Chapter - 3.

Training Effectiveness - Introduction and Concept

3.1 Objectives.
In this chapter following details are available:
i. Defining the concepts of Learning. Education, Training,
Development in the context of training effectiveness.
ii. Various ways of learning
iii. Importance of training and various training models
practiced in the training field.
iv. Processes followed in the training interventions to enhance
training effectiveness.
V. Role of memory process in training.
vi. Significance of the concept of "Andragogy" in training.
vii. Distinguish between tactical and strategic training views.
viii. DAD perspective of Training.

3.2 Introduction
In his search to gain control, the man has ceaselessly been striving to
acquire the knowledge whatever the way or manner he could. This piece of
knowledge is to display his majestic empowerment, to establish he is better
placed than his co-men in whatever the environment he his, to register his
supremacy on others, to project he is only the epitome of all-wisdom.
Therefore, he only deserves the song of the glory, sociable preference over
the others, the ultimate degree of repose and indelible faith. The yearning for

44
his self-glory does not stop; therefore, it goes on and on and on. Since his
yearning is unstoppable, he always keeps exploring new horizons for
acquiring more and updated knowledge, new and more competitive skills and
thereby changing his unfixed traits - more often the attitudes.
The training is, more often than not, always targeting a visible and
tangible change in the degree of knowledge, skills and attitudes. The first two,
of course, are inore and easily measurable than the third. The increasingly
turbulent environment - high-tech, globalization, instant, mobile, extremely
diverse' - has fiirther necessitated the need for proper and systematic
acquisition of Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA) from whatever the
sources in the cosmos. 'Systematic' learning, however, gained the ground by
replacing simple and untargeted acquisition of knowledge - ordinary
'learning', in the highly competitive world, systematic and objective learning
only holds the grounds i.e. training. Training effectiveness thus qualifying the
degree of knowledge, skills and attitudes is the core topic of debate through
these pages of study.
3.3 Learning
Going by the title of the study, all the references debated here will be
between the job and non-job situations. Well, the learning "refers to a
naturally occurring process that 'may' or 'may not' contribute to person's job
performance" . This is "the process and result of acquiring individual
experience" . This differs from study as the acquirement of experience in
activity guided by cognitive motives and objectives. Therefore, "by learning
human beings can gain any experience - knowledge, capabilities and skills. It
includes the unconscious process of comprehension and fixation - involuntary
memorizing, of the material""*. But the learning generally remains restricted to
the personal preferences, mental inclination and social tastes of the subject.

45
Here, obviously the reference is explicitly made on the adults and the
mentally grown up individuals.
Learning is the process by which behaviour and attitudes are changed.
One of the major debates in child development and education has been on the
question of how much behaviour is innate and how much is learnt - the nature
versus nurture debate^. A psychological defmition given by R. Thomson^, in
The Psychology of Thinking, is "...any change in the general activity of an
organism the effects of which persist and recur over a period of time and
which are strengthened by repetition and practice". It takes, however, some
time to acquire the mastery over certain activities and then the amount of
inputs initially required is considerably gets reduced. To substantiate this
Irving reports that the first Boeing 747 to be buih required a workforce of
27500. And by the time the breakeven four hundredth was produced the
workforce was only 7500. It is not only the individuals learn, the
organizations over the period of time also learn. But quiet learning as
compared to systematic learning, as discussed earlier takes lot of time to reach
to the objective level of performance. Let's see a diagram.
Chart - 2.

P s
e y
r s
f t Q
0 e u
r m i
m a e
a t t
n i
c
e ^ Learning Learn

Time

46
3.4 Training
Training on the other hand treads the different rout - more focused,
objectively clear and consciously structured.
It refers to a planned process that directs learning towards achieving
. . ft

specific outcomes, leading to achieving performance objectives .

Another definition from the Glossary of Training Terms'* says training is:
"A planned process to modify attitude, knowledge and skill behaviour
through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an
activity or range of activities. Its purpose in the work situation is to
develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy current and future
manpower needs of the organisation."
In the similar vein another definition by Robert H Rouda & Mitchell E Kusy
Jr."',
"Training is a learning process directly tied to specific situational
results. The focus is usually based on improving individual and group
behaviour and performance, and on results to the organisation"
Another definition By Dr. Carter McNamara'\
"...is often interpreted as the activity when an expert and learner work
together to effectively transfer information from the expert to the
learner (to enhance a learner's knowledge, skills or attitudes) so the
learner can better perform a current task or job."
Precisely the training is more focused learning directed towards achievement
of certain goals or to, simply put, bridge the gap between the expected level
of performance and the actual level of performance. The effectiveness of
training can be measured by examining what a person could do before the
training and what he or she could do after it*^.

47
3.4.1 Typical Reasons for Training'^ - Micro level.
There can be variety of reasons for determining the need for training.
Few common and general reasons as under:
• To bridge the gap - performance, growth or opportunity gap.
• Low performance - when perfoi-mance appraisal indicates performance
improvement is needed;
• To "benchmark" the status of improvement so far in a performance
improvement effort;
• Arrest the wastage;
• Reduce accidents;
• An effort for an overall professional development programme;
• To training about a specific subject;
• To "pilot" or test, the operation of a new performance management
system;
• Improve the quality of product or services offered.
• Preparing to confront the 'changed' scenario in the organisation;
• To inculcate attitudinal improvements in employees.

