MODULE 3 (Stewart, Section 10.

3)

POLAR COORDINATES – Continued

r = x2 + y 2 x = r cos θ
y
tan θ = y = r sin θ
x
Graphs of polar equations

We wish to plot a polar equation of the form r = f (θ), where the right hand side is a
function of sin nθ or cos nθ for n=1,2,3 . . . . Rather than plotting many points for different
θ’s, we will outline a much better method to plot simple polar equations: We first explain
the method and then try it on the following four examples:

r = cos θ

r = sin 2θ
r = cos 3θ
r = 1 + 2 sin 2θ
However, before beginning the plot, we must explain a peculiar convention.

In polar equations and inequalities, r is permitted to be negative – as we will
see in the

examples – even though negative r does not make a lot of sense, since r = x2 + y 2 is
always positive. Here is the convention: if, for a particular value of θ, r is negative, then
the point to be plotted is rotated 180 degrees. For example, if, for θ = π/6, r = −2, then
this really means r = 2 but at the angle θ = π/6 + π = 7π/6. This convention is usually
followed only in equations and inequalities. It would be very abnormal, for example, to
refer to the Cartesian point (x, y) = (1, 0) as r = −1 with θ = π.

Now for the plotting of a polar equation of the form r = f (θ):

If the right hand side of the equation for r contains sin θ, we place the values of sin θ
at the ends of the axes: 0 at the end of the positive x-axis (since sin 0 = 0), 1 at the
end of the positive y-axis, then 0 and −1 at the ends of the negative axes. Likewise,
1,0,−1,0 would be written on the axes if the equation contained cos θ (going around
counter-clockwise, of course, since this is the direction of increasing θ, and beginning
with 1 since cos 0 = 1). If, on the other hand, the equation contained sin 2θ or cos 2θ,
then then we first draw dotted half-axes at 45 degrees in each quadrant, and label all
the axes with the value of the trig function, 0,1,0,−1,0,1,0,−1 on the axes in the case of
sin 2θ and 1,0,−1,0,1,0,−1,0 in the case of cos 2θ. Having the values of the trig functions
already on the graph at the correct angles makes it much easier to evaluate r as we
sweep around the origin. You can see these axes and labelings on the graphs of FIG
1 and FIG 2 on the next pages. If you have understood our system, then you should
 realize that if r is a function of sin 3θ or cos 3θ, then we would draw dotted half-axes
every 30 degrees and label them as in the graphs of FIG. 3.

Placing a pencil on the positive x-axis with the eraser, say, at the origin, slowly rotate
the pencil about the origin in a counterclockwise direction (ie., beginning at θ = 0
and rotating in the increasing θ direction). As it rotates, trace with your finger the
magnitude of r along the pencil according to the polar equation, ignoring any angles
where r comes out to be negative. When you have rotated the full 360 degrees, your
finger should have traced out (a part of) the graph. If you can not recall the path of
your finger, you should try it with a second pencil rather than your finger.

Now here is the hard part. Repeat the procedure, beginning again at θ = 0 and rotating
360 degrees. However, this time you must fill in only the points for r negative. To do
this you will need a vivid imagination. As you rotate the pencil, you will imagine it
has an (invisible, admittedly) extension sticking out past the eraser into the opposite
quadrants. As you rotate the pencil and read off the negative values for r, your finger
(or second pencil) will have to trace out the absolute value of r, but along the imaginary
extension of the real pencil. This will accomplish the required 180 degree rotation of θ
which is inferred from the negative value of r.

