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Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
FLUID MECHANICS
(CE 325)
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITIONS
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, no matter how
small that shear stress may be.
A substance may be solid or fluid, a fluid may be liquid or gas. A fluid can flow and has no fixed shape.
Fluid mechanics is that branch of applied mechanics that concerns with the study of fluids at rest
and motion. The branches of fluid mechanics are:
a- Fluid statics
1- Hydrostatics: study of incompressible fluids at rest.
2- Aerostatics: study of compressible gases at rest.
b- Fluid dynamics
Study of fluid, velocity and acceleration, etc. with force or energy causing flow.
1- Hydrodynamics: study of incompressible flow of liquids.
2- Aerodynamics: study of compressible and incompressible flow of gases.
c- Fluid Kinematics
Study of flow patterns and relation between velocity and acceleration of fluid without reference
to the cause of motion (like force or energy).
Hydraulics is the study of liquids at rest and motion.
Because Newton's 2nd law deals with force, mass and acceleration (F=ma), so there are two systems
of dimensions (MLT) and (FLT). Some derived units in table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Dimensions and units for some physical quantities in SI System
Dimension
Quantity SI Unit Basic Units
(MLT) (FLT)
Force MLT-2 F Newton, N kg m s-2
Energy ML2T-2 FL Joule, J (N.m) kg m2 s-2
Power ML2T-3 FLT-1 Watt, W (N.m/s) kg m2 s-3
Pressure ML-1T-2 FL-2 Pascal, Pa (N/m2) kg m-1 s-2
Because w=mg, where g is the acceleration of gravity (g=9.81 m/s2), Eq. (1.2) can be written as
The relative density S of a liquid (sometimes specific gravity) is the ratio of its mass to the mass of
an equal volume of water at standard conditions.
Example 1-1
2.5 m3 of a certain liquid weighs 15000 N. Determine: (i) specific weight, (ii) Density, and (iii) Relative
density of the liquid. ( )
Solution
(i) Specific weight
(ii) Density
or
or
or
The constant of proportionality is known as the dynamic viscosity µ. Since shear stress can be written
as
then
This relation is right when the velocity profile is linear. In general the velocity profile is as shown in Fig.
1.2
The SI unit of is (m2/s), it has no name. The common unit of is Stoke, 1Stoke = 10-4 m2/s.
id
Shear Stress,
Flu
tan
ian
ton
d
ui
ew
Fl
an
n-N
o ni
t Ideal Fluid
No
N ew
Example 1-2
A plate, 0.5mm distance from a fixed plate, moves at 0.25 Moving plate v=0.25 m/s = F =2Pa
A
m/s and requires a force per unit area of 2 Pa to maintain
this speed, see Fig. 1.4. Determine the viscosity of the fluid
between the plates, assuming linear variation of velocity. 0.5 mm
Fixed plate
Solution
Fig.1.4 EX 1-2
x
y
F 30°
30° w
Example 1-4
The velocity distribution over a plate is given as v=2y-y2
in m/s, where y(m) is the distance above the plate, see Fig. dy 2
1.7. Determine the shear stress at the boundary and 0.15m v=2y-y
above it. The viscosity of the fluid is 0.8 N.s/m2. v
boundary
y dv y=0
at y=0.15m: [ ]
( )
If the center-line velocity in a pipe of 1 m diameter is 6 m/s and the viscosity is 0.002 N.s/m2, draw the
velocity and shear stress profile for a cross section. What is the drag per km length of the pipe.
Solution
* ( ) +
[ ( ) ]
Table 1.3 Velocity and Shear stress distribution in laminar flow in a pipe
0
0
r0
v velocity profile
Shear stress
profile
Flow
vmax (vc )
r dv r
v+dv dy
v
y 0 y
0
v r 2 dv dv 0
= 1- ( ) velocity gradient = =- =
vc r0 dy dr r r0
Capillary attraction is caused by surface tension and by the relative value of adhesion between
liquid and solid to cohesion of the liquid. In Fig. 1.9 (a) water wets the glass because force of adhesion is
greater than force of cohesion that cause capillary rise. In Fig. 1.9 (b) mercury doesn't wet the glass
because force of cohesion is greater than force of adhesion that cause capillary depression.
F
(Capillary h
Depression)
Diameter d Water
Mercury
F
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9 Capillary rise and depression
F F
w= V
Fig. 1.10
F cos =w
Equating the right hand sides of Eq. 1.15 and Eq. 1.16 yields
If the tube is clean, the contact angle for water and for mercury.
1.5 Compressibility
The compressibility is the capability of a substance of being reduced in volume by application of
pressure. Compressibility of a fluid is expressed by means of its bulk modulus of elasticity K.
At normal temperature and pressure condition Kwater= 2.07 × 106 kpa and Kair= 101.3 kpa, that
means, air (a gas) is 20,000 times more compressible than water (a liquid). For this reason, the density of
liquids can be assumed to be constant without any serious loss in accuracy. On the other hand, gases are
very compressible.
Example 1-6
Find the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid if its volume is decreased by 15% when the applied
pressure is increased from 700 N/cm2 to 1300 N/cm2.
Solution
( )
PROPLEMS
1-1 A right circular cone of diameter 15 cm and hight 25 cm. When filled with a liquid, it weighs 20 N.
When empty, it weighs 8 N. Estimate the relative density of this liquid.
(Ans. S=0.83)
1-2 A liquid of kinematic viscosity of 1000 cS, and relative density of 0.92. Find (i) kinematic viscosity
in m2/s, (ii) viscosity in N.s/m2 and in Poise.
(Ans. ν=10-3 m2/s, 𝝁=0.92 N.s/m2, 𝝁=9.2 Poise)
1-3 A vertical gap of 25 mm of infinite extent contains oil of F=? V = 0.1 m/s
viscosity 2.5 N.s/m2. A square metal plate of 1.5 m side and
1.5 mm thick weighing 50 N is to be lifted through the gap Metal oil
and at a constant speed of 0.1 m/s. Find the force and the Plate
= 25 poise
power required to lift the plate.
(Ans. F = 145.7 N, P = 14.57 W)
1.5 mm
25 mm
W = 50 N
Mercury
F
1-7 If K = 2.2 GPa is the bulk modulus of elasticity for water, what pressure is required to reduce a volume
by 0.6%?
