Suc Biology F4 VNotes 2017 PDF

Years in Malaysia
1957–2017
Inspiring Learning
Enriching Lives
BIOLOGY
Made Easy
SPM
Virtual Notes FORM 4
F
O CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Biology
R
M
4 Objective State the aim of the experiment.
Problem Pose questions about the observations made.
statement
Hypothesis Formulate a possible explanation or prediction
based on the observations.
Variables Identify and control the manipulated, responding
and constant variables.
Materials List the materials and apparatus which will be
and used during the experiment.
apparatus
Technique State the technique involved in obtaining
the results.
Procedure • Write the instructions to carry out the experiment.
• The procedures should be written using reported
speech. For example, ‘Examine the slide under the
microscope’ should be written as ‘The slide is
examined under the microscope’.
• Diagrams can be drawn to show the set-up of the
experiment. They should be simple and two-
dimensional. The apparatus should be drawn with
a clear outline and labelled accordingly.
Results Present the results in the form of simple diagrams,
charts, graphs or tables. Include calculations where
necessary.
Discussion Discuss, analyse and interpret the data obtained, then
determine the relationship between the manipulated
variable and responding variable.
Conclusion Draw a conclusion based on the hypothesis given
earlier.
2 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Cell Organisation
Human cells and the adaptations to their functions
Sperm cells
• The tail allows the sperm to swim
towards the ovum.
Nerve cells • The head contains one set of
Have long, thin fibres called axons chromosomes from the male
to conduct nerve impulses. organism.
Red blood cells White blood cells

Shaped like biconcave discs and are Can change their shape to migrate
very flexible, allowing them to move to the sites of injuries to fight
easily along the narrowest blood infections.
vessels.
© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 3

F
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Cellular components of a plant cell
4
plasma membrane
chloroplast
3
1 nucleus
4 mitochondrion
cell wall of
adjacent cell
rough ER vacuole
lysosome
2
ribosome
5
smooth ER
outer membrane 1
inner
Golgi membrane
apparatus
nucleoplasm
nucleolus
Nucleus
• Controls all cellular activities. nuclear
• Contains DNA which determines membrane
the characteristics of a cell. pore in nuclear
membrane

nuclear envelope
nucleus
• Ribosomes − sites of protein synthesis
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) −
ribosomes transports proteins made by ribosomes
throughout the cell
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER) − synthesises lipids and carries
out detoxification of drugs and metabolic
2 by-products
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum smooth
endoplasmic 4 outer membrane
reticulum
inner membrane
cristae
3 matrix
outer membrane
inner membrane
granum
Mitochondrion
site of cellular
respiration
5
vesicles
stroma thylakoid
Golgi apparatus
Chloroplast Processes,
Captures the energy packages and acts
of sunlight and converts as a transport
light energy into centre of
chemical energy during carbohydrates,
photosynthesis. proteins and
glycoproteins.

F
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4 Human tissues
Tissues Functions
Epithelial tissues at the Form a protective barrier against infections
surface of the skin and mechanical injuries.
Epithelial tissues at the Secrete substances.

lining of glands, ducts Example: Sweat glands in the skin secrete
and kidney tubules sweat.
Epithelial cells which Thin, flat and arranged in a single layer to

line the alveoli and blood allow for easy diffusion of respiratory gases.
capillaries
Skeletal muscles Contract and relax to produce movements of

body parts.
Cardiac muscles Contract to pump blood from the heart.
Smooth muscles Contract and relax to produce involuntary

movements.
Nerve tissues Generate and transmit nerve impulses over

long distances.
Connective tissues Bind and support other tissues.

Bone tissue – provides protection to internal
organs and supports the body.
Tendon – attaches muscles to bones.
Blood tissue – transports nutrients and
respiratory gases, fights infections and helps
in blood clotting.

