CONCRETE

MATERIALS IN CONCRETE

Concrete is a conglomerate, stone-like material composed of essentially of three materials:

Cement, water, and aggregate. Sometimes a fourth material, an admixture, is added for a variety
of specific purposes, such as acceleration or retardation of setting or hardening. The strength and
quality of concrete depend not only on the quality and quantity of the materials, but on the
procedures used in combining these materials and the skill involved in the placing and curing of
concrete.

The conglomeration of these materials producing a solid mass is called Plain concrete. Concrete
in which reinforcement is embedded in a manner that the two materials act together in resisting
forces is called reinforced concrete.

CEMENT

The characteristics of concrete vary widely, depending on the composition of the aggregate and
chemical and physical properties of the cement paste. The term cement, in its broader meaning,
applies to any material that will bind two or more non-adhesive substances together.

Hydraulic cement is a bonding agent that reacts with water to form a hard stone-like substance
that is resistant to disintegration. The cement is the bonding agent of rock materials called
aggregate which act as a filler.

Chemistry of Cement

The chemical reaction between cement and water is the principal action in the chemistry of
concrete. Cement by itself does not provide a cementing binder, the cementing gel is formed by
the reaction of cement and water.
The cement paste becomes hard within week, but the hardening process may continue to some
extent for months or years.

Types of Cement

1. Roman Cement

Concrete has been used as construction material for centuries. Before 100 B.C., the
Romans had developed an excellent concrete, which enabled them to erect vast
structures and works of engineering.

On the slopes of Mt. Vesuvius and in extinct volcanic areas near Rome they found a light,
porous volcanic rock. Its rough surface formed a good bond for cementitious material (a
substance capable of acting as a cement), or mortar. The cement was prepared from a
mixture of lime and a volcanic ash called pozzolana, named after the village of Pozzouli
near Mt. Vesuvius. This is were the Pozzolan Cement originated.

2. Natural Cement.

Certain natural rocks, when quarried, crushed, and processed, will produce a natural
cement. If enough heat is applied to drive off gases, a hydraulic cement results, but it has
a very low strength.
3. Portland Cement

In 1824, Joseph Aspdin in England developed and patented a hydraulic cement that was
superior to the natural cement of that time. He called this cement Portland cement,
because of its resemblance to a grayish limestone mined on the isles of Portland.
Portland cement was first manufactured in the United States, in Pennsylvania, in 1872. It
was discovered that if a carefully controlled mixture of limestone and clay was burned at
a much higher heat than had been used before, the resulting cement had better hydraulic
qualities. As this higher heat the clay and limestone fused into hard, marble-sized clinkers
composed of two original materials in a new form. These clinkers, when ground,
produced Portland cement as we know it now.

Portland cement has the following basic composition:

Lime 60 – 65 %
Silica 10 – 25 %
Iron Oxide 2–4%
Alumina 5 – 10%
Most of the ingredients of Portland cement are found in nature, but they cannot always be
used in their natural form.

Portland cement is the most widely used in various small and large construction including
roads and highways. Portland cement is not a brand but a type of hydraulic cement and
is sold in 40 kilograms bags or Bulk into cement trucks.

When Portland cement is mixed with a sufficient amount of water and left undisturbed,
the paste loses its plasticity and becomes solid. Cement does not harden by drying. It
hardens because of chemical reaction called Hydration: the water and the cement
combine chemically to form a new compound. This process is called Setting.

Types of Portland Cement

Type I Normal Portland Cement – this is a standard Portland cement for general
construction. It is generally grayish in color.

Type II Modified Portland Cement – this cement has a lower heat of hydration
than Type I and generally sets more slowly. It is used in drainage
structures, foundations and floor slabs where the soil contains moderate
amount of sulfate (sulfate will disintegrate concrete).

Type III High Early Strength Portland Cement – this type develops approximately
190 percent of the strength of Type I at three days and 90 to 130 percent
at 28 days. It is used when it is desired to remove forms at an early stage
to speed up construction.

Type IV Low-Heat Portland Cement – concrete made with this type of cement
sets very slowly and generates little heat. It was first developed for the
construction of Hoover Dam (dam on the border of the states of Nevada
and Arizona, United States, situated in Black Canyon on the Colorado
River, near Las Vegas, Nevada). Its slow setting time is an advantage in
large construction, where solid one-piece construction is desired.
 Type V Sulfate Resistant Portland Cement – a special cement intended for use
in structures exposed to severe surface action of soils or water with high
alkali content. It has a slower rate of hardening than Type I.