(Ans. 13.2 MPa)
CHAPTER TWO
FLUID STATICS
z p z
(p + z 2 ) x y
p y
(p - y 2 ) x z
y
p x p x
(p - ) y z (p + ) y z
x 2 x 2
p
z
x
p z
p y
(p + y 2 ) x z
(p - z 2 ) x y
w = ( x y z)
x
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Hence in a static fluid the pressure, p, is the same at every point in the horizontal plane, and
decreases as z increases.
For an incompressible fluid ( =constant), Fig. 2.2, let the pressure at point 1, h meters below the
free surface be p1. From Eq. (2.6)
∫ ∫
Point 1 and 3 are in the same horizontal plane, from Eq. (2.4) and (2.5),
Free Surface
2 Atm. pressure (p=0)
h Liquid ( )
z2 1 3
z1
Datum
Hence, at any point in a fluid at rest, the intensity of pressure is exerted equally in all directions,
which is called Pascal’s law.
Example 2-1
Determine the pressure at A, B, C, and D. Air D
100 cm
Solution Air Water
B
30 cm 1
60 cm
C 4
130 cm
100 cm
2 A 3
Water
Example 2-2
For the vessel containing glycerin (S=1.25) under pressure as
shown in Fig. 2.5, Determine the pressure at the bottom of the 50 kPa
vessel.
Solution Glycerin 2m
Example 2-3
In the closed tank shown in Fig. 2.6, the pressure at point A A B
is 98 kPa, what is the pressure at point B? What percent
Air Air 3m
error results from neglecting the specific weight of the air?
5m
( ) 3
1 2
Solution
i- Considering 5m
3m
Water
Fig. 2.6 Ex. 2-3
ii- Neglecting
(+)ve
gauge pressure
Standard atmospheric pressure (at sea level)
Local atmospheric pressure
(-)ve
Absolute gauge pressure
1 atm Pressure
101.325 kPa Local
760 mm Hg barometer
10.34 m water reading Absolute
1 bar (100 kPa) Pressure
Pressure measured above the perfect vacuum (absolute zero) is called absolute pressure, Fig. 2.7.
The perfect vacuum is the lowest possible pressure, therefore, an absolute pressure is always positive.
Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the
difference in pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and that of the surrounding air. Hence the
gauge pressure may be positive or negative (vacuum pressure).
Mercury
Example 2-4
Determine the gage and the absolute pressure at A and B, if Air
the barometer reading is 755 mm Hg. (SHg = 13.6)
Oil S=0.8 0.9 m
A
Solution
Water 2m
B
Example 2-5
At a base of a mountain, a mercury barometer reads Rb=740 mm,
R
whereas at the top it reads Rt=595 mm. If the density of air is h air,t
3 (compl
1.23 kg/m and is assumed constant, find the pheight of
atm
M the
mountain.
Mercury
h air,b
Solution
H
Oil
S = 0.85
At the top:
At the base:
a
a
deformed state Section a-a
flexible metal
tube
(original state)
Fluid under
pressure
Example 2-6
The Bouron gauge shown in Fig. 2.12 reads 34.5 kPa (gauge). Air
What is the absolute air pressure in the tank? Assuming
standard atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa. 30 cm G Water
2
Solution 15 cm 1
(gauge)
Fig. 2.12 Ex. 2-6
(gauge)
(gauge), (gauge)
A
80 kPa
(gauge) B
200 kPa
120 kPa
Absolute 0
(abs)
Fig. 2.14 Ex. 2-7
2.3.3 Piezometer
A piezometer is used to measure moderate
positive pressure. It is a simple device consists of
Piezometers
a glass tube one end being connected to the point
of pressure measurement and the other end open
pA
to atmosphere, Fig. 2.15. h h=
A
pressure pipe
Example 2-8
Liquid A will simply rise in piezometer a to the same elevation as liquid A in the tank (i.e., to elevation
2m). Determine the pressure at the bottom of the tank (El 0), and determine the elevation to which
El 0.3m
Liquid B
(S=2.36)
El 0
Elevation of liquid B in piezometer b =0.819 m
Fig. 2.16 Ex. 2-8
2.3.4 Manometer
A manomete is a pressure measurement device uses the relationship between pressure change and
elevation change in a static liquid. It is used to measure high pressures using a manometric fluid
immiscible with the fluid in A and B. Basically there are two types of manometers; open manometer and
differential manometer, Fig 2.17. Open manometer measures pressures at a point, while differential
manometer measures difference in pressure between two point.
A A
Manometer
Liquid
Example 2-10
S1 S3 B
In the differential manometer shown in Fig. 2.19, A
S1=S3=0.83, S2=13.6, h1=150mm, h2=70mm, and
h3=120 mm. h3
(a) Find the difference (pA - pB). h1
(b) Find pA if pB = 70 kPa (gage) h2
(c) For pA = 140 kPa (abs) and a barometer reading of
720 mm, find pB in kPa (gage). S2
Solution
Solution
y 0.3 m
0.4 m
Dividing by yields
S1 = 1.6
B
Example 2-12
In the differential manometer shown in Fig. 2.21, S=0.8
find the difference in pressure between A and B.
Solution B X+0.7-1.5=(X-0.8)m
0.7m
Example 2-13
Find the difference in the mercury levels in the Vacuum Gauge Gauge
U-tube manometer, reading h, as shown in Fig. 2.22. -76 mm Hg 20 kPa
Air
Solution Air
Water
For the vacuum gauge, 2m
Oil S = 0.8 1m
1m
Starting from the vacuum gage as follows
h=?
Hg (S = 13.6)
600 mm
h1 h 2
0 0
h
Example 2-15
In Fig. 2.25, Find the gauge readings G1 and G2, if G1 =?
the barometric pressure of the place is 750 mm
1 Closed
mercury. Air
Solution
Hg
1.5m Oil S=0.8 vapor
(a) to find G1
0.6m
c
1.8m Water
G2 =?
Hg S=13.6
Gauge G1 reads the difference in pressure between
point 1 and the outside atmosphere
Fig. 2.25 Ex. 2-15
or
(b) to find G2
F.S
X
h
h cp h
F
ycp
y
0
y
x' dA
C.P G
y'
x
xcp
On an element area dA
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
∫ ∫
To determine the center of pressure C.P. take the moment about X axis
∫ ∫ ∫
Similarly to determine xcp take the moment about Y axis with an element area dA parallel to Y axis that
yields
̅
Notes:
- is the vertical distance from the centroid of area, G to the free surface (real or imaginary).
- F is the resultant force, perpendicular to the surface.
- ̅ is the second moment of area about the centroidal axis x'.
- ̅ is the product of inertia. Note that, if either of the centroidal axes x' and y' is an axis of
symmetry, then ̅ , also ̅ may be either (+)ve or (-)ve.