Plant tissues
Tissues Functions
Epidermal tissues Protect plants from mechanical injuries.
Ground tissues:
(a) Parenchyma Stores products of photosynthesis such
tissue as sugar.
(b) Collenchyma Provides support in herbaceous plants.

tissue
(c) Sclerenchyma Supports and strengthens plants.

tissue
Meristematic Divide through mitosis to increase the

tissues number of cells.
Vascular tissues:
(a) Xylem tissue • Conducts water and minerals from the
roots to the shoots.
• Provides support and mechanical
strength to the plants.
(b) Phloem tissue Transports organic substances from the

leaves to other parts of the plant.

F Movement of Substances across the
O CHAPTER 3 Plasma Membrane
R
M
Structure of the membrane
4
carbohydrate
cholesterol pore
phospholipid
carrier protein
pore protein
phospholipid hydrophilic
head
Structure of the plasma
membrane according to
hydrophobic the fluid mosaic model:
tails The components of the
plasma membrane are not
rigid but form a dynamic and
hydrophilic fluid structure. The proteins
head
form a mosaic pattern.
Proteins and phospholipids
can move sideways within
the membrane.

Movement of Substances across the
CHAPTER 3 Plasma Membrane
Effects of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions on animal cells
Effects of hypotonic Effects of isotonic Effects of hypertonic
solutions on animal solutions on animal solutions on animal
cells (red blood cells (red blood cells (red blood
cells) cells) cells)
The solution outside The solution outside The solution outside

the cell is less the cell has the same the cell is more
concentrated than the concentration as the concentrated than the
inside of the cell. cytoplasm fluid within inside of the cell.
the cell.
Water diffuses into the Water diffuses into Water diffuses out of
cell by osmosis. and out of the cell at the cell by osmosis.
equal rates.
The cell starts to swell The cell maintains its The cell shrinks and
and eventually burst. normal shape. the plasma membrane
crinkles up.
This condition is known The red blood cells are

as haemolysis. said to have crenated
(crenation).

F
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Effects of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions on plant cells
4
Effects of hypotonic Effects of isotonic Effects of hypertonic
solutions on plant solutions on plant solutions on plant
cells cells cells
The solution outside The solution outside The solution outside

the cell is less the cell has the the cell is more
concentrated than the same concentration concentrated than the
inside of the cell. as the cytoplasm inside of the cell.
fluid within the cell.
Water diffuses into Water diffuses into Water diffuses out of

the large central and out of the cell at the cell by osmosis.
vacuole by osmosis. equal rates.
The large central The cell maintains The vacuole and

vacuole expands and its normal shape. cytoplasm shrink and
swells up. The the plasma membrane
plasma membrane pulls away from the cell
presses hard against wall.
the cell wall.
The cell is said to be The plant cell becomes

turgid. flaccid and undergoes
plasmolysis.

CHAPTER 4 Chemical
ChemicalComposition
Compositionofofthe
theCell
Cell
Medium of
biochemical
reactions
Maintains Transport
osmotic medium
balance
Importance
of
water Maintains
Lubrication body
temperature
Provides Provides
support moisture

F
O CHAPTER 4 Chemical Composition of the Cell
R
M
4 Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Glucose Maltose Starch
Fructose Sucrose Glycogen
Galactose Lactose Cellulose
condensation
Glucose + glucose maltose + water
hydrolysis
condensation
Glucose + fructose sucrose + water
hydrolysis
condensation
Glucose + galactose lactose + water
hydrolysis
Nucleic acids
DNA consists of
two strands of
polynucleotides
twisted around
each other to
form a double
helix.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Structure of a nucleotide
phosphate group
pentose sugar nitrogenous base
Protein structure
ply
Tertiary structure
leu
gly
val lau
val
lys
lys
val
lys
lya gly
gly his
ala
his
lys
ala val
lys lys
lys pro
pro
Primary structure Secondary structure Quarternary structure