3.4.2 Macro Level Benefits

• Policy - organizational policies in certain cases undergo
changes. These policies may be related to the HRV Operations or
may be retrenchment etc.
• Technology - there can also be situations, more so in the recent
times as the technology is fast changing, the people in the
organsiation have to be exposed to new technological
requirements.

48
 • People - quite often people at different levels keep changing
because of new induction/ recruitment, promotions/ elevations,
transfers, retirement/ deaths etc. New set of people in any case
needs the awareness about their expected functions.
• Organization - expansion, diversification, acquisition, and
amalgamation that is the way in the industry necessitates the need
for training.

3.4.3 Benefits of Training:

There are several other reasons besides listed above that are beneficial
resulting out of training. A few are stated below:
Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees;
Elevated employee motivational level;
Improved efficiencies in process, resuhing in financial gains
Reduced accidents.
Less wastage.
Systematic learning/ acquisition of KSA
Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods -
change;
Reduced employee turnover;
Increased innovation in strategies and products;
Improved quality of product/ services;
Enhanced company image;
Diversified approach - Effective Risk Management.
Optimum utiUzation of resources.

49
 .14
Training Process''' By Robert S Drake, Jr. and Dawn Drake.
The Performance Matters
Strategic & Tactical Training Process

Busln«s« Planntng

Strategic Trailing Procaes

TacUcal Tr«ining PrDce«« © Pwtorinanoe Matters Inc. 1997

50
The blue ovals at the top of the diagram represent key steps in the Strategic
Business Planning Process. This process is to be completed before
development of the training plan. The green ovals on the diagram illustrate
the Strategic Training Process - performing this assessment and plarming
tasks enables developing creative training and educational solutions that will
produce measurable improvement in peoples' performance. The rust-coloured
ovals represent the Tactical Training Process - actual implementation of the
training that includes evaluation of the training as a whole.

3.5 4 Ways of learning'^

Learning is inherent quality of every sane individual and this is a
continuous process. But what we are concerned here through training is the
guided learning for the people in our organization - specific, targeted and
result oriented. Organisations, however, are also concerned about the
potential effectiveness of its people - personal efficacy as well as role
efficacy'^. The resultant effect of the training is also the over all development
of the individual - improved knowledge, enhanced skills, changed attitude -
thus total personality shift. But before we delve further deep into the subject,
it will be highly pertinent to debate on the commonly followed ways of
learning by the human beings.
The purpose of training is to help people develop their knowledge,
skills and attitudes enabling them to efficiently carry out their duties and
entrusted responsibilities. This requires the trainer to consider such questions
as:

51
 • What is objective of the training being planned - developing
knowledge, skills, attitudes or a mixture of these (more commonly
used)?
• What is the Entry Behaviour of the trainees - level of knowledge
and skills and willingness to learn?
• Is entry behaviour likely to vary within the learning group and the
range of its width?
• Do the trainees prefer to work things out for themselves?
• What is the environment for learning event - under working
conditions or off-the-job?
• What methods will be used to give trainees feedback on their
performance?

Considering these questions, important underlying consideration is the way in

which the people lean. Four of the ways people lean are discussed under:

i. Trial & Error - trying for oneself.

ii. Being Told - receiving direct instructions - orally or in writing.
iii. Tmitation - copying the actions of others.
iv. Thinking - organizing one's thoughts to find out the solution to
the problem.

52
 Imitation

Thinking Being Told

Trial & Error

1. Trail & Error: This is probably the simplest and the most
traditional form of learning. Generally younger people like to
learn by this method. Here the trainees try to do something and
learning takes place when they review the success or failure of
their attempts. One of the most important features of this method
of learning is knowledge of results. When a trainee tries to do
something the attempt has to be reinforced. Since this technique
is more applicable to skill based training, we should create
opportunities for practicing trial and error learning around
practical, realistic activities. The learning opportunities should,
therefore, be a structured - planned event. Most handy and useful
for on-the-job training.
II. Being Told: The task of learning does not require the trainee to
make any independent discovery. Trainee receives instructions
from the trainer - words, symbols, figures - the entire content is
in the final form. The quantum of information, however, decides

53
 about the delivery. If the piece of instruction is small it will be
orally otherwise this can be written as well. Younger trainees do
not mind receiving the instructions and follow them. The elderly
trainees might not take it very kindly, as the biggest drawback in
this technique is it gives an impression that the trainee does not
know anything about that piece of infonnation/ knowledge that is
- passed on to him. This feeling sometimes cause variation in
degree of learning amongst the trainees. Being told, however, is
a useful way of to learn, especially when used for increasing
knowledge, more so where there is clear-cut body of knowledge
with minimum amount of ambiguity.
iii. Imitation: As the meaning goes an opportunity is created
where the trainee observes somebody performing a task.
Essentially learning by imitation is based on what he sees and
not what is told him to do. Here, if the training is not given as
on-the-job, great care has to be taken that whatever the model he
exposed to work on during training is the same when return back
to work place. Recommendable in this type of learning is on-the-
job training that is properly structured and consciously
introduced so that the trainee acquires maximum amount of
benefits and minimum amount of bad working practices.
iv. Thinking: When a trainee is encouraged to think about an
experience and to reflect on it in learning terms. This happens
where there is no clear-cut solution or single answer to the
problem, in most of the managerial situation where there is so
tailor-made solution or one final solution, the effect of thinking
takes place. Since each trainee may have his/ her own