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
27
For a vertical area (=90o, Fig. 2.27), X
F.S
y cp y
h
h cp
x' G
With the same formulae and notes in the
F
inclined surface summary. C.P x
y'
x cp
x
C.P.
where G
is the vertical distance from the centroid of y
area, G to the free surface (real or imaginary).
Note that, the resultant static fluid forces are perpendicular to the plane surfaces (inclined, vertical, and
horizontal).
y' y'
y'
y'
d d G x' G x'
G x'
G x' 4r
r r
d/3
b b
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
where F is the resultant hydrostatic force and is the volume of the pressure prism. The line of action
of F passes through the centroid of the pressure prism.
F.S
X
h2 h h1
F h1
Pressure prism
0
h2
dA
C.P
Water 1.5 m
2m
2m
F.S
X
̅ ⁄ y
hcp h ycp
x' G 1.5 m
F C.P.
̅ because y' is an axis of symmetry x cp
y'
̅
Y
Fig. 2.31 Ex. 2-16
2m
1m Pressure prism
1m
1m
h=1.5m F
C.P.
F F 0.5m
h
3 =0.5m
h h
Solution F
1.5 m
i- Using the formulae (Fig. 2.33)
1m
C.P.
2m
G
1m
X
2m
Pressure prism
1m
F
1m C.P.
2m
h
2m
1m
Water A M X
3m
2m
̅ X
⁄
1m h= y
A M
ycp
d
x' G
F C.P.
y'
Y
1.3m
1
a a
To determine the centroid of the prism, take the first
moments of area about a-a axis yields d
( )( ) F
3
Solution Water
⁄
A
̅ ⁄ Oil
S=0.75 1.8m
B P
For water:
To determine the imaginary free surface (I.F.S.), we will Fig. 2.38 Ex. 2-19
locate a surface at which the pressure = 0 as follows:
1.53m
̅ ⁄ I.F.S.
2.17 w
2.17m
3.16m
d 1.2m
Fw Fo
P
⁄ ⁄
⁄
A P
Water
4m Gate
side view
B
6m
h y
ycp
4m x' G
̅ F
C.P.
Y
4r
=1.698m y'
Solution
4m G=?
For water: hinge
=γ h
Gas 1m
1m
⁄
Water
3 p
4 p
r = 0.5m
X
60°
⁄ h cp
h
y
̅ F
x' ycp
⁄ G
C.P.
y'
̅
2.611
=0.87m
1m 3
3.916 G
̅
̅
̅
2.611m
x
y ycp
h
G
h cp
x'
A C.P
y
F P
0.87 cos50=0.559m
1500 N
Water 4m
B
30°
2m
X 30°
h
hcp
y F B
ycp x'
G
C.P.
y'
4m
̅ ̅⁄
6.65m
7.16m
4m
b- p=26 kPa (Fig. 2.51)
̅
Fig. 2.51 Ex. 2-24
̅
̅ ̅⁄
4m
5m
0.963m
Check using the pressure prism:
Case a (Fig. 2.52):
F
F acts at the prism centroid, taking about lower edge.
Fig. 2.52 Ex. 2-24
⁄ ⁄
⁄
0.98m
F acts at the prism centroid, taking about lower edge.
⁄ ⁄
⁄
F
̅
̅
̅
⁄
⁄
X
50°
hcp
̅ ⁄
h
̅ ̅ F
h y
̅
x' ycp
G
1m
C.P
y'
1m
D E F.S
h C.G
h cp FV
A' C A
AP
G
FH F
B' B
The vertical component, Fv, is equal to weight of the liquid extending above the area to the free surface
(real or imaginary) and acts through the center of gravity, C.G, of this volume of liquid
⁄
B
⁄
Fig. 2.57 Ex. 2-26
I. F. S
[ ⁄ ] 2.04m
h
h cp C.G
1.5m
F
√ A
FV
3m
√
FH FH
M
( ) B
3.54 w
A
F
6.54 w
M
B
Fig. 2.59 Ex. 2-26
B
( ) FV2 4.596
O O
FH
F F
FV
7.714 w
Solution
Fig. 2.64 Ex. 2-28
̅
FV1
I. F. S
W 2 w
( )
FH1
FH2
4 w 4 w
( ) FV2
2 w 2 w
4 w
Solution
0.5m
[ ⁄ ]
I. F. S
w
√
FH
( )
1.5 w
F
FV
( )
w
1.5 w
F
30°
[ ⁄ ]
[ ]
2.4m
Fd
3m
x2 x1
y
F u1 F u2
E F F.S
( )
FV1
A G C
FH V FH
W
D
FV2
A submerged body or floating body is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body and is called the force of buoyancy, FB, and acts through the center of gravity of
the displaced volume and is called the center of buoyancy, B. If the fluid is homogeneous and the body
is homogeneous, then the center of gravity of the body, G, and the center of gravity of the displaced
fluid, B coincide.
F.S F.S
V
FB = V
( ) ( )
G
W
V
G B
If a body is submerged,
i- if W = FB, the body is in equilibrium, which means the densities of the body and fluid are equal.
ii- if W > FB, the body will sink.
iii- if W < FB, the body will rise until the weight of displaced liquid equals the weight of the body
(floating body like a ship).
Example 2-31
A body weighs 2080 N in air. When submerged in water it weighs 1000 N, Fig. 2.74. Determine the
specific gravity of the body.
Balance
String
Air
Water
V V
T= 2080 N T=1000 N
Air Water
V V
W=mg=2080N
W=mg=2080N
FB = wV
Example 2-32
A cube of timber 40 cm of each side floats in water as
shown in Fig. 2.76. The specific gravity of the timber
is 0.60. Find the submerged depth of the cube. D=?
Water
Solution
40cm
V D
Water W
FB = wV
In water:
FB = V
In liquid:
Solution
Let a = the cross-sectional area of the stem
In liquid (S.G=0.84):
Liquid Oil
(0.84) (0.8)
( )
FB = V
( ) * ( ) +
( )
( )
45 60 70 80 85 81
E + 0.242 + 0.16 + 0.09 + 0.008 -0.035 -0.00064
Mercury (13.6)
Solution
Fig. 2.81 Ex. 2-36
[ ]
FV1
[ ] w h
[ ] w (h+a)
W
w (h+a) + Hgb
FV2
1m
Water D
A
h2
h1
Hg (S=13.6)
Oil (S=0.83)
2-3 For the inverted manometer shown in the figure, if
(pB – pA)=97 kPa, what must the height h be in cm?