Type I Portland cement must meet the following chemical and physical requirements:

1. Lime content, percent: 63.0

2. Silica content, percent: 22.0
3. Alumina content, percent:6.0
4. Iron content, percent: 3.5
5. Magnesia content: percent: 3.0
6. Sulfur trioxide content: 2.5
7. Specific gravity(dry), gm per cu.cm.:3.10
8. Weight of one bag or sack of cement (dry) , lb.: 94
9. Fineness, sq. cm. per gm, in accordance with ASTM, serial designation C204,
2600 to 3000 , and serial designation C115, 1500 to 1900.
10. Time of setting: Initial set, 1 hr: final set 10 hr
11. Soundness, in accordance with ASTM serial designation C151 ( maximum
permissible change in volume after final set) percent: 0.80.
12. Loss on ignition (by weight ), percent: 2

To counteract the normal drying shrinkage of Portland cement, a 10% calcium

sulfoaluminate clinker compound mixed with 90% Portland cement by volume is
specified on some construction contracts. This type of cement will cause the concrete to
expand 0.05% in about 7 days after being mixed with water provided the consistency
(slump) is properly regulated and that calcium chloride is not used as an accelerating
admixture in cold weather. An additional three to five gallons of water per cu.yd of
concrete is also required.

Cement is packaged and delivered in sack or by the barrel ( 4 sacks per barrel) with the
brand and the name of the manufacturer clearly marked. During shipment and storage,
cement must be kept as dry as possible. Other types of Portland cement include air-
entraining types IA, IIA, and IIIA ( ASTM designation C175), which is used to improve
resistance to freeze-thaw action, surface scaling and bleeding; the white cement, which is
used primarily for architectural purposes; the blast-furnace slag types I S and I S-A (
ASTM, types I P and I P-A ( ASTM serial designation C205), which are used in lieu of
types II and IIA; the puzzolan types I P and I P-A ( ASTM serial designation C340),
which are used in lieu of type II , IIA and IV as another means of reducing the heat of
hydration; the masonry cements (ASTM serial designation C91) which are used in
mixing masonry mortars; the oil well cement ( American Petroleum Institute Standard
Specifications 10A), which is used in sealing oil wells; the waterproofed cement, which
is manufactured by adding a small amount of stearate to the clinker during final grinding;
and the plastic cement, which is manufactured by adding plasticizing agents up to 12%
by volume with types I and II and used for mixing plaster, stucco, and tile setting
mortars.
AGGREGATES:

Aggregates must consist of clean, hard, strong, durable particles, free from loam, alkali
organic matter, or other deleterious substances. Normal-weight aggregates such as sand,
gravel, crushed limestone, or trap rock and air-cooled blast-furnace slag , which will
produce a concrete weighing about 150 lb per cu.ft. must meet the requirements of
standard ASTM specifications, serial designation C33. Structural lightweight
aggregates such as expanded shale, clay, slate, and slag, which will produce a concrete
weighing about 100 lb/cu ft, must meet the requirements of ASTM specifications, serial
designation C330. Lightweight insulating aggregates such as pumice, scoria, perlite,
vermiculite, and ilmenite are often used in massive concrete structures. In addition, fine
and coarse aggregates must meet the following chemical and physical requirements:

1. Abrasion resistance in accordance with ASTM serial designation C131.

2. Freezing, thawing and weather resistance, in accordance with ASTM, serial
designation C290, C291 and C88.
3. Chemical stability, in accordance with ASTM, serial designation C227, C289
and C295.
4. Organic impurities and objectionable fine materials in accordance with ASTM
serial designation C40, C117, and C142.
5. Grading ( particle size distribution) by sieve analysis ,in accordance with
ASTM , serial designation C136.
6. Fine aggregates must not contain any grains that will not pass #4 mesh sieve
or greater, and not contain more than 6% by weight of grains which will pass
a 100 mesh sieve or less.
7. Coarse aggregates (normal weight) must not contain any pieces that will not
pass through a hole 1 ½ in square or greater, and which will pass through a
hole ¼ in. square or greater.
8. Coarse aggregates (lightweight) must not contain any pieces that will not pass
through a hole 1 in, square or greater.
9. Coarse aggregates ( heavyweight) must not contain any pieces that will not
pass through a hole 2 ½ in. square or greater.
10. Specific gravity ( dry normal weight), in gm/cu.cm: 2.65.
11. Bulk unit weight (dry) , in lb per cu ft.:
Lightweight insulating aggregates: 40
Structural lightweight aggregates : 55
Normal-weight aggregates: 90
Heavy-weight aggregates: 110
12. Maximum allowable moisture absorption, in accordance with ASTM serial
designation C70, C127, and C128.

