BIOMONITORING KUALITAS

UDARA
Minggu ke-5
Causes?
• The first major human
influence on the
environment was perhaps
agriculture, and later the
industrial revolution…
• Many countries have a
legacy of pollution and
polluted sites.
Decline of Veitch’s silver fir and maries fir. Japan
(courtesy of T. Izuta)
Air pollutant
• Point sources

• Non point sources

Why use Biomonitoring
• Due to the relatively rapid movement of air
masses it can be difficult to effectively monitor the
concentrations of toxic contaminants in air to gain
an effective picture of contaminant levels.
• This method is attractive in that it provides
integration over time rather than requiring
expensive operation and maintenance of ambient air
sampling equipment.
• Provide a long term (months - years) integrative
picture of the presence of toxic contaminants in air.
Limitation
• Potential disadvantage of being biased by local
sources
• Cannot provide any information on the nature of
short term peaks,
• Potentially suffers for confounding effects due to
differing absorption rates due to undetermined
factors.
Description
• 1. A fungus, usually of the class Ascomycetes,
that grows symbiotically with algae, resulting
in a composite organism that characteristically
forms a crustlike or branching growth on rocks
or tree trunks.
• 2. Pathology Any of various skin diseases
characterized by patchy eruptions of small, firm
papules.
Definition
• A lichen is a symbiotic association between an alga and a fungus – in
other words, each lichen is not one organism but two. Lichens grow
very slowly, usually as encrustations on rocks, walls, or wood.
• They are found throughout the world but are unable to survive
where the atmosphere is polluted, so they are good indicators of
clean air.
lichen

• Some lichens are edible, for example, reindeer moss and Iceland
moss; others are a source of colour dyes, such as litmus, or are used
in medicine. They are sensitive to pollution in the air .
BIOINDICATORS
• Bioindicator organisms are those that can
be used to identify and quantify the effects
of pollutants on the environment.

• Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between an

alga and fungus and are particularly sensitive to
air pollutants and have been used widely used as
bioindicators of air quality (Conti and Cecchetti,
2001)
• Honey bees have been used as a bioindicator for
the contamination of the atmosphere by heavy
metals (cadmium, chromium, and lead).
 Air pollutant
Gas, particle, aerosol, solute
Stomatal flux/uptake/
Non-stomatal flux/
deposition
uptake/deposition

Direct
External plant
surfaces

Indirect
Soil
 Pollutant Impact mode Impact Scale
Ozone (O3) Direct (stomates) Visible injury, growth & yield reductions, Regional
chemical quality
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)Direct (stomates & * Visible injury, growth & yield reductions Local
cuticle)

Indirect Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions) Regional

Nitrogen oxides Direct (stomates) * Growth & yield reductions Local
(NOx)
Indirect Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions) Regional
Hydrogen Fluorides Direct (stomates & Visible injury, growth & yield reductions. Local
(HF) cuticle) Fluorosis in grazing animals

Suspended Direct **Phytotoxicity, abrasive action, reduced light Local /

Particulate Matter transmission, occlusion of stomates Regional
(SPM)

* At low concentrations can stimulate growth via fertilization effect

** Dependant upon chemical composition of particles

lisa.emberson@sei.se
 Air Quality Biomonitoring
• The international ports
of entry in the El Paso,
TX/Ciudad Juarez,
Mexico border region
are a significant source
of air pollutants due to
a high vehicular traffic

• Jason G. Parsons, Tenoch Benitez, Jose R. Peralta-Videa, Alejandro

Martinez, Rafael Corral, Roberto Hurtado, and Jorge Gardea-Torresdey
• The Department of Chemistry at the University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso
TX, 79968
Chelating Agents

• Chemical compounds
which create
complexes with
heavy metals,
therefore increasing
their bioavailability
for living organisms
to consume (e.g.
plants).
Methodology
Methodology
• Tumbleweed seeds
were collected around
El Paso, TX from a
site that does not
have any previous
report on metal
contamination.
• Seeds sown in black
plastic bags
 Experiment Setting