(Ans. h = 22.5 cm)
18 cm
Water
35 cm
Hg (S=13.6)
0.6m
c
1.8m Water
G2 =?
Hg S=13.6
B 2m
C P
60 °
5m
(Ans. 602.51 kN) hinge Strut
4m
B
2-8 The submerged sector gate AB shown in the figure
has a radius of 6m. The length of the gate is 10 m. Water
Determine the amount and location of the
horizontal and vertical components of the total
resultant force acting on the gate, also determine the
amount and location of the total resultant force.
60°
(Ans. , A
o
) r = 6m
1m
2-12 Determine the force components acting on the
dome (hemisphere) shown in the figure. Oil S=0.8
(Ans. , ) 1.5m
Water
2m
0.
5m
2-13 A body weighs 1000 N when immersed in water and when immersed in oil (S=0.85) it weighs
1150 N. Determine the volume, specific gravity and weight of the body in air.
(Ans. , , )
Balance
String
V V
D=9cm
6L
2 pulleys
2-16 A 3.5-cm-radius solid aluminum ball (Sp.
Gravity, SA= 2.7) and a solid brass ball (Sp.
Gravity, Sb=8.5) balance when submerged in
water, as shown in the figure. What is the
radius of the brass ball?
(Ans. r = 2.13 cm ) Water
?
cm r=
3.5 Brass
Aluminum
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The foundational axioms of fluid flow are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of
mass, conservation of energy (also known as first law of thermodynamics), and conservation of linear
momentum (also known as Newton’s second law of motion).
i. Conservation of Mass
States that matter can be neither created nor destroyed. In fluid mechanics the rate of change of
fluid mass inside a control volume must be equal to the net rate of fluid flow into the volume.
The fundamental equations in fluid mechanics which are mathematical formulations of these
conservation laws are:
1. Continuity Equation
Implies to the law of conservation of mass.
3. Momentum Equation
Implies to the law of conservation of linear momentum.
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
59
Steadiness refers to 'no change with time' and uniformity refers to 'no change with distance'
therefore the flow can be steady or unsteady quite independent of its being uniform or non-uniform.
Hence there can be four flow classifications as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Time (s)
10 m Constant
1
4 v 4
i. Steady uniform
2
4 v 4 s1 s2
Constant
1
ii. Steady non-uniform 4 v 6
2
4 v 6
Variable
1
iii. Unsteady uniform 4 v 4
2
6 v 6
Variable
1
iv. Unsteady non-uniform 4 v 6
2
6 v 8
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
60
3.5 STREAM LINE, STREAM TUBE, STREAK LINE, AND PATH LINE
A stream line is an imaginary line within the flow for which the tangent at any point gives the
velocity vector at that point and at that instant. Fig. 3.2(a) A stream line cannot intersect itself nor two
stream lines can cross. Stream lines show the mean direction of a number of fluid particles at the same
instant of time. Fig. 3.3(a)
Stream lines
Stream line
A stream tube is an imaginary tube of fluid bounded by closely spaced stream lines which enclose or
confine the flow. Fig. 3.2(b).
Streak lines are the lines traced by all the fluid particles at a given point at a particular instant.
Fig. 3.3(b).
A path line is the line traced by a single particle during successive instants of time and shows the
directions of velocity (of the same fluid particle) at successive instants of time. A path line can intersect
itself. Fig. 3.3(c).
The stream line pattern remains same when the flow is steady. For unsteady flow, the stream line pattern
changes from instant to instant. Stream lines, path lines and streak lines are all same for steady flow.
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
61
Dye injected
[ ⁄ ]
[ ⁄ ] ̇
v
A
The control surface are represented by a vector, ⃗ , oriented outward from the control volume and with
magnitude equal to the cross-sectional area.
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
62
A1 v1 Control Control
volume surface v2
A2
∫ ∫ ⃗ ⃗
The first term represents the rate of decreasing of the mass inside the control volume. The second term
represents the net mass outflow rate leaving the control volume (outflow – inflow).
If the control volume has only a number of one-dimensional inlets and outlets, that is the velocities are
uniform over the cross section, we can write
∫ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
In case of steady state the first term in Eq. 3.5 equals to zero, hence we can write
∫ ⃗ ⃗
If the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional, we have for steady flow
∑ ⃗ ⃗
In case of incompressible flow ( is constant) the first term in Eq. 3.5 equals to zero, hence Eq. 3.5
becomes
∫ ⃗ ⃗
or
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
63
∫ ⃗ ⃗
If the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional, we have for steady flow
∑⃗ ⃗
Consider the one dimensional flow in the stream tube shown in Fig. 3.5, we can write
̇ ̇
For incompressible flow
̇
For incompressible flow
For incompressible fluids Eq. 3.15 is valid for steady and unsteady flow.
In Fig. 3.5 if the velocities are uniform over the cross section, the net volume outflow rate can be written
as
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Generally
∑⃗ ⃗
̇ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Generally
̇ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
64
Example 3-1
Water flows steadily through the nozzle in Fig. 3.6.
Considering incompressible flow, compute Q1, Q2, v1, and
Water
̇. 1 2
⁄ ⁄
Fig. 3.6 Ex. 3-1
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
̇ ⁄
Example 3-2
Water flows through the wye fitting shown in Fig. D 2 = 0.8 m
3.7. If Q2 = Q1/3 and the flow is steady and V2 = ?
incompressible, compute Q1, v2, and D3.
1
2
Water
Solution
3
D1 = 1.5 m
⁄ ⁄ V1 = 1.92 m/s
D3= ?
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
V3 = 2.5 m/s
∑⃗ ⃗
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
65
Or simply: V2
A2
cs
A1 V1
⁄
V3
A3
⁄ ⁄
Fig. 3.8 Ex. 3-2 (Control Volume, CV)
⁄
Example 3-3 D 2 = 20 cm
V2 = ?
Water flows through the tee fitting shown in Fig. 3.9. If
the flow is steady and incompressible, compute the 2
volume flow rate and the mean velocity in section 2 and
1
show its direction.
Water
Solution
Assume ⃗ direction as shown in Fig. 3.10 D1 = 25 cm
V1 = 4 m/s
3
⁄ ⁄
D 3 = 20 cm
⁄ ⁄
V2 A2
∑⃗ ⃗
cs
A1 V1
Or simply
V3 A3
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
66
The negative sign of Q2 means that the direction of ⃗ is opposite.