WATER:

Water used in for mixing concrete must be clean and fresh. It is measured and added by
the number of gallons specified, depending upon the type of mixture. The effect of
impurities in mixing water on the quality of concrete can be found in the manual of the
Portland Cement Association.

ADMIXTURES:

1. Accelerators are used to speed the initial set of concrete. Such material may be
added to the mix to increase the rate of early strength development to allow earlier
removal of forms and in some cases reduce the whole curing period.

2. Retarders are used to delay the setting time of the cement paste in concrete. In
hot weather, hydration is accelerated by heat, thus cutting down the time available
to place, consolidate, and finish the concrete. High temperatures, low humidity
and wind will cause rapid evaporation of water from the mix during summer. This
drying of the concrete will lead to cracking and crazing of the surface.

An initial set retarder will hold back the hydration process, leaving more water for
workability and allowing the concrete to be finished and protected before drying
out.

3. Air-entraining agents contain microscopic bubbles of air formed with the aid of
a group of chemicals called surface active agents, materials that have the property
of reducing the surface tension of water intended for use when better resistance to
frost action is concerned.

4. Dispersal agents: When cement and water are mixed, the cement particles tend to
gather in clumps, or to flocculate. As a result, water does not reach some of the
particles and some are only partially hydrated. Sometimes, only 50% of the
cement is hydrated. Water trapped in these clumps later bleeds to the surface of
the concrete, because of the weight of the other materials. The voids left by
forcing out of the water later become passages to which water can penetrate the
concrete. A cement dispersal agent such as calcium lignosulfanate causes cement
particles to separate by imparting like electrostatic charges to them.

5. Concrete Hardeners: Plain concrete surfaces which are subjected to rolling live
loads, the impact action of live traffic, and other types of wear begin to dust and
crumble at the surface after a period of time. This condition worsens with time,
finally resulting in the destruction of the surface. To prevent this, two types of
concrete hardeners are used:

a. Chemical hardeners – liquids containing silicoflourides or flousilicates

and a wetting agent which reduces the surface tension of the liquid and
allows it to penetrate the pores of the concrete more easily. The
silicoflourides and flousilicates combine chemically with free lime and
calcium carbonate which are present in the concrete and bind the fine
 particles into flintlike topping, which is highly resistant to wear and
dusting.
b. Fine metallic aggregates – are especially processed and graded iron
particles which are dry –mixed with Portland cement, spread evenly ove
the surface of freshly floated concrete, and worked into the surface by
floating. The result is a hard, tough, topping which is highly resistant to
wear and less brittle than normal concrete.

6. Water reducing admixtures: A material used to reduce the amount of water

necessary to produce a concrete of given consistency or to increase the slump for
a given water content. A typical one is made from the metallic salts of
ligninsulfonic acids.

7. Concrete waterproofers: Materials use to reduce or stop this type of flow are
more properly called damproofers. Materials used to reduce permeability and also
as damproofers are as follows:

a. Air-entraining agents – because it increases the plasticity of concrete and

thus help to make placing easier and more uniform. They also reduce
bleeding by holding the water in films about the air bbubbles. As
damproofer because the small disconnected voids produced by air-
entrainment break up the capillaries in the concrete and therefore offer a
barrier to the passage of water by capillary action..
b. Cement dispersal agent- since it tends to reduce voids formed when
water is trapped in groups of cement particles.
c. Water repellants – The materials used are compounds containing calcium
or ammonium stearate, calcium or ammonium oleate, or butyl stearate.
These substances combine with lime or calcium chloride.
d. Film applied to surface – The common materials used are those
containing asphalt or sodium silicate and one which contains a metallic
aggregate.

8. Bonding agents- When fresh concrete is poured against another concrete surface
already set and at least partially cured, it is often difficult to obtain a bond
between the two surfaces unless especial precautions are taken. Fresh concrete
shrinks when setting, and unless there is a very good bond thus shrinkage makes
the new concrete pull away from the old surface. Two types :

a. Metallic aggregates – iron particles are larger but with the same materials
as permeability reducer. Bonding takes place through the oxidation and
subsequent expansion of the iron particles.
b. Synthetic latex emulsion – consist of highly polymerized synthetic liquid
resin dispersed in water. When it is sprayed or painted on a concrete
surface, the pores in the concrete absorb the water and allow the resin
particles to coalesce and bond.
9. Concrete coloring agents – Application :

a. Use concrete paint, applied after the concrete has been neutralized , either
by exposure or using a neutralizing agent such as zinc sulfate.
b. Integrating color into the surface of the concrete while still fresh.