54
 interpretation of the situation and valuable learning experience
can occur when this interpretation is challenged and evaluated
alongside those of other trainees. Further since this requires a fair
amount of thinking involved in learning process, maturity and
experience of the trainees is also required. The trainer has to
adopt an advisory, counseling role in facilitating the learning.
3.6 Types of Tasks
In the training process where it was necessary to be aware of the ways of
learning to be induced, it is equally important to be aware of the types of the
tasks the trainees are going to be trained on. Largely there are two types of
tasks:

3.6.1 Reproductive: The tasks those are repeatedly performed in a

similar fashion, way or following the same set of activities/
process are the reproductive tasks. To operate these tasks there is
established procedure of rules and regulation, accuracy to be
adhered to irrespective the individual or situations viz. booting
up a computer, switching on a fan, starting or driving a vehicle.
We may say where the trainer gives stereotype set of steps to be
followed, is reproductive task. Let we view this task with two
diagrams - (i) Trainer-Centred and (ii) on 4-way of learning axis.

Task Trainer Trainee

Diagram - i.
Trainer-centered Approach Reproductive task

55
 Im itation
Reproductive
Task

Thinking Being Told

Trial & Error

Diagram - ii
3.6.2 Productive: The tasks those every time need a different set of
step, procedures to be followed. For example writing/ drafting an
office memorandum - though the structure of the format remains
the same but the contents every time differ even when drafted by
different people. Also there is no clear-cut and definitive
corrective action. As I said, managerial decisions are always
found different, even for the same problem but at different time
and situation and by the different persons. Therefore, application
of 'thinking' paramount requisite in each such case/ situation.
Trainer here does not give instructions but simply facilitates the
learning. Let we see following two diagrams.

Diagram - 1.

Trainee-centered Approach Productive task

56
 P rod u ctive Im itation
Task

Thinking B e i n g T old

T rial & Error

Diagram - 2.

3.7 Training Models

There are quite a few commonly used training models in practice i.e.
Performance Based Training (PBT), Criterion Research Instruction (CRI),
Instructional System Design (ISD), Systematic (System) Approach to
Training (SAT), Evolutionary Model, Rapid Prototyping Design (RPD) etc.
In fact application of a training model differs from one school of thought to
the other. And no one really approves the one practiced in one set up to the
other. Despite certain contradictory usage of 'terms', by and large the very
structure remains the same. Or we can say the end result stays all most the
same and it is only coining of certain training terms. A few of the training
models, therefore, are discussed below from the industry.

3.7.1 Instructional System Design - ISD Model

The concept of a system approach to training is based on
obtaining an overall view of the training process. It is characterized by an
orderly process for gathering and analyzing collective and individual

57
performance requirements and by the ability to respond to identified training
needs. The application of a system approach to training ensures that training
programmes and the required support materials are continually developed in
an effective and efficient manner to match the variety of needs in ever rapidly
changing environment. ISD is also called as ADDIE (Analysis, Design,
Development, Implement, Evaluate) '^. ADDIE is also called as ADDIEtude
which means the architectural knowledge of how to develop training from the
ground up . Fig.-l. below shows the basic ISD model.

Fig.-1.
Constraints

Develop

Implement

Legend: Curriculum Loop

Feedback «& Interaction Loop •*-

58
 ISD model was first established by the Department of Defence, but can
now be found in almost any type of organization. It was designed to solve
training problems as evident from the fig.2 below. It grew out of the 'Systems
analysis' concepts that became popular after the World War - II. It is
probably the most extensively used instructional design model in use today .
ISD is concerned with identification of training requirements based on
the analysis of job performance requirements data obtained from experts in
the job to be performed. Training objectives are formulated as a result of the
job analysis process and tests are developed to be used to assess the learner's
progress toward meeting the training objectives. It also attempts to bring
structure to the instructional design process when determining the optimal
instructional strategies, instructional sequencing and instructional delivery
media for the type of training objectives involved'^,

Fig. 2. ISD Model - Flowchart model to solve training problems.

59
 ISD Model
Training
Requirment

Phase I h Ph3S«ill h Phase III 1 Phase IV Phase V "h

Analyse Desi, Develop Impknient Evaluate
1 1. - L h L,

Develop Let Learner Mm^ement Internal

System Object i««s Activity Plai Evaluatbn

Compile Identify Select

Conduct External
Task Learning Delivery
Training Evaluatbn
Inventoty Steps System

Revew
Develcp Revise
Select Tasks Existing
Tests System
Material

Build
List Entry Devebp
Perfoimaice
Behavbrs Instructbn
Measures

Choose Sequence
ln«t(uctbnal And Synthesize
Settina Structure

Estimate
Validate
Training
Instructbn
Cost
Figure 2

60
 The five phases are ongoing activities that continue throughout the life
of a training programme. After building a training programme, the other
phases do not end once the training programme is implemented. The five
phases are continually repeated on a regular basis to see if further
improvement can be made. Let we see another ISD Model which is more
iterative flow of activities (dynamic or spiral) than what we have seen above
as a static (waterfall) model which stresses the importance of gathering and
distributing information in each five phases.

Fig. 3.