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Example 3-4
Water enters mixing device shown in Fig. 3.11 at a rate of Water, Q 1 = 100 L/s
100 L/s through pipe 1, while alcohol with specific
gravity 0.8 enters at 300 L/s If the flow is steady and
Water-Alcohol
incompressible, compute the volume flow rate and the Mix
density of the mixture.
Q3
3
Solution
For incompressible flow (Fig. 3.12):
Alcohol (S=0.8), Q 2 = 300 L/s
∑⃗ ⃗
Or simply
A1
v1
⁄ ⁄
v3
∑ ⃗ ⃗ cs
A3
v2
Or simply A2
Fig. 3.12 Ex. 3-4
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
67
Example 3-5
A sprinkler shown in Fig. 3.13 has 25 nozzles, the 25 24 23 n 3 2 1
Q
velocity of water discharged from any nozzle is
given by the relation
v25 v24 v23 vn v3 v2 v1
⁄
Solution
( )
∑⃗ ⃗
( ) ⁄
Example 3-6
Water is being added to the tank shown in Fig. 3.14 with a Q 1 = 30 L/s
constant rate Q1= 30 L/s and drained with a constant rate Q2.
Describe the following cases:
i- Q2 = 40 L/s
ii- Q2 = 10 L/s
Water
iii- Q2 = 30 L/s Q2
∑⃗ ⃗
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
68
Q 1 = 30 L/s
A1
Outflow > Inflow that means tank draining
v1 cs
Example 3-7
Water is being added to the open tank with surface area
dh dt
AT = 100 m2 with a constant rate Q1= 80 m3/min and Q1
drained with a constant rate Q2 = 50 m3/min. Determine
Water
the rate of rising of water level, dh/dt. Fig. 3.16. h
Q2
∫ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
dh dt
A1 v1
cs CV
v2
A2
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
69
Example 3-8
The pipe flow in Fig. 3.18 fills a cylindrical surge tank as
shown. At time t = 0, the water depth in the tank is 30 cm.
D=75 cm
Estimate the time required to fill the remainder of the
1m
tank.
30 cm
Solution
( ) ( )
CV
∫ ∫ cs
dh dt
[] [ ]
v2
A1 v1
A2
Example 3-9
A 10 cm jet of water issues from a 1 m diameter tank as shown in D =1 m
Fig. 3.20. Assume that the velocity in the jet is √ m/s,
how long will it take for the water surface in the tank to drop from
Water
h0= 2 m to hf= 0.50 m?
h
Dia.=10cm
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
70
Solution
∫ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
√ ( ) dh dt
⁄
CV h
cs
∫ ∫
[] [ |
( )
( )
v s
2
1 ds
dA p dA
)
(p + s
line
Stream p dA Fluid element
g dm (element weight)
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
71
( )
Applying Eq. (3.25) in two points (1) and (2), Fig. 3.24, along the stream line yields
Eq. (3.26) is called the Bernoulli equation (Daniel Bernoulli, 1738). Fig. 3.23.
Constant
Bernoulli p1
p1
head
2
Flow
z2
1
z1
z1
Arbitrary datum (z=0)
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
72
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
( ) [ ]
[ ]
The law of conservation of energy, as mentioned before, states that energy can be neither created
nor destroyed, although it can be changed from one form into another. In an isolated system the sum of
all forms of energy remains constant. Therefore Bernoulli equation can be written as
where E is the energy per unit weight of the fluid. E has the dimension [L].
For an element has a mass m, it possess the following forms of energy:
i. Potential energy (EP): Due to its elevation
iii. Flow energy(EF): Amount of work necessary to move the element distance L across a certain
section against the pressure p.
Derivation of EF: To move the element (of volume V and weight W) distance L,
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
73
p1
p2
Flow
1 2
z2
z1
Datum
Example 3-10
A venturi meter with a throat 10 cm diameter is installed in Oil S=0.85
a pipe of 20 cm diameter as shown in Fig. 3.25. Determine
the flow rate, Q, if the discharge coefficient Cd=0.98
2
Solution D=10cm
30cm
i- Continuity Equation
1
D=20cm y
20cm
S=13.6
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
74
( )
( )
( )
( )
The fluid is assumed to be ideal in Bernoulli Eq. that means ignoring the shear stress and the velocity is
distributed uniformly in the cross-sectional area, thus there will be a difference in the flow rate
computed by (Qth=Av) and the actual flow rate Qa, This difference is considered using the correction
factor Cd (discharge coefficient).
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
75
3.10.2 Flow through Small Orifices
Consider the small orifice in the wall of the tank shown
in Fig. 3.26. It is required to determine the velocity and
the flow rate through the orifice. 1
2
Fig. 3.26 Flow through a small orifice
The theoretical velocity at 2, v2th , is
Fig. 3.27 shows the stream lines in two different openings. Cc is the contraction coefficient
Stream line
Stream line
A th Aa A th Aa
2
2
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
76
Summary:
Orifices and nozzles can be used to determine the flow rate in a pipe like a venturi meter. Fig. 3.28
1 2
d
d0
y
h
Diff. Manometer
1 2
d
d0
y
h
Diff. Manometer
(b) Nozzle
Fig. 3.28 Use of orifices and nozzles to determine the flow rate
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
77
Example 3-11
Water flows from water tank through an orifice in the 1
wall of the tank to air tank as shown in Fig. 3.29.
Determine the actual velocity and the discharge through Water
the 5 cm diameter orifice if G
h
a- G = 30 kPa
b- G=-30 kPa Air
Hg (13.6)
Solution
Fig. 3.29 Ex. 3-11
i- From the manometer:
a- G=30 kPa:
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
78
b- G=-30 kPa:
Example 3-12
A nozzle is installed in a pipe as shown in Fig. 3.28 (b). Derive an expression to find the actual discharge Q a as a
function of the relative density S of the flowing fluid, relative density S o of the manometer fluid, Cd, d, d0, and
h.
Solution
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
79
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
[ ( ) ]
( )
[ ( ) ]
For the large rectangular orifice shown in Fig. 3.30, consider an element strip (b dh) under a head h
⁄
∫ √ √ ∫
⁄ ⁄
√ ( )
⁄ ⁄
√ ( )
h H1 h
H2
d
dh
Example 3-13
For the large isosceles triangular orifice shown in Fig. 3.31, derive an expression to find the actual discharge
Qa. Compute Qa if H1=60cm, H2= 120cm, b=90cm, Cd=0.7.