 Natural metallic oxides of cobalt, chromium, iron, etc. have

distinctive colors. The ochres and umbers are fine dry powders.
They are usually mixed into a topping mix, since this is the best
way of distributing the color evenly throughout the concrete.
 The coloring agents made with synthetic oxides are usually a
mixture of the oxide with one or more additional drying
ingredients. The color is sometimes mixed with pure silica sand
and applied by shaking the mixture over the freshly poured and
floated surface.

10. Set-inhibiting agents - Specifications sometimes require that concrete surfaces

be produced in which the aggregates are exposed for architectural effects. Certain
inhibiting agents will prevent the cement paste from bonding to the surface
aggregates but will not interfere with the set throughout the remainder of the pour.

Two materials are used for this purpose:

a. a liquid is applied to forms for vertical surfaces immediately before
pouring concrete
b. powder which is applied directly to the freshly poured horizontal surfaces.

The depth of penetration of the inhibitor depends on the amount used per square
foot. Usual rates of application will vary from 1 ½ to 3 lbs per sq ft of surface.
After three or four days of curing, the retarded surface concrete should be hosed
or brushed off exposing clean aggregate and leaving a rough cast effect.

11. Non-skid surfaces – To avoid slippery concrete surfaces, use wood or cork floats
which will leave a rough surface instead of steel trowelling operation during the
floor-finishing process. Another method is to use an abrasive material in the
topping, applied as a dry shake in much the same way as metallic-aggregate
topping is applied. The abrasive material is floated into the top and steel trowel
operation is omitted. Materials used for this purpose are fine particles of flint,
aluminum oxide, silicon carbide and emery.

12. Surface sealing agents – Used for two purposes:

a. To form a watertight coating which will prevent water from evaporating

from a concrete surface and allow it to be retained for hydration.
 b. To seal the pores of the concrete surface after it has hardened in order to
prevent the passage of water and the absorption of spilled materials such
as oil, grease or paint.

Sealing agents used to prevent water evaporation are usually liquid waxes
which can be sprayed over the surface but which are easily removed after
curing is complete.

13. Gas-forming agents – under normal conditions, concrete undergoes settlement

and drying shrinkage, which in some situations, can result in undesirable
characteristics in hardened concrete. For example, voids in the underneath side of
forms, blockouts and reinforcing steel or other embedded parts such as machinery
bases may interfere with the bond and allow passage of water and reduce
uniformity and strength. One method of reducing such voids is to add an
expanding agent to the concrete. Aluminum powder when added to mortar or
concrete , react with the hydroxides in hydrating cement to produce very small
bubbles of hydrogen gas. This action, when properly controlled, causes a slight
expansion in plastic concrete or mortar and thus reduces or eliminates voids
caused by the settlement.

14. Puzzolanic admixtures – Materials sometimes used in structures where it is

desirable to avoid high temperature or in structures exposed to seawater or water
containing sulfates. These puzzolanic materials are generally substituted for 10 to
35% of the cement. Puzzolans may be added to concrete mixes-rather than
substituting for part of the cement- to improve workability, impermeability and
resistance to chemical attack.

A number of natural materials such as diatomaceous earth, opaline cherts and

shales, tuff and pumicites, and some artificial materials such as fly ash are used as
puzzolans.( Fly ash is a fine residue which results from the combustion of
powdered coal and may contain various amounts of carbon, silica, sulfur, alkalis
and other ingredients).

Design of Mix

The proper proportioning and selection of materials of a given concrete mixture will determine its
strength. The amount, type, and size of the various aggregate will determine how the concrete
will flow or react when it is placed on forms. Well-graded aggregate will produce dense, strong
concrete.

A concrete that has too large a percentage of coarse aggregate may contains excessive voids.
Excess fine aggregates, there may be too much surface area for the paste to coat each particle,
may be smooth and strong but it will not be economical.
 Proportioning of Materials

In the proportioning of materials, a great attention should be given to the water-cement

ratio which has been found to govern the strength of finished concrete.

Concrete Proportions

Class of Mixture Cement Sand Gravel

40 kgs/bag Cu. ft. Cu. m. Cu. ft. Cu. m
AA 1 1½ 0.043 3 0.085
A 1 2 0.057 4 0.113
B 1 2 1/2 0.071 5 0.142
C 1 3 0.085 6 0.170

Example of Class “A” mix:

One part cement is to two parts sand plus four parts gravel.

The designing of concrete mixtures is based primarily on the water-cement ratio theory, which
states that the strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the amount of water used per unit
of cement.