ISD MODEL
FLOWCHART
cuiMxyti^

•r
1 '

titqtlemeitt Evaluate Design

1
.I
L

IL'CVCUWIf
-

61
A brief description of the ISD process
1. Analyse:
a. Analyse system (department, job etc.) to gain a complete
understanding of it.
b. Compile a task inventory of all tasks associated with job (if
needed)
c. Select tasks that need to be trained (needs analysis)
d. Build performance measures for the task to be trained.
e. Choose instructional setting for the tasks to be trained e.g.
classroom, on-the-job, self-study etc.
f. Estimate what is going to cost to train the tasks.
2. Design:
a. Develop the learning objectives for each task, to include both
terminal and enabling objectives.
b. Identify and list the learning steps required to perform the
task
c. Develop the performance tests to show mastery of the tasks to
be trained, e.g. written, hands on etc.
d. List the entry behaviours that the learners must demonstrate
prior to training.
e. Sequence and structure the learning objectives, e.g. easy tasks
first.
3. Develop:
a. List activities that will help the students learn task.
b. Select the delivery method such as tapes, handouts etc.
c. Review existing material so that you do not reinvent the
wheel.

62
 d. Develop the instructional courseware.
e. Synthesize the courseware into viable training programme.
f. Validate the instruction to ensure it accomplishes all goals
and objectives
4. Implement:
a. Create a management plan for conducting the training.
b. Conduct the training.
5. Evaluate:
a. Review and evaluate each phase to ensure it is accomplishing
what it is supposed to.
b. Perform external evaluations, e.g. observe the learner on the
job can actually perform the tasks that were trained.
c. Revise training system to make it better.
3.7.2 Systematic Approach to Training^' - SAT.
Unlike the ISD Systematic Approach to Training (SAT) is a four step-
training model. The stages are almost the same and the sequence of activities
is shown in the model below:
Systematic Approach to Training Model

63
The processes in the SAT model

1. Identification of training Needs:

a. Organizational Training Needs Analysis is used to such questions as
policy, productivity, new technology and cost escalation. Producing
a broad picture of where problems exist is necessary and the
contribution that training can make to overcome them, with any
other action required solving or reducing performance problems.
b. Job Analysis takes the analytical process a stage further by
investigating in more detail the job people do. This will provide
information, for example, about the tasks they perform, areas of
responsibilities and relationship with others.
c. Task Analysis investigates the procedure, knowledge, skills and
attitudes needed to ensure satisfactory performance of a job's key
tasks. The products of this analysis provide the basis for training
activities.
2. Plan and Design Training:
a. Planning and design of training interventions with the available
resources.
b. Planning within constraints like budget, operational demands,
facilities, availability of personnel etc.
3. Implement Training: This depends on the following factors -
a. Trainee recognizes the need for training.
b. Trainee is sufficiently motivated to want to learn.
c. During implementation this motivation is maintained.
d. The design of learning events is realistic within the context of the
organization.

64
 e. Clearly defined objectives are used to direct learning activities.
f. Trainers possess sufficient technical and instructional skills
g. Organization supports the application and development of newly
acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes.
4. Assess Results: Assessment needs to answer three basic questions.
a. Did the training achieve what it tried to achieve?
b. Did the training improve performance or solve the problem?
c. Was the training worthwhile?

3.7.3 Evolutionary Model"

An evolutionary approach includes both deterministic and incremental
systems, in contrast to the systems approach, which is entirely deterministic.
This means that in an evolutionary approach, tentative or short-term goals
may be specified. This approach is particularly appropriate for situations
where there is limited past experience from which to draw guidance. A major
benefit is that it enables a designer to test new ideas without making a long-
term commitment. A major disadvantage is that it lacks a defined set of steps.
Also, it is difficult to specify in advance the amount of time and money that
will be needed to complete significant events and it is logically impossible to
specify the outcome of an evolutionary process.
In the 1960's, the PLATO system for Computer Assisted Instruction
(CAI) was developed. A systems approach was implemented at the time. In
1972, the National Science Foundation funded the University of Illinois to
implement a new version of the PLATO system and to develop courseware
for schools and colleges. An evolutionary approach was used to design the
courseware. The evolutionary approach was apparent in all facets of the new
PLATO system and its accompanying courseware. Although many

65
outstanding lessons were made using this approach, when time for production
was Hmited due to constraining resources, such as time or money, quaHty
lessons could not be produced unless the authors took a systematic approach.
Courseware authors either failed to complete lessons on time or produced
lessons that made full use of graphics and other computer features, but were
instructionally ineffective. Although the SAT method may look large and
expensive, it has proven itself to be reliable and inexpensive in the long run.

3.7.4 Rapid Prototyping Design" (RPD)

Rapid Prototyping Design (RPD) uses a more formative model that is
based on usability testing of prototypes. Results of usability tests on the
prototypes are used to modify and improve the product. This model shares
many attributes in common with the ISD model, and stresses the importance
of iterative analysis and evaluation.
What is "Rapid Prototyping"?