Example 1: r = cos θ

First we label the axes 1,0,−1,0, since these are the values of cos θ, thereby making it quite
easy to visualize the value of r as we sweep a pencil about the origin. Now, rotate the
pencil from 0 to π/2. We will get an arcing curve in the first quadrant, beginning at 1
on the x-axis and ending up at the origin. Since cos θ is negative in the second and third
quadrants, we will get nothing on this first sweep. Finally, in the fourth quadrant, we will
see that cos θ, and therefore r, begins at the origin, arcs through the fourth quadrant, and
meets up with the beginning of the curve at θ = 2π. (See FIG. 1(a)) The result will be a
lobe in the fourth and first quadrants. It is unlikely that our curve will look exactly like
FIG. 1(a); in fact, it is much more likely that we will have some sort of tear-shaped lobe,
r
cosΘ, r0 r
cosΘ, r0 r
cosΘ
0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0
FIG. 1
a FIG. 1
b FIG. 1
c

rather than a circle. The sketches we make can not show sufficient detail to distinguish
between a circle and any other lobe shape – although Mathematica (which drew these
graphs) can, of course.

Next we sweep around looking for negative values of r. From the labeling of the axes, we
see immediately that these are all the angles of the second and third quadrants. As we
sweep through these quadrants, we form again a lobe, but it is not in these quadrants. It
is forming along the imaginary extension of our pencil into the fourth and first quadrants.
That is to say, we are getting an exact copy of the lobe formed during the positive r sweep.
(See FIG. 1(b))

Finally, we combine these to get just the one lobe – a circle, actually, centered in this case
about the Cartesian point ( 12 , 0). (See FIG. 1(c))

Example 2: r = sin 2θ

First we will draw dotted half-axes every 45 degrees, since 2θ will have gone through a full
90 degrees when θ changes by 45 degrees, and we will label these and the principle axes
with the values of sin 2θ (See the graphs in FIG. 2). Now rotate a pencil from 0 degrees
to 45 degrees. Because r = sin 2θ and 2θ will have gone from 0 to π/2, r will go from 0
all the way to 1. Now rotate from 45 degrees to 90 degrees. Since 2θ will go from π/2
to π, r will go from 1 back to 0. Your finger (or second pencil) should have tracked out
a path in the shape of a single lobe, all in the first quadrant. Now as you rotate from 90
degrees to 180 degrees, 2θ will go from π to 2π. But this is the domain on which the sine
function is negative (which is easy to notice, since you will be swinging by axes labeled 0,
then −1, then 0), so for now you will trace nothing in the second quadrant. Continuing in
this fashion, you should end up with another single lobe in the third quadrant and nothing
else. (See FIG. 2(a).)
r
sin2Θ, r0 r
sin2Θ, r0 r
sin2Θ
0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
FIG. 2
a FIG. 2
b FIG. 2
c

Next repeat this process, checking for negative values of r. Of course, these will occur for
θ in the second and fourth quadrant only. However, note that when you rotate through
the second quadrant, the graph will form a lobe in the fourth quadrant (and nothing in
the second quadrant) since your finger or pencil is tracing on the imaginary extension of
the rotating pencil. Likewise, when the pencil rotates through the fourth quadrant, the
graph will actually be a lobe forming in the second quadrant. (See FIG. 2(b), keeping in
mind that the lobe in quadrant 2 was formed when the pencil was traveling through 4th
quadrant angles, and similarly for the other lobe.)

Finally the graphs are combined in FIG. 2(c). This graph of r = sin 2θ is called a four-leaf
rose.

Example 3: r = cos 3θ

First we draw dotted half-axes every 30 degrees, and label them with the values of cos 3θ.
(See this on the graphs of FIG. 3) Then we sweep around, tracing out r for all the angles
where r, that is to say, cos 3θ, is positive, namely from −π/6 to π/6, from π/2 to 5π/6,
and from 7π/6 to 3π/2. Again, these angles are easy to spot, as well as the corresponding
magnitude of r, because we have labeled cos 3θ at its important angles. We easily obtain
three lobes. (See FIG. 3(a))

Next we repeat the process for the angles at which r will be negative. The first of these
regions is for θ between π/6 and π/2. In FIG 3(b) we indicate the result of this sweep in
the first quadrant only. Note that we do not get a lobe at these angles. Rather, the lobe
appears 180 degrees away, in the third quadrant, where it can easily be sketched by using
the imaginary extension of our pencil. In FIG. 3(b) we have drawn just this part of the
plot, so one can see how the lobe appears in the third quadrant, although θ is actually
in the first quadrant. Consequently, it just happens to fall precisely on top of a lobe we
already have (from considering r positive). As we continue around with the remainder of
the r-negative sweep, we will pick up two additional lobes, but these will also fall precisely
on top of lobes we already have. Therefore, the final result is FIG. 3(c), ie., nothing more
than what we already had in FIG. 3(a).
r
cos3Θ, r0 r
cos3Θ, r0 r
cos3Θ
0 Π Π 0
for   Θ  
1 1 6 2 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
FIG. 3
a FIG. 3
b FIG. 3
c

Example 4: r = 1 + 2 sin 2θ

We conclude these examples with a more difficult example. Because of the sin 2θ, we begin
by drawing axes at 45 degrees and labeling them with the values of sin 2θ. You can see
these in the FIG 4 graphs by looking carefully – these graphs have been compressed because
r ranges out in this example to a maximum magnitude of 3. Now a special difficulty arises
in this example. By looking at the equation for r, we see that r is positive when sin 2θ is
greater than − 12 , and becomes zero not at the location of any of our axes. That is to say,
r is zero at an angle somewhere between axes labeled 0 and axes labeled −1. How do I
know this? Because if sin 2θ = 0, then r = 1 and if sin 2θ = −1, then r = −1. Since I need
to know when to start and stop my sweeps (ie, when r is passing through zero), I draw a
solid dark half-axis somewhere roughly midway between any pair of axes labeled 0 and −1.
There are 4 of these, as you can see in FIG. 4(a). Now, when I do my positive r sweep, I
know to stop at these lines, and make r approach zero as I approach the lines. You can see
that I have plotted r in just this way in FIG 4(a), quickly computing the exact values of
r as I pass the standard solid and dotted axes, ie, 1 at θ = 0, 3 at θ = π/4, 1 at θ = π/2,
etc. In this manner, I get the two large lobes of FIG 4(a).
r
12sin2Θ, r0 r
12sin2Θ, r0 r
12sin2Θ
0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0
FIG. 4
a FIG. 4
b FIG. 4
c

Next, I travel inside the solid dark half-axes to pick up the negative values of r, thereby
obtaining FIG. 4(b), and remembering that the lobes in FIG. 4(b) actually result from the
θ’s in the opposite quadrants. Finally, the graph of the equation is given in FIG 4(c).

** IMPORTANT: This is not the only way negative r arises. In the equation r2 = 1+sin θ,
2
√ is r , you will still
the right hand side is never negative.√However, since the left hand side
have to check twice, once for r = + 1 + sin θ and once for r = − 1 + sin θ. BEWARE
that r2 = negative number has no solutions at all, because there is no convention which
allows for imaginary r. In summary, r = negative has one solution, but shifted by 180
degrees; r2 = positive has two solutions, one for positive r, and one for negative (shifted
180 degrees); r2 = negative has no solutions. **

Here are some important equations. You should understand how to OBTAIN their graphs
– not just memorize them.

Ex: r = a (circle about the origin)


r = a cos θ
Ex: (circle adjacent to the origin)
r = a sin θ
 
r = a cos 2θ
Ex: (4-leaf rose)
r = a sin 2θ

Ex: θ = a (line through the origin)


r = a ± a cos θ
Ex: (cardioid)
r = a ± a sin θ

r2 = a cos 2θ
Ex: (lemniscate)
r2 = a sin 2θ

Ex: r = aθ (spiral)

NOTE: In general, if a range for θ is not specified, a polar equation should be graphed as
a function of θ until the graph starts repeating itself. In most standard polar equations
this means that 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π unless otherwise stated. There is, however, one outstanding
exception: in the spiral r = aθ it is usually assumed that 0 ≤ θ < ∞ even when not
explicitly stated. Of course, a may be negative, but θ is still taken as positive (in which
case r will be negative – so the spiral will appear rotated by 180 degrees),

** Take care that some polar equations may specify only a limited range for θ, for example,
π/2 < θ < 3π/2. Beware: this is sometimes the case in the Quiz. **
π
Challenge Example: Graph r = cos 2θ, <θ<π
2
Graph this yourself, being careful where r is negative. The correct answer is given at the
end of the Module, after the Quiz Prep, but try to do it yourself before looking. If you get
it right, you are ready for this part of the quiz.

Graphs of polar inequalities

** The trick is to trace out the region for r > 0 first and then for r < 0. The hard part is
that the r < 0 region is rotated 180 degrees from where it should be, so to speak. **

Ex: 1 ≤ r ≤ 3

. (donut?)
π
Ex: −3 ≤ r ≤ −1, 2 ≤θ≤π

. (quarter donut – but in the fourth quadrant, NOT the second quadrant)
π
Ex: 1 ≤ r2 ≤ 3, 2 ≤θ≤π

. (2 disconnected quarter donuts)

 3π
Ex: −1 ≤ r ≤ 2, 0≤θ≤ 2

. (pie with one quarter shrunk?)

Cartesian form of a polar equation

Substitute. But note: it is often useful to create r cos θ’s, r sin θ’s, out of cos θ’s, sin θ’s

Ex: r = cos θ

. Multiply by r to make cos θ into r cos θ

. =⇒ r2 = r cos θ =⇒ x2 + y 2 = x =⇒ (x − 12 )2 + y 2 = 1
4

1
. (circle of radius 2 about point ( 12 , 0))

1 1
Ex: r = +
r cos θ
. Divide by r to make the cos θ into r cos θ, substitute and simplify with algebra

. x3 + xy 2 − x − x2 − y 2 = 0

Ex: θ = 3
y
. =⇒ tan θ = tan 3 =⇒ = tan 3 =⇒ y = (tan 3)x
x
. (line through origin of slope tan 3)

Polar form of a Cartesian equation

Substitute: Good idea — keep x2 + y 2 together, if you can.

Ex: x2 + y 2 + xy = 1

. r2 + r2 cos θ sin θ = 1 or, neater, r2 + 12 r2 sin 2θ = 1

Ex: y = 3x

. θ = arctan 3

Different polar coordinates of the same point

(r, θ) = (2, π3 ), (2, 7π 5π

3 ), (2, − 3 ) ... all the same point!
QUIZ PREP

1. Converting polar equation to Cartesian equation

Special Alert: Convert r + r sin θ = 1 to Cartesian equations.

You should get x2 + y 2 + y = 1, but this is unlikely to be on the multiple choice list. If
you can not see that this answer is the same as y = 12 − 12 x2 , you need to review algebra.

2. Converting Cartesian equation to polar equation

3. Recognizing graphs of polar equations (with and without θ interval)

Special alert: Graph r = 1 + 2 cos θ.

If you do not get a curve somewhat like a cardioid (heart-shape) lying on its side with an
additional loop inside the heart going through the origin and through the x-axis at x = 1,
you need to review negative r’s.
5π 3π
Special alert: Graph r = cos θ, 6 <θ< 2 .

Even though θ goes from 150 o to 270 o , if you get a curve mostly in the third quadrant
with a small part in the second quadrant, you need to review negative r’s. (The correct
curve has a small part in quadrant 4 and then loops toward the origin in quadrant 1)

4. Graphing polar inequalities

3π
Special alert: Graph −2 < r < −1, 4 < θ < π.

If you get a small section of a donut in the second quadrant, you need to review negative
r’s. (The correct area is in the fourth quadrant, even though θ goes from 135 o to 180 o )

5. Different representations of the same polar point

———————————————————————————————–
π
Challenge Example: r = cos 2θ, <θ<π
2

-1 1

-1