• Three month old plants were

misted with the chelating agents
and placed at the bridges over a
four week period.
Sample processing

• The aerial portion of

the plants were then
collect, dried and
weighed.
• The weighed samples
were microwave
digested using the
EPA method 3051.
Element determination
• The samples
were analyzed for
elemental content
using a Perkin Elmer
Elan DRCII ICP-MS
Metal Uptake in Tumbleweed plants
without chelating agents
Metal content in shoots of plants treated with
0.1 M EDTA and 0.1 M Citrate

EDTA Citrate
Metal content in shoots of plants treated with
0.5 M EDTA and 0.5 M Citrate

EDTA Citrate
Metal content in shoots of plants treated with
1.0 M EDTA and 1.0 M Citrate

EDTA Citrate
Conclusions
• The concentrations of metals deposited in plant
shoots appeared to be related to the relative
amounts of traffic at each of the sampling sites
(higher at Zaragoza and lower at Santa Teresa).
• There were no effects of the concentration of
chelating agents upon the accumulation of
metals on tumbleweed shoots.
• The data showed that Tumbleweed plants have
the capability to be used for the biomonitoring of
heavy metals from polluted air.
Ozone biomonitoring
Understanding the Ozone
Indicator

• Why do we care about ozone and forest health?

• What is biomonitoring?
• Why is it important? Who uses the data?
• What are the field procedures?
• How is the data summarized and reported?
 Ozone Injures
Trees

Ponderosa pine stand Paul Miller and crew

1. More than 35 tree species have
been identified as ozone sensitive
based on foliar injury symptoms.

Ponderosa pine - CA
2. In the field, symptoms are
prevalent both on young trees and in
the canopies of mature trees.

ozone sensitive black cherry in Vermont

3. Ozone can affect the genetic base
of sensitive species through the
elimination of sensitive clones and
hypersensitive genotypes.

ozone sensitive aspen clone

 4. Ozone can reduce carbon fixation,
increase foliar and root respiration,
shift the partitioning of carbon into
different chemical forms and disrupt
carbon and nutrient allocation
patterns.

Full crown on black cherry and, same tree, showing ozone-induced

premature defoliation later on in the growing season (Pennsylvania).
5. Small decreases in net photosynthesis
or other growth-related processes
compounded over the long life span of
a tree may produce significant growth
reductions or translate into large
changes in stand dynamics, even if
effects go undetected in the short-term
due to the inherent complexity and
variability of natural systems.
6. In the mixed conifer type in southern
California, the elimination of ozone sensitive
pines has led to an increase in ozone tolerant
species characterized by thinner bark and
branches close to the ground. This, in
turn, presents a fuel ladder situation that
jeopardizes the residual stand in the event of
a catastrophic fire.

Tree →→→ ecosystem effect

What is Biomonitoring?
Ozone sensitive plants (bioindicators) act as detectors of ozone pollution.
Detection is based on a visible foliar response that is produced as ozone enters
plant leaves through open stomates during the normal process of gas exchange.
Once inside the leaf, ozone changes membrane permeability leading to cell death
and the appearance of characteristic symptoms on the leaf surface.

Chlorotic mottle on ponderosa pine; classic ozone

stipple on sassafras; and premature fall coloration on
sweetgum.
 Bioindication
Ozone bioindicators provide evidence of
plant stress. They tell us not only that ozone
concentrations were elevated for a particular
time and place, but also that other necessary
conditions for ozone uptake and injury (e.g.,
adequate light, nutrition, and moisture) were
also present.

In this context, the foliar response of ozone bioindicator

plants is used to determine the presence or absence of
ozone injury conditions on the biomonitoring plots.
 Biomonitoring
A quantitative assessment of bioindicator response is
provided by the plot-level ozone injury index (biosite
index). The index is formulated from the injury amount
and severity ratings recorded for each plant and the
numbers of plants and species evaluated at each site.

The biosite index is not intended to be

used as a measurement of harm. Rather,
it provides a relative value, a gradation
of response that quantifies the degree of
ozone injury conditions on the biomonitoring plots.
 Biomonitoring and Forest Health Assessment

1. Are phytotoxic concentrations of ozone

present in the forest ecosystem?
2. Is regional air quality (specifically
ozone pollution) changing over time? If
so, is it increasing or decreasing?
3. In what percentage of a region or
forest type are ozone bioindicator plants
indicating the possibility of air pollution
impacts on forest growth and condition?
 What are the field
procedures?
Step 1: The field crew selects a suitable site for
biomonitoring.
• Biomonitoring plots are wide open areas, at
least 1 acre in size, alongside forested areas.
• Biomonitoring plots must contain at least
30 individual plants of at least 2 bioindicator
species.
Step 2: The location of the biomonitoring site is
mapped, geographic coordinates are recorded,
and standard codes are used to describe plot size,
elevation, terrain position, aspect, soil drainage, soil
depth and disturbance.

western biomonitoring site

Step 3: The field crew identifies 3 or more
known ozone sensitive species at the site for
injury evaluations.
Plant locations are mapped (approximately)
so that the same population of plants is
evaluated at every plot visit.

eastern biomonitoring sites

 Step 4: Thirty individual plants of each species are rated for the
percent of the plant that is injured and the average severity of injury
on a 5-point scale.

Code Scale
0 No injury
1 1-6%
2 7-25%
3 26-50%
4 51-75%
Ref.: Horsfall and Barratt. An improved grading system for measuring plant
5 >75%
disease.
Step 5. The field crew collects a voucher sample (pressed
leaves with ozone injury symptoms) for each injured
species and returns it to the regional expert for validation
of the ozone injury symptom.
Step 6. The same sites and the same
approximate population of plants are
evaluated every year.
 What happens to the biomonitoring
data?
The goal is to provide a biological index of ozone stress in the
forest environment using a consistent protocol on a nation-wide
system of biomonitoring plots.
Results from the national grid are used to quantify regional trends
in ozone stress in terms of significant changes in the number
and distribution of biomonitoring plots with ozone injury and
increases and decreases in the injury severity index.
The index will be used to create a spatial response surface such
that index values can be predicted for all P2 and P3 plot locations.
 Reporting

We report on regional and national

trends in ozone injury to plants.
We predict where ozone injury will
occur.
We identify problem areas where
growth effects studies are warranted.
South Carolina: Relationship between ozone exposures
and ozone biomonitoring plots. [Draft Image]
Source: Teague Prichard – WI DNR
 South Carolina [draft]

Examples of summary statistics for the ozone indicator

FIA analysts should use
consecutive 5-year periods
with variable ozone levels,
weather, wind flow, and
precipitation patterns to
examine regional trends in
ozone air quality over the
long-term.
 Core Figure: Ozone Biomonitoring Index

Biosite Value Bioindicator response Assumption of risk Relative air

quality
0 to 4.9 Little or no foliar injury None Good
5.0 to 14.9 Light to moderate foliar injury Low Moderate
15.0 to 24.9 Moderate to sever foliar injury Moderate Unhealthy for
sensitive species
 Notes on the Core Figure

Plot-level biosite values are averaged over a 5-year sampling period and then
kriging procedures are used to interpolate a surface of biological response
(i.e., ozone stress) across the landscape.
The biosite index is classified into 4 response categories that are used to define
and describe (1) injury severity (2) possible impact (i.e., risk) (3) ozone
relative air quality
Reporting: A national map is generated and States or Regions can excerpt the
image they want for reporting purposes.
Linking variables: The interpolated ozone data allows analysts to generate a
predicted biosite index value for all P2 and P3 ground plots so that the ozone
data can be related directly to tree growth and other FIA indicators of tree
condition.
 Study objective: To identify forest tree
species likely to exhibit regional scale
ozone impacts. The spatial distribution of
probable ozone injury was related to the
spatial distribution of forest tree species
in the study area.

Results indicated 4 tree species at risk:

black cherry, loblolly pine, sweetgum and
serviceberry.

Regional assessment of ozone sensitive tree species using

bioindicator plants. John W. Coulston, Gretchen C. Smith, and
William D. Smith.