F
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4
The production of extracellular enzymes
1 The nucleus contains DNA which carries the information for the synthesis of
enzymes.
2 Proteins are synthesised at the ribosomes.
3 The synthesised proteins travel through the rough ER.
4 The protein departs from the rough ER in vesicles that bud off from the membranes
of the rough ER.
5 These transport vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
6 The proteins are then modified in the Golgi apparatus.
7 Secretory vesicles containing these proteins bud off from the Golgi apparatus
and fuse with the plasma membrane before releasing the proteins as enzymes
outside the cells.
protein secreted outside

plasma membrane the cell as enzymes
7
secretory vesicle
6 5
Golgi apparatus 4
transport vesicle
3
rough endoplasmic
1 reticulum
DNA
2
nucleus

The uses of enzymes in daily life and industry
Protease tenderises meat and removes the skin of fish.
Cellulase breaks down cellulose and removes seed coats from

cereal grains. It also extracts agar from seaweed.
Amylase and amyglucoxidase convert starch to sugar in the

making of syrup.
Trypsin removes hair from animal hides.
Zymase converts sugar into ethanol.
Amylase removes starch stains on clothes.
Lipase ripens cheese.
Rennin solidifies milk proteins.

F
O CHAPTER 4
5 Chemical
Cell Division
Composition of the Cell
R
M
4
centrioles
Early prophase
• Centrioles migrate.
• Chromosomes condense.
• Nucleolus disappears.
• Nuclear membrane disintegrates.
chromosome
spindle
fibres
Late prophase
• Spindle fibres form.
• Spindle fibres attach to
chromosomes.
chromosome
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up
at the equatorial plane
(metaphase plate).
metaphase plate

CHAPTER 5 Cell Division
centromere
Anaphase
• Centromeres divide.
• Sister chromatids move toward
opposite poles.
Telophase
• Spindle fibres disappear.
• Chromosomes uncoil.
• Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus re-appear.
cleavage furrow
Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow divides
the cell into two identical
daughter cells.
daughter cells

F
O CHAPTER 5 Cell Division
R
M
4
Meiosis I
Prophase I Metaphase I
• Nuclear membrane disintegrates. • Homologous chromosomes
• Synapsis (pairing of homologous line up on the metaphase plate.
chromosomes) and crossing • Each homologous chromosome
over occur. is attached to the fibres from
• Spindle fibres form. one pole.
Meiosis II
Metaphase II
Prophase II • Spindle fibres attach to both
• Nuclear membrane sides of the centromere.
disintegrates. • Chromosomes line up on
• Spindle fibres form. the metaphase plate.

CHAPTER 5 Cell Division
Anaphase I Telophase I
• Homologous chromosomes • Chromosomes uncoil (partially).
are pulled apart. • Nuclear membrane forms.
• Centromeres do not divide. • Cytokinesis occurs.
• Sister chromatids stay joined.
Telophase II
• Nuclear membrane forms.
• Cytokinesis occurs.
• Four haploid cells are formed
Anaphase II
from one diploid parent cell.
Centromeres separate
and chromatids (daughter
chromosomes) are drawn
towards opposite poles.

F
O CHAPTER 6 Nutrition
R
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The human digestive system
4
Teeth Tongue
Cut, tear and grind food. Helps swallow food.
Salivary glands Epiglottis

Secrete salivary amylase Prevents food from
to break down starch. entering trachea.
Oesophagus
A tube connecting Stomach
the mouth to the Gastric glands secrete
stomach. pepsin which hydrolyses
proteins and rennin
which coagulates milk.
Liver
• Removes toxins
from blood.
• Regulates food Pancreas
substances. Secretes pancreatic
• Converts excess amylase, trypsin
amino acids and lipase.
to urea.
• Produces bile.
Small intestine
Digested food
Gall bladder substances absorbed
• Stores bile. into blood.
• Bile neutralises
stomach acid.
Rectum
Stores faeces.
Large intestine
Excess water
reabsorbed Anus
into blood. Faeces egested.