This means that if, for example, 65 lb. of water per lb. of cement will produce concrete capable of
developing 2,500 psi in 28 days, then less water per bag will produce stronger concrete and more
water will produce concrete of lesser strength.

Maximum Permissible Water-Cement Ratios for Concrete

(28 days)
Compressive Strength (fs) Non-air entrained concrete Air-entrained concrete
Absolute ratio Liters per bag of Absolute ratio Liters per bag of
Psi Kg/cm2
by weight cement by weight cement
2500 175 0.65 27.6 0.54 23.1
3000 210 0.58 25 0.46 19.7
3500 245 0.51 22 0.40 17
4000 280 0.44 19 0.35 15.1
5000 315 0.30 16.3 0.30 12.9

Control of Concrete Mixes

In the actual construction, concrete should undergo test especially for those made of various
proportions.

The building official has the right to order the testing of any material used in concrete construction
to determine if the concrete conforms with, the quality specified. The complete record of the tests
conducted shall be maintained and made accessible for inspection during the progress of the
work and for a period of 2 years after all the construction work are completed and shall be
preserved by the architect or engineer for reference purposes.
The various tests conducted are:

1. Slump Test

When the freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure that the specified slump is being
attained consistently. A standard slump cone is fabricated with the following dimensions:
12 in. high, 8 in. diameter at the bottom and 4 in. diameter at the top which open on both
ends.

The cone is filled in three equal layers, each being filled in three equal layers, each being
tamped or rodded 25 times with a standard 5/8 “ diameter bullet nosed rod. When the
cone has been filled and leveled off, it is lifted carefully and the amount of the slump is
measured.

Allowable Deflection x

Beams and Columns 7.5 cm. (0.075 m.) 3”

Slabs and Tunnel Inverts 5.0 cm. (0.05 m.) 2”
Tops and Walls, Piers, Parapet & Curbs 5.0 cm. (0.05 m.) 2”
Side Walls and Arch in Tunnel lining 10 cm. (0.10 m.) 4
Canal Lining 7.5 cm. (0.075 m.) 3”
Heavy Mass Construction 5.0 cm. (0.05 m.) 2”

2. Compression Test

Common quality control test for concrete, based on a 7 and 28 days curing periods.
Specimens are usually cylindrical with a length equal to twice the diameter. Standard size
is 12 in. high and 6 in. diameter. A cylindrical mold is filled just the way the slump test and
the specimen is taken out of the mold within 24 hours. The specimen is then taken to the
Testing Laboratory for compression test using a compression testing machine.
MIXING OF CONCRETE

Another factor in the workability and strength of concrete is the method used to mix the
ingredients. It is essential that all ingredients be thoroughly mixed to ensure uniformity. Prolong
mixing, however can decrease workability.

Mixing Time

The mixing time required depends on the size and efficiency of the mixer. The time of mixing
should not be less than 1 minute for concrete of medium consistency mixed in a 1 cubic-yard
(0.765 m3) or smaller mixer. Larger mixers require 15 seconds additional mixing for each
additional yard of concrete. The mixing time is calculated from the time all solid particles are in
the mixer. All water should be added before one-fourth of the mixing time has elapsed.

Model: CM5 and CM7 Model: CM-T4W (Tilting Type)

Prime Mover: Air-cooled Gasoline Engine 5 – CM-NT4W (Nose-Tilting Type)
7 Horsepower. Prime Mover: 16 HP Diesel Engine
Capacity: One-Bagger (19.0 cu.ft. bowl Capacity: 300 liters. 2 - bagger
capacity)

Prolonged mixing will not affect the strength of the concrete as long as the mixture remains
plastic and additional water is not added to increase the slump. The speed of the mixer is not as
critical as the mixing time. The peripheral speed of the mixing drum and blades should be
between 100 and 200 fpm (30.5 and 61.0 meters per minute). Manufacturers of mixers specify
the number of revolutions per minute the drum should turn to obtain these speeds. It is important
that mixers not be loaded beyond their capacity.

Job-mixed Concrete

Concrete materials may be mixed in a rotating drum batch mixer at the job site. However, this is
not recommended unless the job is of sufficient size to warrant proper devices for the measuring
of materials or, on a small jobs materials are sometimes measured by shove-full. The measuring
of materials by volume may be quite inaccurate. The moisture content of sand and coarse
aggregate will vary and effect the water/cement ratio.
Ready-mixed Concrete

In most areas concrete can be purchased from a central plant. These plants are equipped to
furnish concrete, conforming to a given mix or guaranteed to meet a specified strength, ready-
mixed to the job site.

