Unit 1

Some Issues of Current Interest

in Science, Medicine, and Technology

INTRODUCTION

In this unit three issues are outlined – climate change, “mad cow”
and foot and mouth diseases, and resource security and safety. What
do these very different phenomena have in common? Why should
they be of interest to us? Each of these cases has held the attention
of the international media at different times. What they also have in
common is the very wide potential impact they could have on the
quality of life of many of the world’s citizens.

In the Caribbean, we sometimes feel far removed from issues such

as these; they do not seem connected to our daily lives.
Nevertheless, we ask you to consider them carefully. You may come
to realise that living on a small island does not insulate us from
events taking place in other countries. Perhaps we need to think
more about the impact of science, medicine, and technology not
only in national and regional contexts but in international contexts
as well. We hope that, having completed the unit, you will have a
better appreciation of the need for scientific and technological liter-
acy for all citizens if we are to understand the changes taking place
around us and make meaningful contributions to our societies.

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 OVERVIEW

Sessions 1, 2 and 3 cover climate change, “mad cow” and foot and
mouth diseases, and resource security and safety in the Caribbean, in
that order. In each case you are asked to consider the scientific and
technological aspects of these issues as well as the implications for
society, both internationally and locally. The unit ends by questioning
the relevance of these issues to our societies and our personal lives.
Some of these issues will be referred to again in more detail in Unit 3
of this Module, and in much of Module 2, The Impact of Science on
Society.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you should be able to:

1. Describe the possible causes, the effects, and the implications of

global warming

2. Discuss some of the issues surrounding the non-compliance of

some nations with international environmental agreements

3. Discuss why infectious diseases of animals, such as “mad cow”

disease and foot and mouth disease, are of concern internationally
and locally

4. Outline the concerns surrounding the issues of food and energy

security, and water resources, with particular reference to small
nations such as those in the Caribbean

5. Identify some issues of current scientific, medical and,

technological interest of particular relevance and importance to
the Caribbean, as well as to the wider international community

6. State some of the important inter-relationships between scientific,

medical, and technological issues

7. Describe some of the social and economic implications of the

relationships between scientific, medical, and technological issues.

8. Explain the necessity for being able to assess critically, issues of

current scientific, medical, and technological interest in the
Caribbean.

6 FD12A
 FOR THE STUDENT

A number of readings are provided for you. You are asked to read
through as many as you can. Some readings provide more details on
topics covered in the text; others deal with related but different
issues. The intention is for you to sample different views. You must
form your own opinions. However, we expect that you will be able
to support your views with scientific knowledge and factual infor-
mation from the text or the readings.

READINGS

• Arctic ice heats global warming debate. From Innovations 5 – 7

November 2000. http://www.abc.net.au/ra/elp/innovatn/inots793_b.htm

• Donahue, James. Melting ice caps and thunder. From The Mind of
James Donahue. perdurabo10@lycos.com

• Environment: Nuclear waste shipment a health hazard to

Caribbean. World News Inter Press Service. January 1998.
http://www.oneworld.org/ips2/jan98/nuclear.html

• Gellateley, Juliet. Foot the bill and shut your mouth. Viva! LIFE,
Issue 18. Summer 2001, p.20. Also available at
http://www.vivaorg.uk/ Foot and Mouth Home Page.

• Greenhouse gases, global climate change and energy.

http://eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggcc

• Greenaway, Anthony. The linkages between ozone depletion and

climate change. The Gleaner, Monday, September 16, 2002.
• The green house gas effect. In Impacts of the Kyoto Protocol on US
energy markets and economic activity. Energy Information
Administration, U.S. Dept of Energy, Oct. 1998.

• Health effects of air pollution. Health and Environment. World

Resources Institute 1998–99. gregm@wri.org

• Jamaica receives further assistance with ODS phase out. The

Gleaner, Monday, September 16, 2002.