Classic approach to software development ~ the waterfall cycle:

1. Concept definition
2. Requirements definition
3. Preliminaiy design
4. Detailed design
5. Code implementation
6. Test and acceptance
7. Griping

Rapid prototyping — the spiral cycle:

1. Concept definition
2. Implementation of a skeletal system

66
 3. User evaluation and concept refinement
4. Implementation of refined requirements
5. User evaluation and concept refinement
6. Implementation of refined requirements

See the model below:

Graphic representation of model:

Assess Needs and

Set Objectives
Analyze Content
Construct Prototype
(Design)
Utilize Prototype
(Research)
Install and
Maintain System

3.7.5 Rapid Instructional Development^^ (RID) Model

Rapid Instructional Development (RID) is a collection of strategies for
quickly producing instructional packages that enable a specific group of
learners to achieve a set of specific instructional objectives. RID involves
alternatives, enhancements and modifications to the instructional system
development model which in its common forms prescribes the steps of
ADDIE. The selection of appropriate RID techniques depends on two types of
trade-offs. The first is between the design and the delivery of instruction.
Design involves all activities undertaken before learners interact with the
instructional package in a real world-training situation; delivery is what
happens subsequently. An important principle in RID is that one can trade off
the resources allocated to these two phases. The second trade-off is between
the content (the materials) and the process (the method) of instruction. A

67
basic principle in RID is that one can develop instructional content and
process independently of each other. For example, you can rapidly videotape
a subject matter expert explaining the subtleties of a complex concept. You
can develop appropriate activities to facilitate the learners' mastery of
concepts. As long as it is possible to integrate the content and process in the
final package, one can produce effective instruction.

Rapid Instructional Development Model Strategies.

1. Human Performance Technology
a. Focus on accomplishment and performance
b. Develop a learning system instead of an instructions system.
c. Use suitable incentives to reward learning.
2. Process Improvement:
a. Use shortcuts
b. Combine different steps of instructional development process.
c. Implement the instructional package immediately and
improve it continuously
d. Skip steps in the instructional development process.
3. Materials Production:
a. Incorporate existing instructional materials.
b. Incorporate non-instructional materials
c. Develop instructional package around job aids.
d. Develop generic instructional materials for local finish.
4. Tools and Templates:
a. Use software tools - analysis, design, evaluate.
b. Use recording equipment
c. Use inter-net and E-mail tools

68
 d. Use templates of presenting instructional content.
e. Use standard procedures fro designing instructional activities.
Managing Human Resources:
a. Train and support subject matter experts.
b. Shift instructional development responsibilities to trainees.
c. Use peer-coaching techniques.

3.8 Human memory system

Before we proceed further it will be imperative to walk briefly through

the human 'memory' lanes. Since the ultimate objective of training and
development is to imprint a lasting impression in the minds of the
participants, it will be necessary to objectively explore how the human
memory system works. In other words, which training technique/ method will
prove to be more effective and result oriented.
3.8.1 Types of Memory
Though no one is sure, but most research suggests that there are at least
three basic types. Each is named for the kind of information it handles:
episodic, semantic and procedural .
• Episodic memory - any memory of a specific event that happened
while you were present is an episodic memory, such as what you had
for dinner yesterday or where you were last Friday night;

• Semantic memory - contains generalized knowledge of the world

that does not involve memory of a specific event. For example, you
can answer a question like "Are wrenches pets or tools?" without

69
 remembering any specific episode in which you learned that
wrenches are tools.
• Procedural memory, also called as skill memory, involves how to
do things - how to ride a bicycle, read a map, swim etc. Often, a
procedural memory consists of a complicated sequence of
movements that cannot be described adequately in words.

3.8.2 Basic Memory Processes

Remembering something requires three basic processes (as described in
the following diagram).
i. The item must be encoded - put in a form that can be
placed in memory.
ii. It must be stored or maintained in the memory.
iii. It must be retrieved or recovered from memory.
If any of these processes fails to operate properly, forgetting will occur. In
fact human memory system allows us to encode, store and retrieve a lifetime
of experiences. Without it, we would have no sense of who we are.

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Code & put Maintain in Recover from
into memory memory memory

3.8.3 Three Stages of Memory

Any memory, whatever its content, is the result of encoding, storage
and retrieval. Why then do people remember some information far better and

70
far longer than other information? Why do some stimuH leave more than a
fleeting impression and others remain in memory forever? There are number
of reasons, but the most important involves how extensively information is
processed. The most influential theories of memory suggest that in order for
information to become firmly embedded in memory, it must pass through
three stages of processing: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-
term memory .
1. Sensory memory - in the first stage where the information is
received through senses - sight, sounds, for example - is held in
sensory registers for a fraction of seconds.
2. Short-term memory - Information in sensory registers may be
attended to, analyzed and encoded as a meaningful pattern
processed by the perception will get recorded in this stage of the
memory otherwise the information will disappear in 20 seconds
or so.
3. Long-term memory - if the information in short-term memory is
further processed, it may be encoded in the long-term memory,
where it may remain indefinitely.

Here is a very basic overview of the human memory system. The

first stage captures information that the eyes, ears and other sensory
organs pick up from the environment. In the second stage distinct
patterns of the energy, such as recognizable images or understandable
words, are briefly held in consciousness. The third stage allows
information to be retained for use hours, days, or even years later.
Following diagram elucidates three-stage human memory system.

71
 Sensory memory Short-term Long-term
Briefly retains the memory memory
External information Temporarily hold Can retain
stimuli picked up by the information in information for long
sensory organs consciousness periods of time,
ofl^en nntil thp

3.8.4 Rehearsal and Levels of Processing Memory

There are two basic types of memory rehearsal:
• Maintenance Rehearsal - involves repeating an item over and over,
as you might do to use a new telephone number. This method can
keep an item active in the short-term memory but it is ineffective for
encoding information into long-term memory till finally it happens.
• Elaborate Rehearsal is far more effective, which involves thinking
about how new material relates to information already stored in long-
term memory. For example, just repeating a new person's name to
you is not a very effective strategy for memorizing it. Instead try
relating the situation, place, and occasion or at the event that person
met you will help remember his name. The simplest reason here is
you have used the relationships in the memory - networking.