Delivery of Concrete

Ready-mixed concrete is delivered by special trucks (Transit Mixers) designed for the purpose.
The initial mixing may done at the central plant, with the remainder accomplished in the truck on
the way to the job site, or the entire mixing process is done in transit. The materials are combined
in the truck, and the mixing will rotate not less than 50 times nor more than 100 times. The truck
manufacturer designates this mixing speed.

PLACING CONCRETE

Quality concrete depends on proper placement, finishing, and curing. For uniform results these
operations should be directed by an experienced supervisor. Several steps are necessary
achieve a strong, lasting, and finished surface for concrete structure. The site and forms must be
properly prepared. The concrete must be placed so that it is uniform throughout, and it must be
finished so that the surface is compact and has the desired characteristics. It must then be
allowed to cure so that a minimum number of cracks develop and the surface has a lasting finish,
free of defects.

Site Preparation

The forms within which the concrete is to be placed and the soil on which it will be deposited
should be properly moistened or protected with form oils or plastic liners so that they do not so
soak up necessary water from the concrete mix. All vegetable matter and loose material that
could become mixed with the wet concrete should be removed. Muddy and soft spots should be
compacted to provide a good base for the concrete as it is poured. For best results concrete
should be placed on the base of sand or gravel.

Setting of concrete forms with a transit

Forms must be true to shape and tight enough to retain the water in the concrete. They must also
be strong and well braced in order to withstand the pressure of the concrete and the vibration that
may be necessary to consolidate it. Forms may be made of wood, either prefabricated or job built,
hardboard, or metal. There are some recently developed special materials that serve as forms
and are then left in place as a finish material. Plastic-coated wood forms are used to produce
smoothly finished surfaces on concrete. Reinforcing must be clean, free of rust, and securely
anchored in place. Bolts, anchors, sleeves, and inserts which are to be cast in the concrete must
be in place.

Method of Placement

If the concrete cannot be placed directly where it is needed by the chute of the mixer, it must be
conveyed as close as possible to the final location by pumping, belt conveyors, concrete buggies,
or buckets moved by cranes.

Concrete should be placed in horizontal layers of 6 to 18 inches (152 to 457 mm). If it is piled in
one spot and worked or allowed to flow to distant parts of the form, the coarse aggregate usually
segregates. The lighter materials flow faster than the deficient in cement paste.

If concrete is allowed to fall freely for a distance of more than 3 or 4 ft (914 to 1219 mm), the
aggregate also tends to segregate. The heavier particles are concentrated at the bottom of the
pour, leaving the upper layer with an excess of fine aggregate. When concrete is to be cast into
deep forms, drop chutes may be used. These chutes are lowered into the forms to reduce the
free fall of the concrete. Windows may be built into the forms. The concrete is then placed
through the side of the form to reduce the amount of free fall.

Pumping

Pumping ready-mixed concrete through pipes is not a new development. However, until recently
this method was limited to large-volume jobs using 6- or 8-in. (152- or 203-mm) fixed pipes. New
type of pumps capable of pumping concrete through small-diameter flexible lines has greatly
extended this technique. It is now possible to pump concrete 500 ft (152 m) horizontally or 100 ft
(30.5 m) vertically. The pumps are either self-powered trailer units or units mounted on the body
of a truck and operated by a truck engine. The concrete is received in a hopper from the ready-
mixed truck and is pumped through rigid pipe or flexible hose. The flexible hose allows the
concrete to be placed exactly where it is needed with minimum labor
Pneumatic Placement

Air pressure has been used for many years to place concrete. A dry mixture of cement and sand
is shown is blown through hoses, and water injected at the nozzle. This called gunite,
pneumatically placed mortar, or sprayed concrete, and is referred as shotcrete by the American
Concrete Institute (ACI).

Recent construction of domes, concrete-shell structures, and swimming pools has shown the
adaptability of pneumatically placed concrete. Instead of being placed in the forms, the concrete
may be shot into two sides of metal lath to form the finished structure. Equipment manufacturers
have developed compact mobile units that consist of a mixer, pump, and air tank necessary to
place concrete.
Consolidation of Concrete

Several types of vibrators run by compressed air, electricity or gasoline engines may be
immersed directly to the concrete. Immersing vibrators consists of revolving eccentric elements,
turning at 7000 rpm or more, enclosed in watertight cylinders 1 to 4 in. (25 to 102 mm) in
diameter and approximately 18 in. (457 mm) long. On deep-section of the concrete the vibrator is
inserted vertically into the concrete at points 18 to 30 in. (457 to 762 mm) apart. The concrete is
vibrated from 5 to 15 seconds at each spot. In thin slabs the vibrator is inserted into the fresh
concrete horizontally or at a very slight angle. Vibration and consolidation of concrete may also
be accomplished by vibrating devices attached to forms or applied to the surface of the concrete.