• LeDoux, Joseph E. Nature vs. nurture: The pendulum still

swings with plenty of momentum. The Chronicle of Higher

FD12A 7
 Education. © Joseph E. LeDoux, Ph.D. December 1998.
http://xchar.home.att.net/tna/ledoux.htm

• Nature vs. nurture: An unnecessary debate. Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention, Office of Genetics and Disease
Prevention, July 2000.

• Mad Cow Disease: The BSE epidemic in Great Britain.

http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/madcow96.html
• The potential of icebergs as a global source of fresh water.
© 1991–2001, SMEC Holdings Ltd. webmaster@smec.com.au

• The pros and cons of nuclear energy.

http://members.tripod.com/funk_phenomenon/nuclear/procon.htm

• Pros and cons of nuclear generation.

http://ess.geology.ufl.edu/ess/Labs/TermPapersFall99-00/Cavanaugh/Pr

• Statement by Caricom Heads of Government on the Shipment

of Nuclear Waste through the Caribbean Sea. Press release,
67/1999 (17 July 1999).
http://www.caricom.org/pressreleases/pres67_99.htm

• Thompson, Dick. Melt away future. Time, Nov. 1997, pp.38–40.

8 FD12A
 Session 1.1
Climate Change

In recent years, there has been considerable concern about the

impact of what are called “greenhouse gases”.

What are greenhouse gases?

When fossil fuels and other carbon-based materials are burned,

n FIND OUT...
other major sources
gases are given off into the atmosphere. One of the most common
of greenhouse of these gases is carbon dioxide. Large quantities pour into the
gases.
atmosphere every day from automobiles, factories and power
stations. Events such as forest fires and volcanoes also make their
contribution.

How do greenhouse gases affect temperatures and climate?

There is evidence that the average temperature of the world is

increasing slowly. When carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
are emitted, they rise high into the atmosphere surrounding the
earth where they form a layer that traps heat close to the earth.

Some scientists believe that the immense amounts of gases

produced by combustion of carbon-containing substances are largely
responsible for this increase in the world’s temperature. (By one esti-
mate, we have poured about 25,425,068,880 tonnes into the air so
n FOSSIL FUELS
far this year, 2002.) Others argue that this is simply part of the
Natural gas normal fluctuations in the world’s climate. They point out that not
Oil so long ago, geologically speaking, another large variation in the
Coal
earth’s temperature took place. This was the most recent Ice Age.
n SOME
GREENHOUSE GASES
Changes in atmospheric temperature control the air currents around
Carbon dioxide
Methane the globe that are responsible for annual and seasonal weather
Nitrous oxide patterns. Although the increase in temperature is taking place very
Hydrofluorocarbons
slowly its effects are already becoming evident.

FD12A 9
n There have been
several ice ages in
the history of the
earth when very cold
periods alternated
with relatively
warmer periods.
20,000 years ago ice
covered nearly 1/3 of
the earth’s land
surface. One
immense ice sheet,
two miles thick in
places, buried most
of Canada and
reached as far south
as Illinois. Other
massive ice sheets
covered much of
northern Europe and
Asia.
Possible long-term impacts of global warming
• Increased desertification as water sources dry up in areas that
were once fertile.
• The melting of glaciers and the polar ice-caps, causing a rise in
sea levels and the disappearance of very low-lying islands.
• Changes in the nature of crops that can be cultivated in different
parts of the world. For example, growing grapes in the
“temperate” zones may become a real possibility.
• Loss of coral reefs due to the death of the temperature-sensitive
organisms that build the reef.
The Kyoto protocols: the US response
The Kyoto protocols are a set of agreements developed at an interna-
tional conference in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. They include a time
frame for participating countries to reduce the emission of green-
house gases by specified amounts over an extended period. Although
the international community agreed that there was urgent need for
such protocols, the Bush Administration in the USA decided, in
early 2001, that it could not support the agreement. However, some
European countries have made significant progress in reducing emis-
sions in their countries. The American response is a major setback
because the USA is a significant source of the greenhouse gases
being emitted at present. To date, this issue has not been resolved.

Table 1.1 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption and
Flaring of Fossil Fuels, 1991-2000

Region/Country 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
North America 1,552.59 1,577.33 1,608.42 1,642.15 1,652.22 1,711.55 1,743.55 1,757.44 1,783.87 1,832.50
Central & South
204.01 208.85 217.86 224.1 235.85 244.29 254.13 263.03 265.39 268.65
America
Western Europe 1,002.76 965.54 957.66 953.02 972.65 1,000.03 1,005.72 1,006.23 984.14 999.62
Eastern Europe &
1,190.49 1,124.13 1,033.96 914.03 877.48 861.21 806.51 789.58 824.22 844.23
Former U.S.S.R.
Middle East 217.37 223.57 234.02 243.91 251.29 259.09 272.45 276.66 281.43 288.01
Africa 204.93 205.7 213.26 215.75 225.69 224.29 238.31 246.02 238.11 240.14
Asia & Oceania 1,510.12 1,574.99 1,673.86 1,769.99 1,859.67 1,913.40 1,954.74 1,915.37 1,945.73 1,970.22
World Total 5,882.27 5,880.12 5,939.03 5,962.94 6,074.86 6,213.86 6,275.41 6,254.33 6,322.90 6,443.38

(Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent)

Source: Extracted from http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/tableh1.html

10 FD12A
 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Do you think global warming is an issue that should

concern Caribbean leaders and peoples? Give reasons for
your opinion.

2. China generates a high proportion of its electricity by

burning coal. What position would you expect countries
such as China to take with respect to the Kyoto protocols?

3. What arguments would you put forward to a country that is

dependent on fossil fuels to convince them of the need for
change?

4. Which aspects of global warming would you expect islands

with a sand- and sea-based tourist industry to be most
concerned about and why?

FD12A 11
12 FD12A
 Session 1.2
“Mad Cow” Disease and Foot and
Mouth Disease

“Mad cow” disease in the news

In the mid 1990s, in the United Kingdom (UK), there was great
concern within the cattle industry because of increasing reports of a
disease that caused cattle to stagger around and lose control of their
movements. Concern mounted, as the disease seemed to be related
to one called “scrapie” which had been recognised for many years in
sheep but not in cattle. The general population became even more
alarmed when it was discovered that the disease can be transmitted
to humans who eat infected beef as a variant of Creuzfeld-Jakob
disease (vCJD), a human form of the disease that the cows had.

What is “mad cow” disease?

The technical term for the disease is Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE). The disease affects the central nervous
system of the animals and is usually fatal. Initially scientists
thought the disease was caused by a virus. However, the infective
agent is now believed to be a brain protein called a “prion” that has
undergone a change in shape that renders it harmful.

How is “mad cow” disease spread?

n DID YOU KNOW...? A major cause of the rise of BSE in cattle was the practice of “feed-
that cattle feed may ing cattle to cattle”! Included in the feed supplied to cattle were
contain more than rendered remains of cattle and other animals such as sheep, some
15% protein from left-
over parts of presumably infected with “scrapie”. The rendering process (heating
butchered animals to cause the melting of the fat) did not remove the sources of infec-
e.g. blood, used
chicken litter, tion. When eaten, this abnormal protein can be absorbed and cause
feathers and offal? normal related proteins to change their shapes into the abnormal
patterns of the BSE protein. The cattle supplied with infected feed
could develop BSE and pass it on to humans. A major problem in

FD12A 13
 tracking diseases of this sort is that many years elapse between
exposure and the development of symptoms. During that time
already infected animals can spread the disease to healthy animals
without any signs that this is happening.

Impacts and concerns

The first concern of the agricultural industry was about the impact
of the epidemic on sales of beef and therefore the economic well-
being of cattle farmers. Their fears were justified. Once the disease
had been identified, most countries banned the importation of cattle
from the UK. Soon after this, sales of all beef products from the UK
fell sharply. Also costly, were the systems that had to be put in place
to prevent the spread of the disease and to ensure that beef
produced for market did not include infected animals and would be
safe for human consumption. Slaughterhouses which handled cattle
had to be inspected to ascertain high standards of hygiene.
Slaughtering and butchering practices were also carefully monitored
and each member of a herd had to be identified and tagged. Even in
countries such as the USA, which does not usually import many
beef products from the UK, BSE became a cause for concern. In
October 2002, the first case of an infected human was detected in
the USA.

?
? QUESTIONS

1. In your opinion, should these costly procedures be followed

whether there is an outbreak of disease or not? (Remember
“prevention is better than cure”!)

2. Do you think that your government has been able to enforce

good standards of food hygiene in your country, including
the slaughter and handling of meat products? (If you do not
know, you should try to find out.)

Foot and mouth disease

A more recent disaster for the UK cattle industry has been the very
widespread occurrence of foot and mouth disease. The disease gets
its names from its most obvious signs, the lesions and sores that

14 FD12A
 develop around the mouth and on the feet of the cattle. Although
this disease is not necessarily fatal, it severely reduces the produc-
tion of both milk and beef. Thus the economic viability of the cattle
industry is compromised. The cost of the recent outbreak to the UK
government – and therefore UK taxpayers – is in the billions of
pounds.

You may have seen signs in Caribbean airports announcing that

meat imports from the UK were banned and that passengers on all
flights from the UK had to walk on disinfecting mats before enter-
ing the immigration and customs area. In Jamaica, for example,
these measures were introduced in 1985 in an attempt to prevent
the spread of this disease from the UK.

Some farmers and many citizens consider the measures used to

contain the spread of foot and mouth disease extreme. These
include:

• the wholesale slaughter of entire herds on farms with only a few

infected animals, and

• the slaughter of herds on farms close by, even when they appear
healthy.

Nevertheless, studies of the patterns of the spread of the disease

support the rapid and thorough culling of infected and potentially
infected herds as an effective control strategy.

ACTIVITY

Construct a list of regulations that Caribbean governments

could use to reduce the likelihood of diseases such as BSE and
foot and mouth entering and spreading in the region. Include
the measures described above and add your own ideas.

Suggestion: Organize your list into categories, e.g. preventing

entry into the island, treatment and control, education, dealing
with outbreaks.

FD12A 15
 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. There has been much debate about the effectiveness of a

vaccination programme against foot and mouth disease. Do
you think this might be a desirable alternative to mass
slaughter of herds? What is the basis of your opinion?

2. There is no known link between foot and mouth disease and

any human disease. Given the fact that the disease is not
fatal, do you think governments should continue to take
precautions to prevent the spread of the disease in their
countries?

3. To what extent do you think the activities of one country

are important in limiting the spread of diseases around the
world?

4. What might be some of the reasons for the absence of foot

and mouth disease from the USA since 1929?

16 FD12A
 Session 1.3
Resource Security and Safety
in the Caribbean
We usually use the term “national security” in considering events
such as the attack on the World Trade Centre on September 11,
2001 or increasing security at airports or spending on our armed
forces. However, our security as sovereign nations goes much deeper
than that. To what extent are we secure when we depend on exter-
nal sources for essentials such as food and energy? How secure are
we internally when our water supplies are “under attack”? We will
now look at some of the issues raised by these questions.

Food security

The Caribbean has a very large food import bill. We have become
dependent on a number of other countries for basic foodstuffs such
as flour, rice, cornmeal, meat, fruit, and vegetables. With our ever-
increasing populations and the decline in local agriculture, this is
likely to be the case for a long time. This dependence raises a
number of issues:

• Availability: Events outside the Caribbean region can seriously

limit our access to these sources of food. Damage to crops from
extremes of climate and weather, and international conflicts can
cut us off from our regular supplies quite suddenly.

• Costs: Importing most of our food from abroad is also an

economic concern, as we have no control over the costs of the
products or their transport.

• Quality: Since we import so much of our food we need to:

Have confidence in the standards of farming in the countries

from which food is imported.

Pay attention to the methods being used in the countries

from which our foods come (The debate about BSE,

FD12A 17
 genetically modified, foods and the use of various
agricultural chemicals should concern us).

Have confidence in the inspection and hygiene procedures of

the food industries of exporting countries. The recent
anthrax scare highlighted the possibilities of exporting death
in this way.

ACTIVITY

Make a list of four imported foods that you consider essential to

your diet. (At least one food must be flour-based.) What local
substitutes can you think of that would adequately replace
these foods, if that became necessary?

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Caribbean populations are becoming more and more

dependent on external sources of food than before. Suggest
reasons for this trend and how it might be counteracted.

2. Given recent security concerns, do you think Caribbean

countries should take steps to ensure that a “reasonable
proportion” of our food is produced in the region?

3. List some of the measures that could be introduced to

achieve this? (For example, ways to encourage farming and
fishing, counteract the impact of advertisements that push
foreign foods, reduce costs of locally grown produce, and
so on.)

Energy and security

The Caribbean also has a very large energy import bill, mostly as
derivatives of the petroleum industry. Few Caribbean countries have
significant energy reserves in the form of oil or gas. The major
exception is Trinidad and Tobago, which has significant supplies of
both. The energy generated and used in the Caribbean is therefore
largely dependent on external suppliers. The cost of this energy is

18 FD12A
 beyond our control and rising. This has serious implications for our
development and our economies.

The generation of energy by nuclear fission is not an issue in the

Caribbean. However, there is a major safety and security issue of
concern to the Caribbean based on its use by other countries.
Nuclear power stations in Japan send their used fuel rods to Europe
for reprocessing. These spent rods are still highly radioactive. They
are exported by ship to Europe and the refined fuel and waste,
generated in the reprocessing, are shipped back to Japan. The ship-
ping routes, although usually kept secret, presumably for security
reasons, go through the Caribbean. A serious accident, as a result of
a terrorist act or a massive storm, for example, could expose the
environment in the Caribbean to considerable risk from an activity
over which we have no control and from which we gain no benefits.

ACTIVITY

Find out more about the advantages and disadvantages of using

nuclear power. Consider efficiency, safety, cost, transport, and
disposal of used radioactive material.

Given what you found out, comment on the feasibility of

constructing a nuclear power plant on a Caribbean island.

Water resources

Water is crucial to all aspects of human existence. Most Caribbean

countries have adequate water supplies, although a few of them
now depend in part on imported water (e.g. from Andros in the
Bahamas) or on desalination plants (e.g. in Antigua and Barbados).
Some, such as Dominica, with a population of about 70,000, have a
more than adequate supply by rainfall alone. While quantity of
water may not be of immediate concern in the Caribbean, water
quality should be. Pollution of rivers and streams is increasing
rapidly worldwide. The Caribbean is no exception.

In other parts of the world, access to and control of water supplies

is likely to be one of the most contentious issues of this century and

FD12A 19
 this could be made worse by global warming. Governments will
wish to ensure that they have control of sufficient water resources
to meet the present and future needs of their peoples. This can be
very difficult when such resources are rivers that flow through a
number of countries. The quality and quantity of the water flowing
from one country to another varies considerably depending on how
each country uses this shared resource. This can create serious
disagreements between neighbouring countries.

There have been some interesting suggestions made about the possi-
bility of exporting water from Canada (which has a population
about one tenth that of the USA) to the USA but many Canadian
environmentalists oppose the idea. Some countries are more inter-
ested in using flowing water to generate electricity, rather than for
other needs. This is another reason why sharing rivers is of serious
concern.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Are there any effective attempts at water conservation in

your country? In your opinion, should this be a priority for
Caribbean governments?

2. Do you think that there should be an increased focus on

alternative energy sources – such as solar and wind – by
Caribbean governments in order to reduce dependence on
imported energy supplies? (See Module 2 Unit 1)

3. In light of concerns about the dangers of transporting

radioactive materials by sea, do you think the Caribbean
should have any influence on the ways in which spent
nuclear fuel is transported across (a) international waters
and (b) between Japan and Europe?