We have seen that information that is attended to and perceived is

encoded into short-term memory. If it is not rehearsed or if it is displaced by
new information, this piece of information is lost. Chunking, using
information already in long-term memory can help hold more information in
short-term memory. The diagram below is self-explanatory.

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 Rehearsal
keeps
information
Information that in STM
draws attention
and is perceived
becomes encoded
into STM
Long-
External Sensory Short- term
stimuli memory term memory
memory

Related information in
STM to that in LTM
helps in chunking
process

Unattended, Unrehearsed
unperceived and displaced
information information
is lost is forgotten

The focus of training and development is to register the maximum

amount of information in the long-term memory of the participants. During
the period of training there has to be effective ways and means to encourage
proper memory rehearsal of knowledge, skills and attitudinal activities.

3.9 Adult learning - concept of Andragogy

Learning is a never-ending process. The human beings keep learning

till the last breathe. As we pass through different phases of life, the learning
process enroute also changes from time to time. May be our priorities change,
we fall prey to our strong likes and dislikes or prefer different propositions

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keeping view the changed scenarios. But the learning goes on. We may
become very choosy and selective but to maintain the pace of Ufe learning
goes on. At every stage, the type of such learning differs - we may call it
anything. This means when the type is different, the processes involved in it
will also be different. Therefore, one thumb rule of learning cannot be applied
while Teaming" different categories of members of the society - children,
adults, senior adults and the old ones. Andragogy is one such art or science of
making people learns that deals with adult learning.
Pedagogy's definition is 'the art, science and profession of teaching'
according to Webster's dictionary. The word Pedagogy comes from the Greek
work 'peda' meaning boy or child and 'agogus' meaning to lead. For
centuries this is how we have taught our children. It wasn't until 1970 that
most of us heard the word andragogy with 'andra' meaning adults instead of
children. Its definition today is the 'art and science of helping adults'
according to Malcolm Knowles. In 1970 he compiled his research and wrote
the book, "The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy versus
Pedagogy", which catapulted forward the word andragogy. Malcolm
Knowles, however, was subject to a great scrutiny since he deviated from the
traditional line of teaching. In fact he was also forced to retire after eight
years of his exceptional work - which is widely adorned and practiced all
over the world.
But andragogy did not happen in a day. It is important to know that it
was around long before Knowles brought it to the forefi^ont. It appeared as
early as 1833 by a German grammar school teacher but was known as
"andragogik" and like Knowles, he fell to scrutiny. The word disappeared for
almost 100 years because people were opposed to it. It resurfaced in Holland,
Yugoslavia and France in 1921 but not as art of helping adults but as study of

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the science and process of adult education. It was Knowies, some 50 years
later tiiat put the andragogical model into everyday practice and it earned him
the title of 'father of adult education' .
In most circumstances, adults are not captive learners and if the
learning situation does not suit their needs and interests, they simply stop
coming or inattentive'^'*. In discussing adult education, Knowies (1980, 84)"^*
distinguished between teacher-centered and learner centered instructions. He
promoted the later because it viewed learners as mutual partners in learning
endeavour . Known as andragogical model, the use of learner-centered
instruction - which supports addressing the needs and interest of learners - is
regularly championed in the literature as the most effective way to teach
adults. A logical outcome of the assumptions is the use of a collaborative
teaching model that involves the learners as partners. Support for adult
learners is provided through a learning environment that meets both their
physical and psychological needs. Such a learning environment is also
essential element in successful partnerships between learners and instructors.
Developing an atmosphere in which adults feel both safe and unchallenged
should be the goaP^. An ideal adult learning climate has a non-threatening,
nonjudgmental atmosphere in which adults have permission for and are
expected to share the responsibility for their learning.

3.9.1 Adults as Learners^'*

Compared to children and teens, adults have special needs and
requirement as learners. Despite the apparent truth, adult learning is relatively
new area of study (as described above). As we know the field of adult
learning was pioneered by Malcolm Knowies, he identified the following
characteristics of adult learners.

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• Adults as autonomous and self-directed. They need to be free to direct
themselves. Their teachers must actively involve adult participants in the
learning process and serve as facilitators for them. Specifically, they must
get participants' perspectives about what topics to cover and let them work
on projects that reflect their interests. They should allow the participants to
assume responsibility for presentations and group leadership. They have to
be sure to act as facilitators, guiding participants to their own knowledge
rather than supplying them with facts. Finally, they must show participants
how the class will help them reach their goals.
• Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and
knowledge that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities
and previous education. They need to connect learning to this knowledge/
experience base. To help them do so, they should draw out participants'
experience and knowledge, which is relevant to topic. They must relate
theories and concepts to participants and recognize the value of experience
in learning.
• Adults are goal-oriented. Upon enrolling a course, they usually know
what goal they want to attain. They, therefore, appreciate an educational
programme that is organized and has clearly defined elements. Instructors
must show participants how this class will help them attain their goals.
This classification of goals and course objectives must be done early in the
course.
• Adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason fro learning
something. Learning has to be applicable to their work or other
responsibilities to be of value to them. Therefore, instructors must identify
objectives for adult participants before course begins. This means, also,
that theories and concepts must be related to setting familiar to