H1
H2
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
81
Solution
h-H1
Velocity through the element: √
dh
Flow through the element: √
b
Flow through orifice: ∫
Fig. 3.32 Ex. 3-13
⁄
∫ √ √ ∫
⁄ ⁄
√ [ |
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
√ [( ) ( )]
In the rectangular notch (or weir) shown in Fig. 3.33, consider an element strip (b dh) under a head h
⁄
∫√ √ ∫
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
82
h
H
dh
Sharp-crested
weir
⁄
√
⁄
√
In the V – notch (or triangular notch) shown in Fig. 3.34, its left to the student to deduce that
⁄
√
H
V- notch
(or triangular notch)
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
83
Example 3-14
For triangular notch shown in Fig. 3.34, compute Qa if H=20cm, = 90o, sand Cd=0.613.
Solution
⁄
√
⁄
( )√ ( ) ( ) ⁄
3.10.5 Cavitation
In an enclosed flow system, Fig. 3.35, if the pressure at any point falls below the vapor pressure of
the liquid, the liquid flashes into vapor and bubbles begin to form and travel along the flow till they
reach a high pressure zone where they suddenly collapse. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. If
the bubbles collapse on metallic surfaces, like impellers or blades of pumps or turbines, they cause
damage called 'pitting'. Therefore cavitation must be avoided in the design of enclosed flow systems.
Fig. 3.36 shows the condition of the negative pressure causing cavitation.
TEL
v12
2g HGL
p1
(+ve)
v22
2g
1 2 Flow
p2
(-ve)
z1 z2
Datum
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
84
p2
p2
p0 p0
pv pv
Absolute zero
(a) | | (b) | |
Example 3-15
A certain liquid has a relative density S=0.86 and vapor
7 N/cm2
2
pressure pv=2.7 N/cm . This liquid flows through the pipe
shown in Fig. 3.37 with a discharge rate of 250 L/s. If the
Flow
barometer reading is 758 mm Hg (SHg = 13.6),
determine the minimum value of D2 at which no 1 2
cavitation will occur. D1 = 50 cm D2 = ?
⁄ ( )⁄( )
| |
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
85
i- Continuity Equation
⁄ ( )⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Dividing
stream line
s
Uniform flow
Piezometer and Pitot tube, shown in Fig. 3.39, are used to determine the velocity of the flowing fluid in
the horizontal pipe using the idea of the stagnation point. Applying Bernoulli Eq. between point 1 and
the stagnation point s yields
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
86
ps
p1
1 s
Flow
√
From Eq. 3-35
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
87
Example 3-16
Water flows through the pipe shown in Fig. Dia. = 30 cm
Dia. = 20 cm
3.40 with a discharge rate of 300 L/s. Q=300 L/s
1 s 2
Determine the manometer reading h.
y
Solution
h
i- Bernoulli Eq. (1 and s)
SHg=13.6
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
88
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
3.10.7 Siphon
Example 3-17
Water is siphoned through a 150 mm rubber tube as C
shown in . Fig. 3.42. 1.5m
1 B
1m
i- If the depth of the outlet h=5m, determine the A
discharge through the siphon and the minimum h
Water
pressure in the siphon tube. What is the pressure at
B (inside the tube)? D
ii- What is the depth of the outlet, h, at which no
Fig. 3.42 Ex. 3-17
discharge will occur?
iii- If the minimum pressure in the siphon should not fall 7.5 m of water below atmospheric pressure, what is the
maximum possible depth of the outlet, h, below the water surface?
Solution
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
89
√ ⁄
Continuity Equation:
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
90
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
Newton's II law is
For steady flow, if the inlets and outlets of the control volume are one-dimensional, that is the velocities
are uniform over the cross section, the momentum equation can be written as
̇ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
Example 3-18
The reducing pipe bend shown in Fig. 3.43 is in a p2
=30°
Section 1
Solution 150-mm Dia.
i- Continuity Equation
Fig. 3.43 Ex. 3-18
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
91
ii- Bernoulli Equation
p2 A 2
v2
⃗ ⃗ Fy
Fig. 3.44 Ex. 3-18
( ) ( )
b- in y-direction
⃗ ⃗
FX
( )
F
Fy
( )
F : is the force exerted by water on surface, same magnitude and opposite direction.
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
92
Example 3-19
Fig. 3.45 depicts a horizontal wye-pipe. Water enters at section 1 Q 2 , D2
Q 3 , D3
with a flow Q1 = 60 L/s and pressure p1 = 35 kPa. If D1 = D2 3
2
=15 cm, D3 = 7.5 cm, and Q2 = 40 L/s, determine the force
exerted by water on the pipe.
Solution 30°
i- Continuity Equation
1 p1 = 35 kPa
Q1 , D1
- Between 1 and 2
p2 A 2
p3 A 3
v2 v3
FX
CV
Fy
- Between 1 and 3
v1
p1 A 1
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
93
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
( )
b- in y-direction
( ⃗ ⃗ ) ( ⃗ )
( ) ( ) ( )
√
F
Fy
( )
FX
F : is the force exerted by surface on water.
F : is the force exerted by water on surface, same magnitude and opposite direction.
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
94
Example 3-20
For the flow of water over the spillway
shown in Fig. 3.47 determine the thrust of
water per meter length of the spillway.
Solution
16 m
For the control volume bounded by 1, A
Water
and 2, B and L =1m, Fig. 3.48
Spillway
i- Continuity Equation
1m
v1
16 m
CV F
F1
v2
Spillway 2
F2 1m
w A B w
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
95
Solving (1) and (2) yields v1 = 1.074 m/s, v2 = 17.19 m/s
⃗ ⃗
Example 3-21
A vertical sluice gate spans a rectangular
channel. When the gate is raised by 0.3 m
above the floor, the upstream depth is 3m,
Water
Cc=0.6. Determine the horizontal force Sluice gate
exerted by water per meter length of the
sluice gate. Fig. 3.49. 3m
0.3 m
i- Continuity Equation
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
96
v1
2
2g TEL
1
Sluice gate
Water
v22
v1 F 2g
y1 = 3 m
F1 CV
v2
0.3 m 2
F2 y2
w A B y 2 w
⁄
FWater F gate
iii- Momentum Equation
⃗ ⃗
Pressure distribution
on sluice gate
(Fgate)
PROBLEMS D 3 = 6 cm
exit flow rate Q4 = 33.33 L/s. Find (a) v1, (b) v3, and
(c) v4 if it is known that increasing Q3 by 20 percent D 2 = 5 cm
would increase Q4 by 10 percent. (Ans. v1 =5.45 m/s,
v3=5.9 m/s, v4=5.24 m/s)
D1 = 4 cm
(Ans. ⁄( ) ⁄ )
x
3-3 A jet of water discharges into an open tank at a rate Q 1 = 17.5 L/s
level.