Concrete Vibrator
Vibratory Finishing Screed

Laitance

In wet concrete mixes a soupy mixture of extremely fine sand, cement, and water will sometimes
float, or bleed, to the surface of a pour. This is called laitance. Laitance will show up as a whitish
scum on the surface of the concrete or as light streaks in finished concrete. These light streaks or
poor-quality concrete are very susceptible to failure when exposed to freezing and thawing and
must be removed before the pour is made.

Laitance can be controlled by using stiffer mixes or an air entraining admixture.

CONSTRUCTION JOINTS

When fresh concrete is poured against hardened concrete, it is usually necessary to produce a
good bond and a watertight joint between the new and old concrete. Only a limited quantity of
concrete can be placed in one working day, so the concrete must be cast in sections. The design
and location of these joints between hardened and fresh concrete, called construction joints,
must be considered carefully.

Before fresh concrete can be placed, the surface of the hardened concrete must be roughened
and cleaned. This may be done before or after the concrete has reached initial set. The concrete
may be washed with a jet of water from 4 to 12 hours after it is placed in order to expose a clean
surface of sound concrete. The surface of the freshly placed concrete may be brushed with a stiff
broom or a steel brush before initial set, to form a roughened surface ready to receive the new
concrete. After hardening the concrete may be wet sandblasted and washed to provide the
roughened clean surface necessary for good bond when new concrete is poured.

On deep section concrete, when the new concrete is placed against hardened concrete it is
necessary to provide a cushion of mortar. This mortar consists of a ½- to 1-in. (12.7- to 25-mm)
layer of cement, sand, and water, with the same water/cement ratio as the concrete. This mortar
must be applied immediately before the fresh concrete is poured and worked into the irregularities
of the hardened concrete to ensure a good bond.

Relief Joints

may be constructed as built-in strips of elastic material, openings to be filled later with an
elastic material, or false joints cut or molded in the concrete surface. In order to keep the two
portions of the slab or wall in alignment, keyways may be cast in each section of the wall or slab
Concrete expands and contracts with temperature changes. Although this expansion and
contraction is only 55-millionth of an inch per degree (2.5  m/0C) of temperature, this amounts
to over 1.2 in. (12.7 mm) in each 100 ft. (30.5 m) of structure for a 1000F (55.50C) temperature
change. Concrete shrinks when it dries and expands when it absorbs moisture. This contraction
and expansion may be as great as that cause by temperature change. A combination of the two
factors could double the expansion or contraction of a concrete structure. For this reason,
properly designed relief joints must be included to prevent unsightly random cracking.

Relief joints to maintain proper alignment as the concrete moves or works. Steel dowels may be
provided to bridge the joint for the same purpose. One side of the dowel is anchored firmly in the
concrete; the other end is coated with mastic or encased in plastic tube so that it will not bond to
the concrete, but will allow for movement while maintaining alignment.
Built-in Joints

Preformed rubber or plastic shapes of many designs may be used to bridge expansion and
contraction joints. These long flexible strips are cast into the concrete. The dumbshell-shaped or
serrated edges of the strips are gripped by the freshly poured concrete. This type of joint can
move but still remain watertight.

Filled Joints

Joints left open for sealing at a later time can be filled with elastic material that will allow
movement. These joint sealants, classed as neoprene foams, or polyurethane foams. The
materials are delivered to the job in liquid form and, when mixed properly and forced into the joint,
provide an elastic, waterproof joint.

False Joints

Relief joints may be formed in the concrete by the use of metal or wood strip fastened to the
inside of forms. These strips are removed after the concrete has hardened. Weakened planes are
thus formed where the strips have been removed, confining the cracks to that area. The
weakened plane joins can be design and detailed in such a manner as to become an architectural
feature in the overall design of the structure. The strips can be located so that each pour of
concrete will be stopped at these strips. By the use of this method, irregular lines of construction
joints on plain surfaces can be avoided. Relief joints on plain surfaces can be avoided. Relief
joints may also be formed by sawing grooves in the concrete. This is usually done as soon as the
concrete has set sufficiently to support the weight of the concrete saw. Relief joints must
penetrate the slab for a distance of one-fifth the slab thickness to be effective.