76
 participants. Letting participants choose projects that reflect their own
interests can fulfill this need.
• Adults are practical focusing on aspects of a lesson most useful to them
in their work. They may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake.
Instructors must tell participants explicitly how the lesson will be useful to
them on the job.
• As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect. Instructors must
acknowledge the wealth of experience that adult participants bring to the
classroom. These adults should be treated as equals in experience and
knowledge and allowed to voice their opinions freely in class.
3.9.2 Critical Elements of Learning
1. Motivation - setting a feeling or tone for the lesson, setting an
appropriate level of concern and setting an appropriate level
difficulty.
2. Reinforcement - both positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement.
3. Retention - retaining the information from the class to benefit
from learning.
4. Transference - transfer of learning the core theme of any training
intervention.
To summarize the instructor/ trainer should''^:
• Assist the learners to define their training needs
• Design learning events to suit an individual learner's entry
behaviour

77
 • Help the learner to understand how to use learning resources,
including the experience of sharing their learning experiences
with others.
• Emphasise experiential and participative training methods
• Facilitate problem posing, solving and participative training
methods
• Progressively decrease the learner's dependency on the
trainer.
• Assist learners to assume increasing responsibility for
planning their own learning
• Reinforce the self-concept of the learner to encourage
achievement of objectives.
• Encourage the use of formative assessment techniques,
including free exchange of feedback.

3.10 Conclusion
By now we have come a long way on the road to training concepts
including the reasons, ways & processes, special & specific techniques etc.
To review once again, there are four inputs to a system - people, material,
technology and time. Training is mainly concerned with the meeting of these
two inputs - people and technology. A person's performance is improved by
showing him how to master a new or established technology. Training by far
is provided for the present job. This includes training new personnel to
perform their job, introducing a new technology or bringing an employee up
to standards. It is, therefore, learning that is provided in order to improve
performance on the present job'^''.

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3.11 Few More Definitions^'
• Training is the acquisition of technology, which permits employees to
perform their present job to standards. It improves human performance on
the job the employee is presently doing or is being hired to do. Also, it is
given when new technology is introduced into the workplace.
• Education is training people to do a different job. It is often given to
people who have been identified as being promotable, being considered for a
new job either lateral or upward or to increase their potential. Unlike
training, which can be fully evaluated immediately upon the learners
returning to work, education can only be completely evaluated when the
learners move on to their future jobs or tasks,
• Development is training people to acquire new horizons, technologies or
viewpoints. It enables leaders to guide their organizations onto new
expectations by being proactive rather than reactive. It enables workers to
create better products, faster services and more competitive organizations. It
is learning for the growth of the individual but not related to a specific
present or future job. Unlike training and education, which can be evaluated,
development cannot always be fully evaluated.

Let we also have a brief comparison between tactical and strategic views
about training.

3.12 Training as Tactical versus strategic view^*

"Who has the need for a strategic view of training?" Managers and
trainers mostly. Trainers so as to make a meaningful contribution to their
organization's objectives; managers in order to make better use of one of their
best tools for change and improvement.

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 At tactical level, there is great deal of attention paid to how training
gets developed, perhaps too much. This attention seems rooted in the
distinction made years ago between the process and the content of instruction.
This distinction enables people who are neither subject matter experts nor
master performers to develop training. This approach also leads to an
extremely detailed set of specifications for the process and precious few for
the product. As a result we have a plethora of standards defining good or
sound training development process but precious few defining good training.
At tactical level, the training course that prepares people to prepare job
descriptions and engage in discussions pertaining to these descriptions and
that is all. By default, good training becomes that which was developed in a
certain way. Adherence to good practice usurps effectiveness. Thus it is that
means are substituted for ends.
Since the tactical training view is short-range and narrow in its scope,
strategic view is long-range and broad in its scope and application. Strategic
view is an intervention and very effective one. It focuses organizational
energy on an organizational issue, which is to say it focuses the time,
attention and effort of the trainees on the job clarity. It is highly structured
and concentrated time spending for thinking about the jobs in question,
followed by the discussions of the fruits of that thinking. The course
structures not only the content & delivery which generally done in tactical
approach but also the process of thinking about the job. Concentrating and
channeling organizational energy along productive lines is the essence of
management. And concentrating and channeling the energy is the essence of
the training as well. Focusing energy on issues, making work and work-
related issues visible and drawing management attention to them and

80
supporting other interventions - all are beyond the present realm of training
processes pursued. Following the 'thinking' line is strategic approach.
Training is used to certify, to indoctrinate, to license, to orient and to
communicate and disseminate information and knowledge. It is an important
management tool and not the private domain of those who specialize in its
development and delivery etc. The work of most knowledge workers,
however, is hidden from view, buried in the recesses of worker's mind.
governed by feedback against a set of internally held reference conditions.
That work and those reference conditions need to be made visible and in
many cases clarified and negotiated. Until they are, knowledge work can be
neither measured nor controlled, except in a very general sense. One of the
major challenges facing management is that of finding ways to make
knowledge work visible, measurable and subject to external influence.
Training can make a contribution in this vein because the establishment of
internal reference conditions is an act of commitment and communication and
in one sense that is what training is all about.
Training interventions have to be viewed in their entirety than the
piecemeal injections with long-range approach and proper strategy.
Patchwork approach is neither requisite not should be promoted for its
implementation, far, this will spoil the very sacred fiber of exceptionally vital
management tool - training.