CHAPTER 6 Nutrition
Adaptation of the small intestine for absorption
The villi:
• are numerous in number to increase the surface area for
absorption
• have thin walls for easy absorption of digested food
• have a network of blood capillaries for the efficient
transport of digested food
• have lacteals for the absorption of fatty acids and glycerol
fatty acid
epithelial cells (absorb
glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol)
glycerol
lacteal
(absorbs
blood fatty acids
capillaries and
(absorb glycerol)
glucose and
amino
acids)
blood capillaries
lymphatic
vessel to blood
to liver circulatory
system

F
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4
Absorption and assimilation of nutrients
End products Absorbed through Assimilation
Glucose Blood capillaries by • Substrate for cellular

facilitated diffusion respiration.
and transported to • Excess glucose is converted
the liver via the into glycogen and stored in the
hepatic portal vein. liver.
• In the cell, glucose is oxidised
during cellular respiration.
Amino acids • Used in the synthesis of

plasma proteins.
• Excess amino acids are
deaminated, and urea is
excreted.
• In the cell, amino acids are
needed to synthesise
enzymes and hormones.
Fatty acids, Lacteals by diffusion • Major components of the

glycerol, and transported in plasma membrane
vitamins A, D, the lymphatic system (phospholipids).
E, K and finally in the • Excess fats are stored in
bloodstream. adipose tissue as reserve
energy.

The adaptation of leaf cells for photosynthesis
Cross section of a leaf
• Packed tightly together in an

upright arrangement to receive
Thin and transparent to allow maximum sunlight.
light to penetrate the leaf and • Have a high density of
reach the chloroplasts chloroplasts to carry out
photosynthesis.
cuticle
palisade mesophyll
upper
epidermis
spongy
mesophyll
lower
epidermis
• Have large air stoma bundle sheath
xylem
spaces between collenchyma
the cells for easy phloem
diffusion of water
and carbon dioxide
to the palisade cells. • Xylem transports mineral ions
• Contain and water to the leaf.
chloroplasts • Phloem transports products of
which carry out photosynthesis away from the
photosynthesis. leaf.

F
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4 The mechanism of photosynthesis
1 2
• During the light reaction, • Hydrogen ions combine
chlorophyll captures light with electrons released
energy which excites the by the chlorophyll molecules
electrons. The electrons to form hydrogen atoms.
leave the chlorophyll • ATP molecules are also
molecules. formed.
• Light energy splits water
molecules (photolysis of
water) into hydrogen ions
and hydroxyl ions.
4 3
• In the dark reaction, • Each hydroxyl ion loses an
hydrogen atoms are used electron to form a hydroxyl
to fix carbon dioxide in a group.
series of reactions catalysed • The electron is received by
by photosynthetic enzymes. a chlorophyll molecule.
• CH2O is formed. • The hydroxyl groups
• 6 units of CH2O combine to combine to form water and
form one molecule of oxygen.
glucose.
Word equation for photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

CHAPTER 7 Respiration
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
• Complete oxidation of • Incomplete oxidation of

glucose in the presence glucose in the absence of
of oxygen to form oxygen to form lactic acid and
carbon dioxide, water energy (in muscle cells) or
and energy. ethanol, carbon dioxide and
• 38 molecules of ATP are energy (in yeast).
produced. • 2 molecules of ATP are
• 2898 kJ of energy is produced.
released. • 210 kJ of energy is released
• Takes place in the during fermentation by yeast
mitochondria. and 150 kJ of energy is
• In all organisms: released during anaerobic
respiration in the muscle cells.
C6H12O6 6O2
+ • Takes place in the cytoplasm.
glucose oxygen • In muscle cells:
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 2C3H6O3
carbon water glucose lactic acid
dioxide 2898 kJ + 150 kJ energy
energy • In yeast:
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
glucose ethanol carbon
+ 210 kJ dioxide
energy

F
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4
Respiratory structure of fish Respiratory structure of frogs
opercular gills filaments
chamber
mouth
gill arch lamellae heart

lungs
lamella blood flow blood
flow of water vessels
water flows in the opposite

direction to the blood flow
Characteristics of the
respiratory structures
Respiratory structure of insects • Numerous folded linings
increase surface area
spiracle to volume ratio for an
efficient gaseous
exchange.
trachea • The linings are thin,
one-cell thick to allow a
higher rate of gaseous
air sac exchange.
• The surfaces for the
muscle gaseous exchange
spiracles are constantly moist
for easy diffusion of
tracheole respiratory gases.