20 FD12A
 Session 1.4
Why Should I Care?

Science, medicine and technology in everyday life

Science, technology and medicine have an increasing impact on the

way we live. In addition they are inextricably bound together in the
modern world. At first glance, the issues outlined in the previous
pages may appear to have little direct impact on your own life. You
may well ask “Why should I care?

Thanks to information and communications technology we have

become part of a global community. We are part of a shrinking
world where an attack on one developed country has repercussions
around the globe. International travel brings visitors to and from
our shores on a daily basis, and more and more of our citizens visit
other countries. The implications of this for matters of health
cannot be overemphasized. Environmental pollution does not stay
in the atmosphere of the countries that create it.

FD12A 21
 If you think carefully about your everyday life, you may begin to
identify other issues besides the ones that we have raised that affect
you directly:

• A continuous, clean water supply

• An effective sewage collection and treatment system
• A continuous and reliable power supply
• Some reliable form of transport, whether private or public
• A supply of food that is both nutritious and cheap
• Access to a good health system

To what extent are these local and personal issues separate from the
larger issues discussed in this unit? We ask that you keep this ques-
tion in mind as you continue the course.

ACTIVITY

Consider the following points for discussion in your next

tutorial or teleconference

n The development and use of information and

communications technology, (see Module 2, Unit 4),
provides an excellent example of the ways in which we have
become part of a global community. We have access to more
information about health and disease, the environmental
impact of industry and the impact of climate change on the
Caribbean. We can see for ourselves the effects of
mismanaging global resources and how this can affect our
region. Can we afford to have others make important
choices for us, especially choices that might affect our very
existence on the planet?

n Many people would argue that, given recent developments

in science, technology, and medicine, there is urgent need to
provide an education through which people may become
“scientifically and technologically literate”. By so doing, a
nation can ensure that its future decision making is as well
informed as possible. Should Caribbean countries be aiming
for scientific and technological literacy for all? Is this too
idealistic a goal?

22 FD12A
 n No one expects any one person to be fully informed about
all of the key issues affecting the economic and social
development of a country. Should we therefore leave the
decision making about issues of scientific and technological
importance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with the
view expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchill
that scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue is
raised again in Unit 3 of this Module.)

n Our governments often enter into international agreements

that may determine their ability to provide us with basic
necessities. International events and concerns can have a
direct impact on our lives, as demonstrated clearly by the
events of September 11, 2001. Are we in a position to ignore
what takes place in the rest of the world? (Before
considering this question you might like to list all the ways
you can think of that September 11 affected your country).

n If you decide that you do care about some of these issues,

perhaps you can then identify ways in which you can
become better informed about them (e.g. through the
Internet, newspapers or television). In addition, you should
consider how you might contribute to debates on improving
provisions for at least one of the issues from the list on page
24. List your arguments clearly for further consideration
when covering related areas in Module 2.

n Is doing this course a waste of your time?

SUMMARY

In the previous part of this unit you were asked to think about
issues which have appeared in the news media in the past few years.
These included, global warming thought to be caused by greenhouse
gases, and “mad cow disease” and foot and mouth disease in cattle
in Britain, both of which caused epidemics that could spread abroad.
These issues become news not necessarily because of their scientific
or technological interest, but usually because there is some perceived
impact on society, often bad.

FD12A 25
 Not so much in the news but of equal importance were the issues of
energy and food security, and secure water resources raised next.
Our dependence as a region on outside sources of energy and food
was questioned and the need to maintain sources of clean water
was mentioned. We also noted that water, as a shared resource could
become a problem.

When such issues appear to threaten our safety or us, only then do
we become more concerned about the state of scientific knowledge
or the ways in which a technological advance may affect our envi-
ronment. Regardless of the issues involved, it is important for all of
us to have some understanding of the ways in which scientific
knowledge is generated and the scope and limitations of scientific
findings. Unit 2 of this module is about just this.

DISCUSSION

Science, technology, and medicine have an increasing impact on

the way we live. In addition they are inextricably bound
together in the modern world. At first glance, the issues
outlined in the previous pages may appear to have little direct
impact on your own life. You may well ask “Why should I care?

26 FD12A