electric Arc
 Weldability of a Metal
• Metallurgical Capacity
– Parent metal will join with the weld metal without
formation of deleterious constituents or alloys
• Mechanical Soundness
– Joint will be free from discontinuities, gas porosity,
shrinkage, slag, or cracks
• Serviceability
– Weld is able to perform under varying conditions or
service (e.g., extreme temperatures, corrosive
environments, fatigue, high pressures, etc.)
 Fusion Welding Principles
• Base metal is melted
• Filler metal may be added
• Heat is supplied by various means
– Oxyacetylene gas
– Electric Arc
– Plasma Arc
– Laser
 Types of Fusion Welding
• Oxyacetylene Cutting/Welding
• Shielded Metal Arc (“Stick”)
• Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
• Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
 Welding

ELECTRODE COATING

CORE WIRE

WELDING ATMOSPHERE
ARC STREAM
ARC POOL
SOLIDIFIED SLAG
PENETRATION
DEPTH

WELD

BASE METAL
Straight Polarity Reverse Polarity

(–) (+)

(+) (–)
Shallow penetration Deeper weld penetration
(thin metal)

AC - Gives pulsing arc

- used for welding thick sections
Consumable Electrode
SMAW – Shielded Metal Arc Welding

GMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding

SAW – Submerged Arc Welding

Non-Consumable Electrode
GTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
PAW – Plasma Arc Welding

High Energy Beam

Electron Beam Welding
Laser Beam Welding
 Arc Welding: The most common fusion welding

• A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip, and as

electrode is moved along joint, molten weld pool solidifies in
its wake
 Weld Metal Protection
• During fusion welding, the molten metal in the weld
“puddle” is susceptible to oxidation
• Must protect weld puddle (arc pool) from the
atmosphere
• Methods
– Weld Fluxes
– Inert Gases
– Vacuum
 Weld Fluxes
• Typical fluxes
– SiO2, TiO2, FeO, MgO, Al2O3
– Produces a gaseous shield to prevent
contamination
– Act as scavengers to reduce oxides
– Add alloying elements to the weld
– Influence shape of weld bead during solidification
 Inert Gases
• Argon, helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide
• Form a protective envelope around the weld
area
• Used in
– MIG
– TIG
– Shield Metal Arc
 Vacuum
• Produce high-quality welds
• Used in electron beam welding
• Nuclear/special metal applications
– Zr, Hf, Ti
• Reduces impurities by a factor of 20 versus
other methods
• Expensive and time-consuming
Arc Welding

When two conductors of an electric circuit are

touched together momentarily and then
instantaneously separated slightly, assuming that
there is sufficient voltage in the circuit to maintain
the flow of current, an electric arc is formed,

Concentrated heat is produced throughout the

length of the arc at a temperature of about 5000
to 6000°C.
In arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are
wired as one pole of the circuit, and the electrode
held by the operator forms the other pole.

When the arc is produced, the intense heat quickly

melts the workpiece metal which is directly under
the arc, forming a small molten metal pool.

At the same time the tip of the electrode at the

arc also melts, and this molten metal of the
electrode is carried over by the arc to the molten
metal pool of the workpiece.
The molten metal in the pool is agitated by the
action of the arc, thoroughly mixing the base and
the filler metal.

A solid joint will be formed when the molten

metal cools and solidifies.

The flux coating over the electrode produces an

inert gaseous shield surrounding the arc and
protects the molten metal from oxidizing by
coming in contact with the atmosphere. Fig.
illustrates the arc welding process.
2. Arc Welding Electrodes

The two types of electrodes used in arc welding

are (i) consumable electrodes and (ii) non-
consumable electrodes.
General Welding Procedure

A Step-by-step general procedure for welding is as

described below:

Step 1: Cleaning: The surfaces of the parts to be

welded need to be thoroughly cleaned for removal
of dirt, oil, grease, etc.
Step 2:

Edge Preparation: The process of preparing a

contour at the edges of the pieces to be joined is
called as edge preparation.

This involves beveling or grooving. The idea of

doing this is to get fusion or penetration through
the entire thickness of the member.
Step 3:

Clamping: Next, the parts to be welded are

clamped suitably through jigs and fixtures so that
there are no undesirable movements during
welding.
Step 4:

Check for safety devices : Safety devices like

goggles and shields to protect the eyes, protective
clothing to prevent the sparks and flying globules
of molten metal, safety shoes, gloves, aprons and
other safety devices must be ensured.
Step 5:

The Initial weld: Initial tack welds are done at the

opposite corners of the joint to secure the pieces
together.

Any cracks at this stage must be chipped off as the

presence of these cracks causes residual stresses.
Step 6:

Intermediate and final welding : The weld joint is

formed through various weaving movements (of
varying shapes called weld beads). During the
process, filler metal and a suitable flux are used.
After the intermediate run of welding, the final run
is taken.
Step 7:

Excess material removal: Extra material on the

weld surface can be removed using tongs and
chipper. The final weld is now allowed to cool and
finally cleaned.
Gas welding

Gas welding is a fusion method of welding, in

which a strong gas flame is used to raise the
temperature of the workpieces so as to melt them.
As in arc welding, a filler metal is used to fill the
joint. The gases that can be used for heating are;
(i) oxygen and acetylene mixture and (ii) oxygen
and hydrogen mixture. The oxy-acetylene gas
mixture is most commonly used in gas welding.
 Oxyacetylene Welding

• Flame formed by burning a mix of acetylene (C2H2)

and oxygen

TORCH TIP 2300 deg F

Inner Cone: 5000-6300 deg Combustion Envelope 3800

F deg F

• Fusion of metal is achieved by passing the inner

cone of the flame over the metal
• Oxyacetylene can also be used for cutting metals
 Joint Design

BUTT JOINT

FILLET JOINT

STRAP JOINT

CORNER JOINT
LAP JOINT
(a) Butt joint, (b) corner joint, (c) lap joint, (d)
tee joint, and (e) edge joint
 Groove Welds

• (a) Square groove weld, one side; (b) single bevel groove weld;
(c) single V-groove weld; (d) single U-groove weld; (e) single
J-groove weld; (f) double V-groove weld for thicker sections
(dashed lines show original part edges)
 Fillet Welds

• (a) Inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet
corner joint; (c) double fillet lap joint; (d) double fillet tee
joint (dashed lines show the original part edges)
Standard Identification and Symbols
for Welds
 Generalized Welding Symbol

FAR SIDE DETAILS

Field weld symbol
Weld Geometry
D L1-L2
Electrode Weld all-around
Material L1-L2 for pipes, etc.
D

ARROW SIDE DETAILS D = Weld Depth (usually equal to plate

thickness)
L1 = Weld Length
L2 = Distance between centers for stitched
The Field Weld Symbol is a guidewelds
for installation. Shipyards
normally do not use it, except in modular construction.
Example Welding Symbol

Geometry symbol for V-groove

One-sided welds are max 80% efficient

Two sided are 100% efficient

1/2

1/2

1/2” 1/2”
Weld Symbols (Butt Joints)

Backing
Weld Symbol (Fillet Joints)
Weld Symbol (Corner Joints)
Typical Fusion Welded Joint
Fusion Weld Zone

Figure 29.1
Characteristics of a
typical fusion weld
zone in oxyfuel gas
and arc welding. See
also Figs. 27.16 and
28.14.
Grain Structure in Shallow and
Deep Welds
(a) (b)

Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note

that the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular
to the surface of the base metal. In a good weld, the
solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown in (a)
has grain migration, which develops uniform strength in the
weld bead.
 Weld Beads
(b)
(a)

Figure 29.3 (a) Weld bead (on a cold-rolled nickel strip) produced by a
laser beam. (b) Microhardness profile across the weld bead. Note the
lower hardness of the weld bead compared to the base metal. Source: IIT
Research Institute.
 Regions in a Fusion Weld Zone
Schematic illustration
of various regions in a
fusion weld zone (and
the corresponding
phase diagram) for
0.30% carbon steel.
Source: American
Welding Society.
Corrosion
Figure 29.5 Intergranular
corrosion of a 310-stainless-
steel welded tube after
exposure to a caustic
solution. The weld line is at
the center of the
photograph. Scanning
electron micrograph at 20
X. Source: Courtesy of B.
R. Jack, Allegheny Ludlum
Steel Corp.
 Incomplete Fusion

Figure 29.6 Low-quality weld beads, the result of incomplete fusion. Source:
American Welding Society.
 Discontinuities in Fusion Welds
Figure 29.7 Schematic illustration of various discontinuities in fusion welds. Source:
American Welding Society.
 Cracks in Welded Joints

Types of cracks (in welded joints) caused by thermal stresses that develop during solidification
and contraction of the weld bead and the surrounding structure. (a) Crater cracks. (b) Various
types of cracks in butt and T joints.
 Distortion After Welding

Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints; (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused by
differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.
Residual Stresses Developed During
Welding
 Soldering
Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm less than or
equal to 450C (840F) is melted and distributed by capillary
action between faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
• No melting of base metals, but filler metal wets and combines with
base metal to form metallurgical bond
• Filler metal called solder
• Closely associated with electrical assembly
 Soldering Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
• Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding
• Variety of heating methods available
• Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint
• Easy repair and rework
Disadvantages:
• Low joint strength unless reinforced mechanically
• Joint weakens or melts at elevated temperatures
 Solders
Traditionally alloys of tin and lead (both have low Tm)
• Lead is poisonous and its percentage is minimized in most
solders
• Tin is chemically active at soldering temperatures and
promotes wetting action for successful joining
– In soldering copper, copper and tin form intermetallic compounds
that strengthen bond
• Silver and antimony also used in soldering alloys
 Soldering Fluxes: Functions
• Be molten at soldering temperatures
• Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part
surfaces
• Prevent oxidation during heating
• Promote wetting of surfaces
• Be readily displaced by molten solder during process
• Leave residue that is non-corrosive and
nonconductive
 Soldering Methods
• Many soldering methods are same as for
brazing, except less heat and lower
temperatures are required
• Additional methods:
– Hand soldering – manually operated soldering gun
– Wave soldering – soldering of multiple lead wires in
printed circuit cards
– Reflow soldering – used for surface mount
components on printed circuit cards
Soldering Metal Joining Processes

Soldering

Solder = Filler metal

• Alloys of Tin (silver, bismuth, lead)
• Melt point typically below 840 F

Flux used to clean joint & prevent oxidation

• separate or in core of wire (rosin-core)

Tinning = pre-coating with thin layer of solder

Applications:
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB) manufacture
• Pipe joining (copper pipe)
• Jewelry manufacture
• Typically non-load bearing

Easy to solder: copper, silver, gold

Difficult to solder: aluminum, stainless steels
(can pre-plate difficult to solder metals to aid process)
PCB Soldering Metal Joining Processes
Manual PCB Soldering
PTH - Pin-Through-Hole connectors

• Soldering Iron & Solder Wire

• Heating lead & placing solder

• Heat for 2-3 sec. & place wire

opposite iron

• Trim excess lead

PCB Reflow Soldering Metal Joining Processes
Automated Reflow Soldering
SMT = Surface Mount Technology

• Solder/Flux paste mixture applied to PCB using screen print or similar

transfer method

• Solder Paste serves the following functions:

– supply solder material to the soldering spot,
– hold the components in place prior to soldering,
– clean the solder lands and component leads
– prevent further oxidation of the solder lands.
Printed solder paste on a printed circuit board (PCB)

• PCB assembly then heated in “Reflow” oven to melt solder and secure connection
 Brazing
Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and
distributed by capillary action between faying
surfaces of metal parts being joined
• No melting of base metals occurs
– Only the filler melts
• Filler metal Tm is greater than 450C (840F)
– But less than Tm of base metal(s) to be joined
 Brazing Compared to Welding
• Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals
• Can be performed quickly and consistently, permitting high
production rates
• Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
• Less heat and power required than FW
• Problems with HAZ in base metal are reduced
• Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding processes
can be brazed
– Capillary action draws molten filler metal into joint
 Disadvantages and Limitations of Brazing

• Joint strength is generally less than a welded joint

• Joint strength is likely to be less than the strength of the base
metals
• High service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint
• Color of brazing metal may not match color of base metal
parts
 Brazing Applications
• Automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes)
• Electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables)
• Cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts
to shanks)
• Jewelry
• Chemical process industry
• Plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes
and tubes by brazing
• Repair and maintenance work
Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Brazing

Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between
mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action

• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point

typically above 840 F)

• Flux also used

• Types of brazing classified by heating method:

– Torch, Furnace, Resistance

Applications:
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Joint can possess significant strength
Brazing Metal Joining Processes

Brazing

Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between
mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action

• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point

typically above 840 F)

• Flux also used

• Types of brazing classified by heating method:

– Torch, Furnace, Resistance

Applications:
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Joint can possess significant strength
Brazing Metal Joining Processes
Brazing

Figuring length of lap for flat joints.

X = Length of lap
T = Tensile strength of weakest member
W = Thickness of weakest member
C = Joint integrity factor of .8
L = Shear strength of brazed filler metal
Let’s see how this formula works, using an example.

Problem: What length of lap do you need to join .050" annealed Monel sheet to a metal of equal or greater strength?
Solution:

C = .8 T = 70,000 psi (annealed Monel sheet)

W = .050"
L = 25,000 psi (Typical shear strength for silver brazing filler metals)
X = (70,000 x .050) /(.8 x 25,000) = .18" lap length
Soldering & Brazing Metal Joining Processes
Brazing

Figuring length of lap for tubular joints.

X = Length of lap area

W = Wall thickness of weakest member
D = Diameter of lap area
T = Tensile strength of weakest member
C = Joint integrity factor of .8
L = Shear strength of brazed filler metal

Again, an example will serve to illustrate the use of this formula. Problem: What length of lap do you need to join 3/4" O.D. copper
tubing (wall thickness .064") to 3/4" I.D. steel tubing?

Solution:
W = .064"
D = .750"
C= .8
T = 33,000 psi (annealed copper)
L = 25,000 psi (a typical value)
X = (.064 x (.75 – .064) x 33,000)/(.8 x .75 x 25,000)
X = .097" (length of lap)