Respiratory structure of humans
deoxygenated blood
oxygenated blood
pulmonary arteriole
(O2 poor) bronchiole
pulmonary venule
(O2 rich)
alveolar
space
blood
capillaries alveolus
covering
alveoli
air
O2 CO2
O2 O2
CO2 CO2
• Oxygen diffuses from the alveolus to the blood capillaries.

• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries to the alveolus.

F
O CHAPTER 7 Respiration
R
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Transport of carbon dioxide from body cells to lungs
4
Carbon dioxide released by respiring cells is transported as

• dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood plasma (7%)
• carbaminohaemoglobin (23%)
• bicarbonate ions (70%)
Tissue
Lung
Hb : Haemogl
Haemoglobin
g obin
Blood plasma
(carbaminohaemoglobin)
Hb CO2 Hb
CO2 +
H
CO2 carbonic
H2CO3 HCO3–
anhydrase
H 2O (carbonic acid) (bicarbonate ion)
H 2O
carbonic H CO
CO2 HCO3– HCO3–
anhydrase 2 3
H+
CO2 Hb
CO2 Hb
red blood cell

Excreted

CHAPTER 8 Dynamic Ecosystem
Energy flow within a food chain
8 When secondary consumers eat primary

consumers, 10% of the primary consumers’
Quarternary energy is transferred to the secondary
consumer consumers.
9 The carnivores also lose energy through
respiration, defaecation and excretion.
10 The secondary consumers are then eaten by
tertiary consumers and subsequently the
quarternary consumers feed on the tertiary
Tertiary consumers.
consumer
11 This is how energy flows from one trophic
level to the next.
4 When primary consumers eat the producers,

10% of the energy stored in the producer is
Secondary transferred to the primary consumers.
consumer 5 90% of the energy is lost to the environment.
6 Primary consumers use this energy for
growth and movement, and to maintain body
temperature.
Primary 7 When consumers excrete and defaecate,
consumer energy is made available to the decomposers.
1 The producer absorbs solar energy and

converts it into chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
Producer 2 Some of the energy is used by the producer
for cellular growth.
3 When the producer dies, this energy is made
available to other organisms by decomposers.

F
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R CHAPTER 8 Dynamic Ecosystem
M
4
Colonisation and succession in a pond
submerged plants
Succession begins with the growth of
submerged plants like Hydrilla sp. and
Elodea sp.
• When submerged plants die and

floating decompose, their organic matter is
submerged
plants converted into humus at the pond base.
plants
• The shallower condition becomes
more suitable for the growth of
organic matter
emergent plants floating plants such as Lemna sp.
(sedges) and Eichornia sp.
floating plants
• The addition of more organic matter to

the pond base causes the pond to
become shallower.
cattails • The floating plants are replaced by
sedges
emergent (amphibious) plants such
as sedges and cattails.
• When emergent plants die, their

herbaceous plants decomposed remains add to the
sedges cattails sediments at the base of the pond.
• The shallow condition of the pond
favours the growth of herbaceous
plants.
• As time passes, the land becomes

drier and favours the growth of
primary forest
land plants such as shrubs and bushes.
• A primary forest emerges and eventually
turns into a tropical rainforest which is
known as a climax community.