Concrete Cutter
FINISHING AND CURING CONCRETE

Leveling

When concrete has been placed and consolidated, it is brought to the proper level by means of
screeds. Screeds are guides placed on both sides of the slab, and sometimes within the
perimeter of large slabs, with their tops at the desired level of the finished concrete. A long plank
is then rested on the screeds and pushed back and forth in a sawing motion to strike off excess
concrete and show up any areas that are low. After the concrete has been brought to the proper
level, any screeds within the slab are removed, and the depressions they have left are filled with
fresh concrete.

Floating

After the concrete has been brought to its final level, while it is still plastic, the surface is floated
with a long-handled flat surfaced wood tool called a bull float. There are machines with rotating
wood blades that can be used for floating and initial troweling. The proper use of the bull float,
either manual or low spots, and eliminate the high spots.

Final Finish

When the edges and joints have been rounded and the slab has lost its sheen, it is time to begin
the final finishing. This may be 4 to 6 hours after placement, depending on the job and the
weather conditions. Timing of the final finishing process is critical in producing a sound, defect-
free surface. This operation should be delayed until fine particles and water are no longer brought
to the surface by trowel testing. Many workers tend to start the final finishing too soon. The final
desired will govern the number of times the slab is to be troweled. The often the surface is
troweled, the smoother and denser it becomes.

If a non-slip finish is desired, the surface may broomed after the floating operation. The
coarseness and stiffness of the bristles in the broom and the length of time after floating will
govern the final appearance of the slab. If a finer texture is desired, brooming may follow the first
steel troweling.

Special Toppings and Finishes

Materials have been developed that can be troweled into the freshly floated concrete to densify
the surface or produce a non-slip or decorative finish. These materials are usually sprinkled on
the slab after the floating operation. Extremely hard non-metallic, non-rusting abrasive granules
are used as hardeners and for non-slip surfaces exposed to the weather or subject to heavy
traffic. Products are available which both densify and decorate. They are sometimes used on
walks, steps, and floors, where durable decorative finishes are desired.

Salt Finish

A texture finish can be produced on concrete slabs by sprinkling rock salt over a freshly troweled
surface. The salt is pressed into the concrete with a trowel and the slab is allowed to set. After the
concrete has completely hardened, the salt is washed away by thorough flooding with water. The
dissolved salt will leave pits or holes in the surface.

CURING

Proper curing of concrete is an important factor in achieving satisfactory, waterproof, strong

concrete free of surface defects. The watertightness and strength of concrete improve rapidly
when it is first placed and continue to increase at a slower rate as long as conditions are
favorable. Enough water must be retained in the concrete to allow complete chemical reaction.
The temperature of the concrete must be maintained between certain limits to assure a proper
chemical reaction. When temperature are below 70 0F (21.10C), chemical action slows. It takes
concrete twice as long to set up and gain strength at 50 0F (100C), and practically no chemical
action takes place at 300F (-1.10C) or below.

Water Curing

Covering a flat slab with a thin layer of water is one way to prevent the evaporation ofmoisture
from concrete. The layer of water will also help keep the concrete cool in hot weather. Earth dikes
may be built around the slab during the curing period.

Burlap Curing

Wet burlap is often is used to cover the concrete during curing. The burlap must cover all the
concrete, including the sides of members, and must be kept moist at all times.

Paper Curing

Waterproof paper can also be used as cover to prevent evaporation. The paper must cover the
concrete completely, with the edges and joints taped to make a continuous cover. A layer of wet
sand placed on top of the waterproof paper will hold it in place and help to control temperature.

Plastic Curing

A lightweight plastic sheathing has been developed for curing concrete. This material is almost
impermeable to moisture and is sufficiently flexible to seal in intricate shapes. It can be obtained
in rolls up to 32 ft. (9.8 m) wide, in several thicknesses. The plastic sheet used for curing concrete
is usually white or milky rather than clear. This helps reflect the suns rays, thereby lowering the
temperature somewhat during the hot weather. The edges adjoining sheets can be sealed by
heat or with special solvents to form a completely airtight and watertight cover.

Curing Compounds

Curing compounds, sprayed on freshly placed concrete with a hand or machine sprayer, will form
a continuous membrane which assures proper curing. Some curing compounds dry very rapidly
and develop a thin, tough membrane in short time. These compounds may be clear or pigmented.
The clear compounds are usually used where the appearance of the finished concrete is
important.

Aging of Concrete

Concrete generally increases strength with age. The increase is rapid at first then becoming more
gradual later. Shown below is a table showing the variation of strength of concrete with age

7 days 1 month 2 months 6 months 1 year 5 years

16.5 MPa 25 Mpa 27.5 MPa 30 Mpa 31 MPa 33 Mpa