(Ans. Qo =14.5 L/s, dh/dt = 1.6 mm/s)
Q 2 = 3 L/s
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
98
Water
3-7 Water is discharged from a dam through 10 cm diameter pipe, as shown in the figure. Determine the
discharge through the pipe and the pressure at A in the pipe
a- with the nozzle
b- without the nozzle.
What is the power available from the jet in the two cases?
(Ans. (a) Q = 32.5 L/s, pA = 69.9 kPa, P = 4461 W )
Water
8m Dam Pipe 10 cm Dia.
6m Nozzle 5 cm
v
2
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
99
3-8 Determine the discharge of water through the Dia. = 15 cm Dia. = 7.5 cm
nozzle shown in the figure.
2 s
(Ans. Q = 241 L/s) 1
75 cm
SHg=13.6
20 cm Oil
(S=0.85)
20 cm
SHg=13.6
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
100
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A conduit is any pipe, tube, or duct that is completely filled with a flowing fluid. Examples include
a pipeline transporting water or liquefied natural gas, and a duct transporting air for heating of a
building. A pipe that is partially filled with a flowing fluid, for example a drainage pipe, is classified as
an open-channel flow and will be analyzed separately.
In ideal fluid flow there is no energy loss because shear stress is not considered. In reality there is
no existence of ideal (or inviscid) fluid. In real (or technically viscous or viscid) fluid flow energy loss
takes place because shear stress is considered. The main goal of this chapter is to describe how to predict
head loss
Energy at Sec.1 + Energy added - Energy deleted = Energy at Sec.2 + Energy lost
( ) ( )
Where
Hp is the head added by pump (energy added per unit weight), [L]
Ht is the head deleted by turbine or fluid motors (energy deleted per unit weight), [L]
hL is the head losses (the summation of hf, major losses due to friction, and hm, minor losses due to
fittings fixed on conduits, inlets, outlets, and valves), [L]
the other terms were predefined in section 3.9
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
101
Where
f: friction factor
D: internal diameter of pipe
L: length of pipe
K: minor loss coefficient
Total en hL
ergy line
(TEL)
2 v22
v 1
2g
2g )
e line (HGL
yd r a ulic grad
H
p2
p1
2
Flow
z2
z1 1
Arbitrary datum (z=0)
Example 4-1
A pipe 200 m long shown in Fig. 4.2 carries 100 L/s of oil (S=0.85). Determine the velocities at the two ends and
the pressure at end 2 assuming head losses hL=1 m.
Solution
⁄ ⁄
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
102
50 kPa
200 m long
G=?
Q=100 L/s
D 1 = 80 cm
z1 = 1 m
D 2 = 40 cm
z 2= 0
Fig. 4.2 Ex. 4-1
⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
v- Energy Equation
Note:
p2 > p1 indicates that flow can take place from a section of lower pressure head to a section of higher
pressure head. It is the total energy E which governs the flow direction, i.e. E1> E2 for flow from 1 to 2.
2
v1 2g =0.002 m TEL h L =1m
2
v2 2g =0.032 m
HGL
p1
=5.996 m
p2
50 kPa
=6.966 m
58.09 kPa
z 1 =2 m Q=100 L/s
z 2 =0
Fig. 4.3 Ex. 4-1
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
103
Example 4-2
Water has to be conveyed at a rate Q=220 L/s from tank A to tank B through the pipe line as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Assume constant friction factor f=0.012, determine the required power of the pump having an efficiency of 80%.
Level = 249 m
B
K=0.35 K=0.5
Tank B
Level = 220 m
A
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point 1 and 2, point 1 is the datum
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
104
TEL
h f 2 +h m 2 elbows
HGL
2
v2 2g Exit loss
Hp
Entrance loss
h f 1 +h mvalve
2
v1 2g
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
105
Example 4-3
What power can be developed by the turbine shown in Fig. 4.6 if the turbine efficiency is 85%? Assume that f
=0.015 for the two pipes and neglect the minor losses.
Elev. 93 m
A
Reservoir
Dam Elev. 50 m
B
L1=50m, D1=30cm L 2 =20m, D 2 =60cm
water
3
Q=0.28 m /s
Turbine
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point A and B, point B is the datum
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
106
TEL h f1
2
v1 2g HGL
Ht
Reservoir h f2
v22 2g
water
suction pipe discharge pipe
Turbine
Fig. 4.7 Ex. 4-3 (TEL and HGL)
Dye
Laminar
Q = vA Transitional
water
D
Turbulent
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.8 Reynolds’ experiments
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
107
Based on Reynolds’ experiments, engineers use guidelines to establish whether or not flow in a conduit
will be laminar or turbulent. The guidelines used in this text are as follows:
Where D is the pipe diameter, are the density, dynamic viscosity, and velocity of the fluid,
respectively
The friction relation depends on the state of flow, which is classified according to the Renolds number.
For laminar flow (Re <2000), the friction factor is a function of the Renolds number only.
In the critical region of Re between 2000 and 4000 (transitional flow) the flow alternates between
laminar and turbulent flow. Any friction factor relation cannot be applied with certainty in this region.
In turbulent regime, the friction factor is a function of the Renolds number as well as the relative
roughness of the pipe surface. During 1932 and 1933, Nikuradse published the results of now
famous experiments on smooth (uncoated) and rough pipes coated with sand grains of uniform size. In
contrast to the Nikuradse sand roughness, the roughness of the commercial pipe is not uniform, it is
given in equivalent sand roughness. Table 4.1indicates equivalent roughness, , for pipe of different
material.
Prandtl and von Karaman established the following equations for smooth and fully rough pipes of. For
smooth pipe in a turbulent regime:
( )
√ √
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
108
For fully rough pipes in a turbulent regime:
⁄
( )
√
In 1939, Colebrook and White established the following equation which covers the entire turbulent
regime:
⁄
( )
√ √
In 1976, Jain has suggested the following explicit equation for the entire turbulent regime, which gives
results within 1% of the Colebrook - White equation:
⁄
( )
√
From the implicit relations of Prandtl and von Karaman and Colebrook – White, Moody (1944) prepared
a diagram between the friction factor versus the Renolds number and the relative roughness as shown in
Fig. 4.9.