81
3.13 Factors Leading to Training Effectiveness - DAD Perspective.
As mentioned earlier, DAD is over 250 years old department. Because
of this privilege at hand, there several provision enshrined in the documents
of the department, which take care of any shortfall in the performance.
Ironically the ways and means available are generally not put to practice or
operation because of certain reasons - mostly ignorance. Department has the
honor of having Job Description Sheets for all types of jobs handled
irrespective of the nature of operation of the Controllers (there are over 37
Controllers as of date with dissimilar activities to pursue). Following are the
leading factors found necessary for training effectiveness (limited to the
current study and its jurisdiction)
• Identification of training needs with reference to the expected
level of performance of the job assigned.
• List the reasons why steps as per JDS not followed.
• List reasons why excess time consumed for a particular activity
fixed by the Time and Motion study approved by the CGDA.
• Determine the gap between the expected level and actual level
of performance by attributing the reasons.
• Determine the type and size (length) of the training
• Determine the place of training - in-house or external
• Training needs analysis before sponsoring for training
• Critically examine the Entry Behaviour of the trainees before
sending them for training.
• Ensure the contents of the Learning Unit designed by the RTC
• Ensure Learning Event suffice training requirements.
• Training Objectives and Enabling Objectives well drawn

82
• Extending necessary support of SMEs to the RTC, if required
• RTC provides adequate learning environment
• Trainers are professional and well experienced
• Maximum possible participative methods used during training
• Formative and Summative evaluation critically examined
• Build mechanism to assess Transfer of Learning
• Provide encouraging environment to help transfer of learning
• Review Transfer of Learning after at least 3 months from the
training.
• If required, nominate for re-training and monitor performance
• Always sponsor for a training program where performance can
be compared against pre and post training scenarios.

83
References

1. Rolf P Lyton & Uday Pareek; Training for Organisational Transformation, Sage
Publication, New Delhi.
2. Training Material on Direct Trainers' Skill, Thames Valley University, UK.
3. A V Petrovsky & M G Yarohevsky; A Concise Psychological Dictionary,
Progress Publihers. Moscow.
4. A V Petrovsky & Yarohevsky ibid.
5. Roger Cartwright; Training and Development Express - II .01 Express
exec.com, UK
6. R Thomson; The Psychology of Thinking, Penguine. London, UK
7. Clive Irving; Wide Body: The Making of Boeing 747. Hodder & Stoughton,
London UK
8. Training Material from TVU, UK - ibid.
9. Glossary of Training Terms
10. Robert H Rouda & Mitchell E Kusy Jr.; High Performance Training, in Tappi
Journal 1995-96.
11. Carter McNamara, Typical Reasons for Employee Training & Development,
www.mapnp.org
12. Roger Cartwright, ibid
13. Training Material from TVU, UK - ibid.
14. Robert S Drake Jr. & Dawn Drake. Performance Matters.
www.performancematter.com
15. Training Material from TVU, UK - ibid.
16. Donald Clark, Introduction to Instructional System Design - 2000,
www.nwlink.com.
17. Peter Beckschi & Mike Doty, The ASTD Handbook of Training Design and
Delivery, TATA McGraw Hills, New Delhi.
18. United States Department of Defence Training Document. Pamphlet 350-30.
Aug 1975.
19. United States Department of Defence, ibid.
20. Donald Clark, ibid.
21. Training Material from TVU, UK - ibid.
22. Steinberg, E.R.. Avner. R.A.. Call-Himwich, E., Francis. L., Himwich, A.,
Klecka, J.A., & Misselt. A.L.. (1977). Critical Incidents in the Evolution of
PLATO projects (MTC Report No. 12). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
23. Joe Hoffman and Jon Margerum-Leys, Rapid Prototyping as an Instructional
Design, www.personal.umich.edu.
24. Sivasailam Thiagarajan. Rapid Instructional Development. The ASTD
Handbook of Design & Delivery, Tata-McGraw Hill Publication, New Delhi.
25. Tulving E. How Many Systems are there? American Psychologist, 1985.
26. Bernstein, Roy, Srull, Wickens. Psychology, Houghton Miftlin Co. Boston.
27. Atkinson, RC & Shiffrin RM. Human Memory: A proposed system and its
control processes, 1968. New York.

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28. Bernstein et el. ibid.
29. Mieke Mynen. "What Andragogy Means to Me", www.hcc.hawaii.edu.
30. Imel, Susan, "Guidelines for Woricing with Adult Learners" ERIC Digest No.
154, www.ed.gov
31. Knowles, MS, "The Modem Practice of Adult Education" Chicago. 1980 &
"Introduction: The Art and Science of Helping Adults Learn", Andragogy in
Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Learning" San Francisco 1984.
32. Merriam, SB & Caffarella, RS. "Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive
Guide". San Francisco. 1991.
33. Rogers. J. "Adults Learning". 3"^ Edn. Philadelphia. Open University Press.
34. Stephen Lieb, "Principles of Adult Learning" www.hcc.hawaii.edu.
35. Training Material from TVU, UK - ibid.
36. Nadler, Leonard (1984) "The Handbook of Human Resource Development",
New York. John Wiley & Sons
37. Donald Clark, ibid.
38. Fred Nickols, "Training - A Strategic View", 2000, www.home.att.net.

85