CHAPTER 9 Endangered Ecosystem
The process of eutrophication

Eutrophication is the artificial nutrient enrichment of an aquatic system with organic matter
or inorganic nutrients which cause the excessive growth of aquatic plant life.
1 Excess nutrients cause the rapid growth of algae (algal bloom) in a lake.
2 Algae consume a lot of oxygen and block sunlight penetration.
3 Photosynthesis decreases further the oxygen level in the lake.
4 Algae die without being consumed because they grow faster than their consumers.
5 Photosynthetic organisms die and organic matter accumulates at the bottom of the
lake.
6 Dead organic matter is a food source for microorganisms such as aerobic bacteria.
7 Aerobic bacteria use up and deplete the oxygen content in the water.
8 Aquatic organisms compete for oxygen. This results in a high biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD).
9 Low concentration of oxygen kills fish.
The effects of global warming

• Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers causes sea levels to rise and subsequently floods
in low-lying areas.
• Droughts occur in more areas and this leads to a drop in crop yields.
• Changes the wind direction and distribution of rainfall. Affects agricultural activities.
• Spread of disease-carrying vectors such as the vector for dengue fever.
The effects of ozone depletion

• Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation leads to higher risks of skin cancer,
cataracts and sunburns.
• UV light weakens the immune system.
• UV light reduces nutrient contents in soil and this decreases crop yields.
• UV light damages chlorophyll and reduces photosynthesis in plants.
• UV light kills phytoplankton which affects marine food chains.
• Ozone depletion leads to an increase in Earth’s temperature.

F
O CHAPTER 8 Dynamic Ecosystem
R
M
4 A T M O S P H E R E
2 Some solar radiation 5 Some of the infrared
is reflected by the radiation passes through
atmosphere the atmosphere and is
S U N and Earth's surface. lost in space.
E E N H O U S E G A S E
G R 6 Some of the infrared radiation is S
ion passes by the greenhouse gas molec absorbed and re-emitted
1 Solar radiat m os ph ere. the warm ing of the
ules. The direct effect is
clear at Earth 's surface and the tropospher
through the e.
Surface gains more heat and infrared
radiation is emitted again.
3 Solar energy is absorbed by the

Earth's surface and warms it...
4 ...and is converted into heat causing
the emission of the infrared
E A R T H radiation back to the atmosphere
© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017
First published 2018
ISBN 978 983 47 2299 9
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
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Years in Malaysia

2 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

Red blood cells White blood cells

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 3

4 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 5

Epithelial tissues at the Secrete substances.

Epithelial cells which Thin, flat and arranged in a single layer to

Skeletal muscles Contract and relax to produce movements of

Cardiac muscles Contract to pump blood from the heart.

Smooth muscles Contract and relax to produce involuntary

Nerve tissues Generate and transmit nerve impulses over

Connective tissues Bind and support other tissues.

6 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

(b) Collenchyma Provides support in herbaceous plants.

(c) Sclerenchyma Supports and strengthens plants.

Meristematic Divide through mitosis to increase the

(b) Phloem tissue Transports organic substances from the

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 7

8 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

The solution outside The solution outside The solution outside

This condition is known The red blood cells are

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 9

The solution outside The solution outside The solution outside

Water diffuses into Water diffuses into Water diffuses out of

The large central The cell maintains The vacuole and

The cell is said to be The plant cell becomes

10 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 11

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

12 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

pentose sugar nitrogenous base

Primary structure Secondary structure Quarternary structure

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 13

protein secreted outside

14 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

Protease tenderises meat and removes the skin of fish.

Cellulase breaks down cellulose and removes seed coats from

Amylase and amyglucoxidase convert starch to sugar in the

Trypsin removes hair from animal hides.

Zymase converts sugar into ethanol.

Amylase removes starch stains on clothes.

Lipase ripens cheese.

Rennin solidifies milk proteins.

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 15

16 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 17

18 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 19

Salivary glands Epiglottis

20 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

Adaptation of the small intestine for absorption

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 21

End products Absorbed through Assimilation

Glucose Blood capillaries by • Substrate for cellular

Amino acids • Used in the synthesis of

Fatty acids, Lacteals by diffusion • Major components of the

22 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

• Packed tightly together in an

© Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017 23

Word equation for photosynthesis:

24 © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2017

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration