Testing of Transformers

Knowledge Is Power SM
Apparatus Maintenance and Power

Management For Energy Delivery
Version 1.0 Final Page 1 of 28
Power Transformer
Sweep Frequency Response Analysis Tests
September 2003
Prepared by:
Charles Sweetser, Tony McGrail
Doble Engineering
October 2nd 2003
1 Summary
• This report covers the results of Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) tests that
were performed on a power transformer (Serial Number: abcdef) in September , 2003.
• The different tests are analyzed in turn to give an overall picture of the state of the
transformer. Data is presented via the M5100 SFRA application, through an Excel
spreadsheet and using Matlab; this demonstrates the simple nature of the data and the
ease of importing it in to standard applications.
2 Executive Summary - Conclusions

• The SFRA traces appear to give no indication of substantial winding movement or
distortion.
• The traces will provide a good baseline for future reference.
• The results show the excellent repeatability of the Doble M5100 SFRA test set.
3 Executive Summary - Recommendations
• If the transformer is subject to a close up fault or begins to show signs of distress, it

should be retested for SFRA to indicate whether there is any evidence for winding
movement or deterioration.
• SFRA test results provide strong evidence about the mechanical integrity of a
transformer. However, results should be reviewed in context of other electrical test
results, such as power factor and capacitance relating to dielectric strength, to give an
overall picture of the transformer’s health.
Doble Engineering Company, 85 Walnut Street, Watertown, MA 02472 USA Tel +1 617 926 4900 Fax +1 617 926 0528 www.doble.com
4 Table of Contents
1 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Executive Summary - Conclusions .......................................................................................... 1
3 Executive Summary - Recommendations ................................................................................ 1
4 Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... 2
5 List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... 3
6 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 4
7 Apparatus ................................................................................................................................. 4
8 Tests Conducted ....................................................................................................................... 5
9 Analysis.................................................................................................................................... 5
9.1 High Voltage Windings - All Terminals Floating ............................................................. 5
9.2 Low Voltage Windings - All Terminals Floating.............................................................. 6
9.3 Inter Windings - All Terminals Floating ........................................................................... 8
9.4 High Voltage Winding - Short Circuit Tests (X1-X2-X3 Shorted)................................... 9
9.5 Before and After Comparison Tests ................................................................................ 11
9.5.1 HV Comparison............................................................................................................ 11
9.5.2 LV Comparison ............................................................................................................ 12
9.5.3 Interwinding Comparison............................................................................................. 13
9.5.4 Short Circuit Tests Comparison ................................................................................... 14
10 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 16
11 Appendix 1: SFRA Interpretation and Examples................................................................... 17
11.1 Frequency Shifts and Amplitude Shifts........................................................................... 17
11.2 Ranges ............................................................................................................................. 17
11.3 Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests .............................................................................. 18
11.4 Interpretation Strategies................................................................................................... 18
11.5 Examples ......................................................................................................................... 19
11.5.1 Shorted Turn ............................................................................................................. 19
11.5.2 Compressive (Hoop) Buckling of a Winding ........................................................... 20
11.5.3 Axial Shift of a Winding........................................................................................... 22
11.5.4 Use of Sister units ..................................................................................................... 25
12 Appendix 2: Description of Tests........................................................................................... 27
12.1 Capacitances and power factors ...................................................................................... 27
12.2 Winding frequency responses.......................................................................................... 27
12.3 Transformer Turns Ratio ................................................................................................. 27
12.4 Leakage Reactance .......................................................................................................... 27
12.5 Excitation Current............................................................................................................ 27
13 Selected References – from Doble Client Conferences ......................................................... 28
13.1 2003 Papers...................................................................................................................... 28
13.2 2002 Papers...................................................................................................................... 28
13.3 Previous Papers................................................................................................................ 28
5 List of Figures
Figure 1 HV Windings – All terminals Floating ............................................................................ 6
Figure 2 Low Voltage Windings – All terminals Floating ............................................................. 7
Figure 3 Comparison of Good XYZ LV results and bad LV results .............................................. 8
Figure 4 Inter Windings – All terminals Floating........................................................................... 9
Figure 5 HV Windings – Short Circuit Tests................................................................................ 10
Figure 6 Comparison of good and bad short circuit test results ................................................... 11
Figure 8 HV Windings – Before and After................................................................................... 12
Figure 9 Low Voltage Windings – Before and After ................................................................... 13
Figure 10 Interwinding Windings – Before and After.................................................................. 14
Figure 12 Short Circuit tests – Before and After .......................................................................... 15
Figure 13 Sub-bands in the M5100 SFRA Software .................................................................... 18
Figure 15 Normal Low frequency response for a transformer ..................................................... 19
Figure 16 C phase response with a shorted turn ........................................................................... 20
Figure 17 Compressive (Hoop) Buckling of a 28 MVA LV Winding ......................................... 21
Figure 18 Frequency shift for compressive buckling ................................................................... 21
Figure 19 Increased impedance resulting in lower dB response for affected phase..................... 22
Figure 20 Debris under a winding that has shifted vertically (axially)......................................... 23
Figure 21 Comparison of results for good phase .......................................................................... 24
Figure 22 Comparison of results for axially shifted phase ........................................................... 24
Figure 23 Small variations on suspect H3 phase .......................................................................... 25
Figure 24 Comparison of results with sister unit .......................................................................... 26
6 Introduction
• On behalf of XYZ Sweep Frequency Response Analysis tests were carried out on a 30
MVA transformer.
• No other contextual information about other electrical test results is available to the
author.
• The tests were performed by Charles Sweetser of Doble Engineering Company and
witnessed by XYZ.
• SFRA is a transformer condition assessment tool, and should be used in conjunction with
other tests and assessment tools, such as power factor and capacitance, DGA, exciting
currents, TTR, DC winding resistance, etc.
• The tests were performed to show the simple nature of the SFRA test and the excellent
duplication of the results from a repeat test.
7 Apparatus
• Location: XYZ
Transformer Type: 3-Phase double wound delta-wye
Manufacturer: mmm
Serial Number: abcdefg
Capacity: 30 MVA
Voltage: 115/13.8 kV
Tap Changer: De-energized tap changer
• All tests performed at DETC position 2
8 Tests Conducted
• A standard set of SFRA tests on a transformer of this type would generate 12 separate
traces:
• High-Voltage Winding(3) [H1-H3, H2-H1, H3-H2]

• Low Voltage Winding(3) [X1-X0, X2-X0, X3-X0]
• Inter Winding(3) [H1-X1, H2-X2, H3-X3]
• Short Circuit(3) [H1-H3, H2-H1, H3-H2] (Shorting [X1-X2-X3])
• In this case, the tests were performed twice, as requested, to demonstrate repeatability.
• Consequently, the testing generated 4 files, which are provided in electronic format with
this report. The files are named and identified as follows:
• XYZ CENTRO OCCIDENTE_SE ARBOLEDAS_A_4888-1-1_12 09 03.csv

• XYZ CENTRO OCCIDENTE_SE ARBOLEDAS IW_A_4888-1-1_12 09 03.csv
• XYZ CENTRO OCCIDENTE_SE ARBOLEDAS PART 2_A_4888-1-1_9-12-
2003.csv
• XYZ CENTRO OCCIDENTE_SE ARBOLEDAS IW PART 2_A_4888-1-1_9-12-
2003.csv
9 Analysis
9.1 High Voltage Windings - All Terminals Floating
• The High Voltage Winding tests are acceptable.
• The HV Winding results, as shown in Figure 1, show good correspondence between

phases, with the expected variation at lower frequencies. The variations at frequencies
greater than 1 MHz can be attributed to internal winding lead and tap changer lead
placement.
2 kHz the responses show the expected variation between phases of a HV delta
winding, with the A and C phases being similar; there is some noise
associated with the results, but this is typical of results at –80 dB where
we are measuring millivolt signals on a HV substation
20kHz good correspondence between phases
2MHz good correspondence between phases; slight variations (< 1 dB) above
1.5 MHz probably relate to internal variations in winding lead and tap lead
arrangements and are expected
Figure 1 HV Windings – All terminals Floating
9.2 Low Voltage Windings - All Terminals Floating
• The Low Voltage Winding tests are acceptable
• The results, as shown in Figure 2, show good correspondence between phases, with the
expected variation at lower frequencies.
2 kHz the responses show the expected variation between phases of an LV wye
winding: the A and C phases with a ‘double resonance’ and the B phase
with a deeper single resonance;
20kHz good correspondence between phases; small variations, as shown around

10 kHz, are not uncommon
1.5 MHz probably relate to internal variations in winding lead and tap lead
arrangements and are expected
Figure 2 Low Voltage Windings – All terminals Floating
• A detailed comparison of the LV results with those from a transformer with

compressive deformation is given in Figure 3.
Left shift in resonance

of a winding with
compressive failure
Three XYZ results

showing good
correspondence
Figure 3 Comparison of Good XYZ LV results and bad LV results

• It is clear from the results in Figure 2 and Figure 3 that the LV results for the XYZ
transformer are very consistent.
9.3 Inter Windings - All Terminals Floating
• The Inter-Winding tests are acceptable.
• The results, as shown in Figure 4, show expected correspondence between phases.

Experience has shown that the variations at 500 Hz are expected.
2 kHz the responses show the expected variation between phases
1.5 MHz probably relate to internal variations in winding lead and tap
lead arrangements and are expected
Figure 4 Inter Windings – All terminals Floating
9.4 High Voltage Winding - Short Circuit Tests (X1-X2-X3 Shorted)
• The short circuit test is used to provide phase to phase comparison at low frequencies
without interference from the core. The test is discussed further in a Doble paper by
XYZ in 2001; an example of short circuit variation is given in section 11.5.2.
• The low frequency, inductive region, extends to a few kHz, and the short circuit test
results are usually compared below 2 kHz.
• The traces overlay very well, almost perfectly, at frequencies below 5 kHz. This is
strong evidence that the three phases are electrically very similar, and consequently
have little mechanical variation.
Figure 5 HV Windings – Short Circuit Tests

• Detailed analysis of the short circuit results is given in Figure 6.
• The three results for the XYZ transformer overlay almost exactly in the lower half of
the plot and appear as one trace; they are within 0.04 dB of each other consistently
across the low frequency range.
• The bad transformer results have a consistent variation on the winding with
compressive deformation of 0.25 dB. This is small, but significant and is an
indication of increased impedance on that winding which needs to be investigated.
Two good phases

and one bad phase
from mobile
transformer
Three XYZ
results overlay
almost perfectly:
within 0.04 dB
Figure 6 Comparison of good and bad short circuit test results
9.5 Before and After Comparison Tests
• In order to demonstrate the repeatability of the Doble M5100 SFRA instrument, a

second set of test results was obtained from the same transformer later the same day.
• The tests were performed from the opposite side of the transformer to show that test set
and test lead position do not significantly affect the results.
• The results overlayed almost perfectly. Phase C was selected and plotted in this report.
However, the other phases (A and B) can be compared by recalling the data provided in
the associated files; they also compare as extremely well.
9.5.1 HV Comparison
• The HV comparison results, as shown in Figure 7, show very good correspondence.
• The results do show some noise at about – 80 dB, where we are measuring about 1
millivolt, but this does not detract from the comparison.
Figure 7 HV Windings – Before and After
9.5.2 LV Comparison
• The LV comparison results, as shown in Figure 8, show very good correspondence.
• The variation at low frequency, below 2 kHz, may be attributed to a small variation in
the magnetic state of the core. This may have occurred as a result of other electrical
tests on the transformer.
Figure 8 Low Voltage Windings – Before and After
9.5.3 Interwinding Comparison
• The Interwinding comparison results, as shown in Figure 9, show very good

correspondence.
• The results at low frequency do show some noise, but this does not detract from the
comparison.
Figure 9 Interwinding Windings – Before and After
9.5.4 Short Circuit Tests Comparison
• The Short Circuit Test comparison results, as shown in Figure 9, show very good
correspondence in the key area below 2 kHz.
• This is very strong evidence that there has been no change in the winding
construction.
Figure 10 Short Circuit tests – Before and After
10 Discussion
• The SFRA traces appear to give no indication of substantial winding movement or

distortion.
• The traces will provide a good baseline for future reference.
Charles Sweetser, Tony McGrail

Doble Engineering
October 2nd 2003
11 Appendix 1: SFRA Interpretation and Examples
• This section is intended to give a brief introduction to SFRA results and interpretation
strategies.
• Further information may be found at:

http://www.doble.com/products/SFRA_Center/content/sfra2.html
11.1 Frequency Shifts and Amplitude Shifts
• Resonances in an SFRA trace are a consequence of an inductance, L, and a

capacitance, C, within a transformer. The transformer is a complex web of L’s and C’s
along with resistances.
• When comparing to reference results, a frequency shift for a resonance implies that the
LC combination for that resonance has changed; a rise (shift right) in frequency implies
a reduction in the LC combination; a fall (shift left) in frequency means an increase in
the LC combination.
• Changes in an LC combination imply a change in the geometry within the transformer

with consequent implications for mechanical integrity.
• Changes in the amplitude of a response imply a change in a resistance element; this

may be introduced through stray impedance at bushing terminal contacts.
11.2 Ranges
• Experience has shown that lower frequency responses correspond, generally, to larger
objects within the transformer, while higher frequency responses correspond to smaller
objects.
• Lower frequency results relate strongly to the core, and, as frequency rises, results
relate to bulk winding movement, winding deformation, tap windings and leads within
the transformer.
• Development of sweep frequency response methods grew out of the need to provide
repeatable and reliable results from impulse methods in the factory.
• Early sweep systems were range constrained and, as a response, scans for SFRA were
built on sub-ranges of 2, 20, 200 kHz and 2 MHz.
• The Doble M5100 still allows for display of SFRA data in those ranges, as shown in
Figure 11.
Figure 11 Sub-bands in the M5100 SFRA Software
11.3 Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests
• Open circuit tests are the most common test method. Low frequency results are
influenced by the core, while higher frequency results relate to windings and smaller
structures.
• Short circuit tests are used to make a direct phase to phase comparison within a
transformer when there are no reference results.
11.4 Interpretation Strategies
• The best method for interpretation of SFRA results is to compare with baseline results.
Any variation where there is a shift in resonant frequency should be investigated.
• Comparison of results with a ‘sister’ transformer is a valid technique, as shown in

section 11.5.4. In practice, some sister transformers are quite different, though some
differences are expected due to manufacture.
• The third method for analysis is to perform phase-by-phase comparison. There may be
significant differences between phases, but they tend to follow an expected form. The
A and C phase tend to be more similar while the B phase may differ at a number of
points. The effect of tap changer position may mean that there is a stepwise difference
in response resonances.
11.5 Examples
• This section gives typical results from different failure modes.
11.5.1 Shorted Turn
• A shorted turn is a relatively easy failure mode to detect and should be clear using a
number of tests, including capacitance, leakage reactance, turns ratio, DGA and
winding resistance.
• In the example here, we compare the ‘normal’ 20 kHz frequency responses for a
transformer, in Figure 12, with the responses for one phase having a shorted turn
Fiddler's Ferry GT1 G404 Ferranti Tap 10 from 9 28/5/02

0
-5
-10
-15
Amplitude in dB
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
0 5 10 15 20
A Phase a2 to a1 B Phase b2 to b1 C Phase c2 to c1
Figure 12 Normal Low frequency response for a transformer
C phase response very different, but

Fiddler'scoming back
Ferry GT2 FER LV into line at higher
Tap 1 13/3/96
5 frequencies
0
-5
-10
Amplitude in dB
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
0 5 10 15 20
A phase B phase C phase
Figure 13 C phase response with a shorted turn
11.5.2 Compressive (Hoop) Buckling of a Winding
• Compressive buckling of a winding, as shown in Figure 14, may be the result of a

through fault.
• The effect of the fault is to reduce the dimensions of the winding, which increases the
LC combination for the winding. The result is a shift to the left for corresponding
resonances in the SFRA trace.
• The deformation may only be apparent in a small number of LC resonant

combinations.
Clear bulge
in winding
Figure 14 Compressive (Hoop) Buckling of a 28 MVA LV Winding
• The effect on results, as shown in the phase-by-phase analysis in Figure 15, is quite
clear for this unit
Figure 15 Frequency shift for compressive buckling
• The variation between resonances in Figure 15 is less than 20 kHz and the dB
variation is around 5 dB.
• In addition to frequency shifts, compressive buckling increases the impedance of the

affected winding. This is reflected in the short circuit SFRA results at low frequencies
where the affected phase has a lower response, as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16 Increased impedance resulting in lower dB response for affected phase
• The variation is small: about 0.25 dB, but is consistent and repeatable. For short
circuit test results this implies a definite increase in impedance for that phase when
compared to the other phases.
• Any variation in impedance needs to be investigated. In this case the suspect phase
was also identified by Leakage reactance and the transformer removed from service.
11.5.3 Axial Shift of a Winding
• The results presented here are for a transformer where axial shift of a winding was
diagnosed based on reference results and failure of a sister unit.
• The winding, shown in Figure 17, is in a 240 MVA Transmission transformer; it

has collapsed after an internal fault.
Figure 17 Debris under a winding that has shifted vertically (axially)
• Comparison of results for a good phase is given in Figure 18. It is clear that the
results overlay well even though they have been produced 7 years apart using
different test sets and different test leads.
• Slight variation at higher frequencies is consistent with internal winding lead

variation within the transformer.
0
-10
-20
Amplitude in dB
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 0.5 1
Frequency in MHz
22/11/94 8/11/01
Figure 18 Comparison of results for good phase
• Comparison of results for the affected phase is given in Figure 19.
• The resonances between about 0.4 MHz and 1MHz are slightly right shifted.
0
-10
-20
Amplitude in dB
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 0.5 1
Frequency in MHz
22/11/94 8/11/01
Figure 19 Comparison of results for axially shifted phase
11.5.4 Use of Sister units
• In this example, a transformer bushing failed and SFRA was used to confirm the
integrity of the windings after the fault.
• There were no reference results available, and slight variations in the suspect phase at
high frequencies were found, as shown in Figure 20.
Minor variations at high

frequencies
Figure 20 Small variations on suspect H3 phase
• A sister unit, with a successive serial number was also tested. It was in a known good
condition.
• The sister unit showed the same high frequency variation, giving strong evidence that
the variation in the suspect phase was most likely to be design related. The response
from the H3 phase of both transformers is given in Figure 21.
Figure 21 Comparison of results with sister unit
• The comparison of results gave confidence in the capability of the transformer before
returning it to service.
12 Appendix 2: Description of Tests

12.1 Capacitances and power factors
Capacitance and power factor (‘Doble’) tests provide an indication of the overall state of an insulation system. They
are carried out by many US utilities on a routine basis to check the condition of electrical equipment and are often
expected by insurance companies. They are used as part of a standard condition assessment or diagnostic test.
12.2 Winding frequency responses

The sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA) test detects winding movement and other transformer faults that
may arise as a result of the very large electromagnetic forces that occur during short-circuit or tap-changer faults.
The test was pioneered by Ontario Hydro in the late 1970's and since 1989 has been adopted by several utilities and
manufacturers as the preferred technique for assessing the mechanical condition of windings.
12.3 Transformer Turns Ratio

This test provides a broad indication of the functionality of the transformer. By measuring the turns ratio at each tap
position, confidence is gained in the ability of the transformer to operate correctly under different operating
conditions.
12.4 Leakage Reactance

Leakage reactance is a measure of the leakage flux that travels between the windings and the transformer core and
tank walls. Variation in the leakage reactance from nameplate is an indication of core and/or winding movement
within the transformer.
12.5 Excitation Current

This test measures the current needed to energize the transformer at no load at a given voltage. It gives a broad
indication of the state of the transformer but is not a particularly sensitive test for winding movement.
13 Selected References – from Doble Client Conferences

13.1 2003 Papers
Condition Assessment Of A 30/40/50 MVA 138/27 kV Power Transformer
Tony McGrail, Manuel Salmeron, Al Gutierrez, Doble Engineering
Transformer Diagnostics Using Frequency Response Analysis:

Results For Fault Simulations
Simon A. Ryder, Alstom, France
Experience With Sfra For Transformer Diagnostics

Tony McGrail, Charles Sweetser, Doble Engineering
A Comparison Of The Swept Frequency And Impulse Response Methods For

Making Frequency Response Analysis Measurements
Simon A. Ryder, Alstom France
13.2 2002 Papers

A Further Study of Exciting Current Patterns
Mrs. Jill Duplessis, Doble Engineering Co.
The Need For and Use of Techniques to Assess Mechanical Integrity of Windings
Alan Wilson, Doble, and Tony McGrail, NGC-UK
Increased Repeatability and Extended Frequency Range for Swept Frequency Analysis Testing
Sokom An, Bonneville Power Adm.
Transformer Fails Seven Years After Close Up Faults - FRA Diagnoses the Problem.
John A. Lapworth, NGC
Condition Assessment For Transformer Life Assessment

Ms. Paulette A. Payne, Potomac Electric Power Co
13.3 Previous Papers

Frequency Response Analysis Of The Leakage Impedance Used As A Power Transformer Diagnostic Tool
Librado Magallanes R., Ernesto López Azamar, and Isaí Gallardo F. ,Comision Federal de Electricidad -LAPEM,
Mexico
Powergrid Experience With Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) Of Power Transformers

Ajay K. Kapur, Narendra S. Sodha, Barindra N. De Bhowmick, and Alok Sharma, Power Grid Corporation of India
Ltd. India
Detection Of Transformer Winding Displacement By The Frequency Response Of Stray Losses

Patrick Picher and Léonard Bolduc, IREQ, Claude Rajotte, Hydro-Québec – TransÉnergie

Testing of Transformers

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Testing of Transformers

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Knowledge Is Power SM

Apparatus Maintenance and Power

2 Executive Summary - Conclusions

• The traces will provide a good baseline for future reference.

3 Executive Summary - Recommendations

• If the transformer is subject to a close up fault or begins to show signs of distress, it

• All tests performed at DETC position 2

• High-Voltage Winding(3) [H1-H3, H2-H1, H3-H2]

• XYZ CENTRO OCCIDENTE_SE ARBOLEDAS_A_4888-1-1_12 09 03.csv

9.1 High Voltage Windings - All Terminals Floating

• The High Voltage Winding tests are acceptable.

• The HV Winding results, as shown in Figure 1, show good correspondence between

20kHz good correspondence between phases

200kHz good correspondence between phases

Figure 1 HV Windings – All terminals Floating

9.2 Low Voltage Windings - All Terminals Floating

• The Low Voltage Winding tests are acceptable

20kHz good correspondence between phases; small variations, as shown around

200kHz good correspondence between phases

Figure 2 Low Voltage Windings – All terminals Floating

• A detailed comparison of the LV results with those from a transformer with

Left shift in resonance

Three XYZ results

Figure 3 Comparison of Good XYZ LV results and bad LV results

9.3 Inter Windings - All Terminals Floating

• The Inter-Winding tests are acceptable.

• The results, as shown in Figure 4, show expected correspondence between phases.

2 kHz the responses show the expected variation between phases

20kHz good correspondence between phases

200kHz good correspondence between phases

Figure 4 Inter Windings – All terminals Floating

9.4 High Voltage Winding - Short Circuit Tests (X1-X2-X3 Shorted)

Figure 5 HV Windings – Short Circuit Tests

Two good phases

Figure 6 Comparison of good and bad short circuit test results

9.5 Before and After Comparison Tests

• In order to demonstrate the repeatability of the Doble M5100 SFRA instrument, a

• The HV comparison results, as shown in Figure 7, show very good correspondence.

Figure 7 HV Windings – Before and After

• The LV comparison results, as shown in Figure 8, show very good correspondence.

Figure 8 Low Voltage Windings – Before and After

9.5.3 Interwinding Comparison

• The Interwinding comparison results, as shown in Figure 9, show very good

Figure 9 Interwinding Windings – Before and After

9.5.4 Short Circuit Tests Comparison

Figure 10 Short Circuit tests – Before and After

• The SFRA traces appear to give no indication of substantial winding movement or

• The traces will provide a good baseline for future reference.

Charles Sweetser, Tony McGrail

October 2nd 2003

11 Appendix 1: SFRA Interpretation and Examples

• Further information may be found at:

11.1 Frequency Shifts and Amplitude Shifts

• Resonances in an SFRA trace are a consequence of an inductance, L, and a

• Changes in an LC combination imply a change in the geometry within the transformer

• Changes in the amplitude of a response imply a change in a resistance element; this

Figure 11 Sub-bands in the M5100 SFRA Software

11.3 Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests

11.4 Interpretation Strategies

• Comparison of results with a ‘sister’ transformer is a valid technique, as shown in

• This section gives typical results from different failure modes.

11.5.1 Shorted Turn