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
109
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
110
The turbulent flow is classified in three categories as follows:
i- Flow in smooth pipe, where the relative roughness is very small. Curve in Fig. 4.10a.
ii- Flow in fully rough pipe. Zone illustrated in Fig. 4.10b.
iii- Flow in partially rough pipe where both the relative roughness and viscosity are significant. It is
transitional zone from smooth to rough pipes. Zone illustrated in Fig. 4.10c.
smooth pipes
Summary:
a- Friction factor for laminar can be found from Eq. 4.7 or from Moody diagram.
b- Friction factor for turbulent flow can be found in three ways:
i- Graphical solution: Moody Diagram, Fig. 4.9.
ii- Implicit equation : Colebrook-White formula, Eq. 4.10.
iii- Explicit equation: Jain formula, Eq. 4.11.
Example 4-4
Determine the head loss due to friction for water flowing at 20oC at a rate of 2.8 L/s in a new cast iron
pipe of diameter 5cm and length 10m.
Solution
(Type I problem)
⁄ ⁄
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⁄
⁄
f = 0.032 /D=0.0048
Re=7.125 10 4
Since R>4000, turbulent flow. From table, = 0.24 mm
relative roughness ⁄ ⁄
from Moody diagram f = 0.032
⁄
( )
√
( )
√
⁄
( )
√ √
( )
√ √
An iterative procedure to obtain f can be done as follows. We assume a value of ( f =0.02, for example),
substitute in the right- hand side of Eq. (1) and calculate a new f from the left- hand side of Eq. (1)
( f = 0.0316 in this case). Since the two value do not agree, the assumed value is not the solution. Hence,
we try again. This time we assume f = 0.0316 (the last value calculated) and calculate a new value as
f =0.0313. One more iteration shows that the assumed and the calculated values converge to the solution:
f =0.0313.
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Example 4-5
Water flows at a rate 0.020 m3/s from reservoir A to reservoir B through a smooth pipe (PVC) as shown
in Fig. 4.11. Find the difference in water surfaces elevation in the reservoirs, H, neglecting minor losses.
Assume ⁄ .
Reservoir
A H
PVC
p ipe, L
=500 b
0m, 3
00 m
m Di
a.
Reservoir
B
Solution
smooth pipe
f = 0.0185
Re=8.49 10 4
( )
√
( )
√ TEL 2
v1 2g
HGL
Applying the energy Eq. between point a and b, point b is the datum
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Example 4-6
Solve example 4-5 with flow rate Q=0.4 L/s
Solution
Q=0.0004 m3/s
Re=1698
Example 4-7
A swimming pool of 8 m length, 4 m width, and 2.5 m depth is to be filled from a garden hose (smooth
interior) of length 30 m and diameter 2 cm diameter, Fig. 4.13. If the pressure at the faucet is 1 bar, how
long will it take to fill the pool? Water exits the hose as a free jet at the same elevation of the faucet.
Assume ⁄ .
1 Dia. 2
, 2cm
L=30m
swimming pool
8 4 2.5m
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point 1 and 2
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v1 = v2 = v, z1 = z2 = 0, p2 = 0
( )
√
Using trial and error method to solve Eqs. (1) and (2) as follows:
-Assume f =.02, from Eq. (1) v = 2.557 m/s, from Eq. (2) Re = 51147, from Eq. (3)
-Assume f =.0206, from Eq. (1) v = 2.518 m/s, from Eq. (2) Re = 50351, from Eq. (3)
⁄ ⁄
Note that, alternatively, f can be determined using trial and error method using Moody diagram from
-Assume f =.02, from (1) v = 2.557 m/s, from (2) Re = 51147, from Moody diagram
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
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-Assume f =.0206, from (1) v = 2.518 m/s, from (2) Re = 50351, from Moody diagram
Example 4-8
Water flows at a rate 1.0 m3/s from reservoir A to reservoir B through a rough concrete pipe ( =3mm)
as shown in Fig. 4.14. Determine the pipe diameter if the difference in water surfaces elevation in the
reservoirs is 10 m and the pipe length is 1000 m. Neglect minor losses. Assume ⁄ .
Reservoir
A 10 m
=3m
m, L
=100 2
0m,
D=
?
Reservoir
B
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point 1 and 2
( )
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⁄
( )
√
( )
√
Using trial and error method to solve Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) as follows:
-Assume f =0.02, from Eq. (1) D = 0.698 m, from Eq. (2) Re = 1.63×106, from Eq. (3)
-Assume f =.029, from Eq. (1) D = 0.752 m, from Eq. (2) Re = 1.51×106, from Eq. (3)
-Assume f =.0285, from Eq. (1) D = 0.749 m, from Eq. (2) Re =1.518×106, from Eq. (3)
, and D = 0.749 m
⁄ ⁄
Note that, alternatively, f can be determined using trial and error method using Moody diagram.
where
Dh = hydraulic diameter
A = cross-sectional flow area
P = wetted perimeter
Example 4-9
Air at a temperature of 45oC ⁄ flows
from a furnace through an 20-cm-diameter pipe with an average
velocity of 3 m/s. It then passes through a transition section and 20 cm a
into a square duct whose side of length a. The pipe and duct
surfaces are smooth ( =0). Determine the duct size, a, if the head
loss per meter is to be the same for the pipe and the duct. (1) (2)
Solution
For circular pipe:
⁄
( )
√
( )
√
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From continuity
⁄
⁄
(Type III problem). We have three unknowns (a, f, and Re) and three equations (3), (4), and (5). Using
trial and error method to solve these equations as follows:
-Assume f =0.023, from Eq. (3) a = 0.181 m, from Eq. (4) Re = 29845, from Eq. (5)
, and a = 0.181 m
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4.6 Hazen=Williams Equation for Fiction Head Loss
Another common formula for head loss in pipes that has found almost exclusive usage on water supply
engineering is the Hazen-Williams equation:
where
where
A = cross-sectional flow area
P = wetted perimeter
hf = friction head loss
L = length of conduit
( )
Note that for circular pipe ⁄ ⁄ , Eq. (4.15) can be rearranged for circular pipe
as follows:
Two sources of error in the Hazen-Williams equation formula are: (1)the multiplying factor 0.849
should change for different R and S, and (2) the Hazen-Williams coefficient C is considered to be
related to the pipe material only, whereas it must also depend on pipe diameter, velocity, and viscosity
similar to the friction factor of Darcy-Weisbach.
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Example 4-10
Solve Example 4-4 using Hazen-Williams equation.
Solution
From table 4.1 C=130
( )
( ) ( )
or
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits