molecular genetics molecular structure and functions of genes

transmission genetics how genes are transmitted from generation to generation &
how genes combine
Gene a region of DNA that codes for a functional RNA or a protein
Gene locus Where a gene is located on a chromosome
prokaryote A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound
organelles
Gregor mendel Foundation of modern genetics 1866, did transmission genetics,
studied pea plant
Experiments of Watson and Crick determined that the structure of DNA was a
double helix based on Franklin's data/pictures with x-ray crystallography
nucleoside base + sugar
constitutive heterochromatin regions of chromatin that are always condensed and
present in all cells at identical positions<div><br></div><div>permanent
heterochromatin</div><div><br></div>
faculative heterochromatin occur during certain developmental stages
LINES 1,000-7000 bp long&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>long interspersed elements
thatare repeated;&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>long tandem repeats (sequence
repeats many times in a row)</div>
topoisomerase prevents super-coiling in DNA replication
Alu family SINE family named for an Alu enzyme in a repeated
sequence&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>repeats every 5,000 bp in primates</div>
Meselson and Stahl experiment Radioactive labeled the Nitrogen in E.coli and then
allowed replication to occur and they determined that one strand had the
radioactive N and the other didn't so this was evidence for semiconservative
replication
helicase "unzips DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between DNA strands
<div><img src=""quizlet-QOdwgZ.6VyZ53WuKpFnq9g_m.jpg""></div> "
ligase "joins okasaki fragments together <div><img src=""quizlet-
Ga19b9COYMHpgrUodvQOnQ_m.png"" /></div> "
bidirectional replication each replication fork moves in opposite directions
initiator protein binds to an origin of replication and unwinds a short stretch of
DNA,&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>allowing helicase and other single-strand-binding
proteins to bind and initiate replication.</div>
rolling circle replication for some <u>virus</u> chromosomes, a <u>circular
double stranded DNA</u> replicates to produce <u>linear DNA</u>
telomerase maintains chromosome lengths by adding telomere repeats to one strand
(the one with the 3' end aka lagging strand)
reverse transcriptase enzyme that makes DNA from RNA template; ex: telomerase
temperature sensitive mutants mutants that function normally until the temp is
raised past a threshhold<div><br></div><div>&nbsp;are used to see how effective
telomeres are</div>
where does DNA pol add nucleotides to the 3' OH end of DNA
prototroph or prototrophic strain strain that can grow on a minimal medium
mutagen agent that induces mutants
pleiotropic has multiple distinct effects
autosome chromosome other than a sex chromosome
genetic counseling advice based on analysis of the probability that patients
have a genetic defect and of the risk that prospective parents may produce a child
with a gene defect
pedigree analysis study of a family tree and careful compilation of phenotype
records of both families over several generations
Cytoplasm intracellular fluid in the cell, where translation happens
6 eukaryotic model organisms&nbsp; budding yeast<br>fruit fly<br>nematode
worm<br>&nbsp;small weed of the mustard family<br>&nbsp;mouse<br>&nbsp;human
Eukaryote "means ""true nucleus"", organisms with cells within which DNA is in
nucleus, unicellular or multicellular"
Population genetics studies heredity in groups of individuals for traits
determined by one gene only<div><br></div><div>field of biology that studies allele
frequencies in populations and how they change over time<br></div>
DNA difference between 2 humans 0.1%
DNA similarity between humans and chimps 98%
Structure of DNA 5 carbon sugar: deoxyribose, phosphate, and nitrogenous base
(AGCT); sugar/phosphate backbone: connected by phosphodiester bonds; bases
connected by hydrogen bonds; antiparallel; C sticking off connected to phosphate is
5` and OH is 3`
3' -OH and 5'-P antiparallel due to polarity of the ends
5'/3' carbons in ribose 5' carbon is sticking off and 3' carbon is on bottom of
ring attached to OH
adenine purine, has 2 hydrogen bonds with thymine, 2 rings
complementary base pairs the specific A-T and G-C pairs; the nucleotide
sequence in one strand dictates the nucleotide sequence of the other
cytosine pyrimidine, 1 ring, 3 hydrogen bonds between G-C
3' end of DNA OH (hydroxyl) group
5' end of DNA phosphate group/ carbon hanging off of ring
nucleoside phosphate aka a nucleotide; consists of a phosphate group, a
nitrogenous base and a 5 carbon sugar
phosphate group PO4, attached to 5' carbon on sugar
polynucleotides many nucleotides bonded together
purines A & G; 2 rings
ribonucleotide a nucleotide with a ribose sugar
ribose 5 carbon sugar with 2 OH
thymine pyrimidine, 2 hydrogen bonds between A-T, 1 ring
uracil in place of thymine in RNA
centromere center of chromosome where mitotic spindle connects during mitosis and
meiosis
C-value the total amount of DNA in the haploid genome of a species
euchromatin decondensed chromatin, available to be transcribed
unique sequence DNA present in one to a few copies in the genome
plasmids a genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the
chromosomes, typically a small circular DNA strand
nucleoid psuedo nucleus region in prokaryotes
differences in eukaryotic &amp; prokaryotic chromosomes eukaryotic chromosomes:
linear, many origins of replications, have introns&nbsp;<div><br>prokaryotic
chromosomes: circular, one origin of replication, smaller genomes, no introns (more
efficient because of this)</div><div><br></div><div>*both double stranded</div>
nucleosomes histones wrapped with chromatin
telomeric DNA the DNA sequences of telomeres
lagging strand, direction 5'-3' going into the fork
leading strand, direction 3'-5' going into the fork
okazaki fragments fragments on lagging strand made from RNA primers being replaced
by DNA
origin of replication the specific region where the DNA double helix denatures
into single strands within which replication commences
replication fork when DNA untwists to expose the two single stranded template
strands for DNA replication, it's the Y-shaped structure
template strands the segments of single strands in the replication bubble on which
the new strands are made
proofreading the ability to check for mutations in 3'-
5'&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>exonuclease activity (they can remove nucleotides from
3' end of chain like a backspace)</div>
RNA primer comprised of: 5-10 RNA nucleotides&nbsp;complementary to the
template,<div><br></div><div>It Provides a 3' end for DNA polymerase to work on and
add new nucleotides&nbsp;</div><div><div><br></div><div>New nucleotides added to
the free 3' end;&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>To clean DNA of gaps and RNA...
the<strong>&nbsp;</strong>RNA primers are removed and replaced with DNA
by&nbsp;<strong>DNA polymerase I.&nbsp;</strong><br></div></div>
semi discontinuous the leading strand is synthesized continuously and the
lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously = semi discontinuous
nutritional mutant mutants that require nutritional supplements to grow
minimal medium medium with the bare minimal to grow things: sucrose, salts and
biotin
complete medium medium containing all the amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, and
vitamins plus minimal medium items
metabolomics the study of all of the small chemicals that are intermediates or
products of metabolic pathways
protein polymer of amino acid chain
carriers "heterozygous ""carrying"" the recessive trait"
amniocentesis a syringe needle is inserted carefully through the mother's
uterine wall and into the amniotic sac to get sample of amniotic fluid to test for
sex and diseases
N-terminus the start of a protein, referring to the amino group of an amino acid
auxotrophic mutants mutant with a nutritional requirement not present in the
wild type organism
beta polypeptide β-peptides consist of β amino acids, which have their amino group
bonded to the β carbon rather than the α carbon
albinism autosomal recessive mutation, produce no melanin
faulty non-enzymatic protein diseases to know sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis
faulty enzymatic protein diseases to know PKU, albinism, tay-sachs
5' capping process of adding guanine nucleotide to the 5' end; involved weird 5'-
5' linkage; present in mature mRNA; protects against degradation
3' modification process of adding adenine nucleotides to the 3' end and makes the
poly (A) tail; no coding DNA here
branch-point sequences where the U2 snRNP binds
to;<div><br></div><div>&nbsp;located upstream of the 3'
junction;&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>involved in mRNA processing</div>
core enzyme form of RNA polymerase that consists of 2 alpha, 1 beta, and 1 beta
prime polypeptide; core enzyme + sigma factor = holoenzyme
DNA dependent RNA polymerase uses a DNA template for the synthesis of an RNA chain
enhancers they modulate transcription from a distance; are required for maximal
transcription of a gene
exons Coding region of a gene that is seperated by
introns;&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>after transcription and posttranscriptional
processing, the exons remain in mRNA.</div>
gene regulatory elements help regulate transcription on each gene
general transcription factors (GTPs) required for transcription of all EU
cells.&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>bind to a promoter site on the DNA with RNA
polermerases, to form the initiation complex requeired for transcription to
begin.</div><div><br></div>
TATA box &nbsp;where transcription begin (transcription machinery assembled here
as well) ;&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>located at -30 in
eukaryotes</div><div>(TATAAAA)</div>
introns must be excised from each pre-mRNA to produce a mature RNA; non-amino
acid-coding sequences;
mRNA splicing when introns in pre-mRNAs are removed and eons are joined in the
nucleus
poly (A) site a site in the RNA transcript that is about 10-30 nucleotides
downstream of the poly (A) consensus sequence AAUAAA<div><br></div><div>**where the
poly A tail is added to Pre-mRNA</div>
poly (A) tail a sequence of about 50-250 adenine nucleotides at the 3' end of
RNA
precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) a transcript that must be modified, processed, or
both to produce the mature, functional mRNA molecule that can be translated to
generate a polypeptide
Pribnow box the consensus sequence for the -10 box in <u>prokaryotes</u>;
<b>TATAAT</b>
promoter-proximal elements upstream from the TATA
box;&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>ex: CAAT (-75) and GC(-90)
box;</div><div><br></div><div>&nbsp;important in determining how and when a gene is
expressed</div>
ribozymes/ RNA enzymes useful experimentally for cleaving RNA molecules at
specific sequences
RNA editing involved the post transcriptional insertion or deletion of nucleotides
or the conversion of one base to another
RNA polymerase catalyzes the process of transcription
RNA polymerase I located in nucleolus; catalyses rRNAs: 28S, 18S, and 5.8S
RNA polymerase II located in nucleoplasm; makes mRNA and some snRNA
RNA polymerase III located in nucleoplasm; <b>makes tRNAs</b>, rRNA 5S, and
snRNA not made by RNA pol II
self-splicing introns RNA intron folds into a secondary structure that promotes
its own excision
small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) small nuclear RNAs associated
with proteins
spliceosome Large complex of several RNAs and many
proteins<div><br></div><div>&nbsp;splices protein-encoding pre-mRNA (occurs within
the spiceosome)</div><div><br></div><div>assempls pre-MRNA</div>
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase an enzyme that attaches an amino acid to a tRNA,
making it charged
anticodon the sequence that pairs with the 3 nucleotide codon sequence in mRNA by
complementary base pairing during translation
chain-terminating codons/stop codons/nonsense codons used to specify the end of
translation of a polypeptide chain
charging the process of aminoacylation (adding amino acid to tRNA)
degeneracy redundancy of the code; more than one codon occurs for each amino acid
initiation factors (IF) bind to small subunit of the ribosome and aid in binding it
to the mRNA
open reading frame (ORF) is the part of a reading frame that has the
<u>potential to be translated</u>; a continuous stretch of codons that d<u>o not
contain a stop codon</u>
peptide bond the bond between amino acids
polypeptides primary structure of protein; string of amino acids
reading frame determines how the mRNA sequence is divided up into codons during
translation; the three base pairs that make up a codon can vary based on start/stop
point
release factors have shapes mimicking a tRNA&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>&nbsp;read
the codons and initiate a series of specific <u>termination events</u></div>
ribosomal proteins protein of the ribosome; essential for protein synthesis
ribosome-binding site (RBS) a sequence of nucleotides upstream of the start
codon(by7) of an mRNA transcript<div><br></div><div>&nbsp;responsible for the
<u>recruitment of a ribosome during the initiation of protein
translation</u></div><div><br></div><div>ex: shine-dalgarno sequence</div>
Shine-Dalgarno sequence example of ribosome binding site in
prokaryotes/bacteria<div><br></div><div>8-12 bp upstream of AUG start site</div>
translocation "process of tRNA moving from A to P to E site in translation in
the large subunit of the
ribosome<div><br></div><div><br></div><div>""APE""</div><div>A- incoming tRNA binds
to mRNA</div><div>P- amnio acid that is here forms a peptide bond with the AA at
the A-site, forming a long AA chain</div><div>E- the tRNA that just gave up its AA
(now empty), exits the ribosome to go restock its AA's</div>"
wobble hypothesis "<u>First and second base</u> in a codon select the Amino
acid.<div><br></div><div>The third base can ""wobble"" meaning, it can be different
and still form the same aminos acid.</div><div><br></div><div>Additionally, when
lining up the anti codons and codons, it doesnt <i>need</i>&nbsp;to match in the
third base. Since it can ""wobble"".</div><div><br></div><div>dont need trna for
every single codon there is, some trna will be flexible and will be able to bind to
more than one codon</div>"
back mutation/reversion/reverse mutation changes a mutant gene at the same site so
that it functions in a completely wild-type or nearly wild-type way
base excision repair a repair glycosylase enzyme removes the damaged base from
the DNA by <u>cleaving the bond between the base and the deoxyribose sugar</u>
base-modifying agents chemicals that act as mutagens by modifying the chemical
structure and properties of bases
base-pair substitution mutation mutation that changes one base pair to another
in DNA&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>there are 2 general types</div>
carcinogens cancer causing
chromosomal mutations changes involving whole chromosomes or sections of them
deamination the removal of an amino group from a base
depurination the loss of a purine from the DNA when the bond hydrolyzes
between the base and the deoxyribose sugar, resulting in an apurinic site
forward mutation changes a wild-type gene to a mutant gene
frameshift mutation Mutation&nbsp;that alters the reading frame of a
gene.<div><br></div><div>add a base in between 2 existing
bases</div><div><br></div><div>can cause <i>multiple</i>&nbsp;changes in the amino
acid</div>
gene mutation mutations which affect the function of genes; can alter the
phenotype
germ-line mutation a mutation in the germ line of sexually reproducing
organisms; may be transmitted by the gametes to the next generation
induced mutations occur when an organism is exposed either deliberately or
accidentally to a physical or chemical agent, known as a mutagen
insertion sequence (IS)/IS element the simplest transposable elements found in
bacteria.&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>an IS element contains only genes required to
mobilize the elements and insert it into a new location in the genome</div>
intercalating agents insert themselves between adjacent bases in one or both
strands of the DNA double helix, causing the helix to relax
mismatch repair Process that corrects mismatched nucleotides in DNA after
replication has been completed.&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>Enzymes excise incorrectly
paired nucleotides from the newly synthesized strand and use the original
nucleotide strand as a template for replacing
them.</div><div><br></div><div>requires the ability to distinguish between newly
synthesized and template strands of DNA<br></div>
missense mutation &nbsp;mutation that causes a change in the base pair (ATCGs)
which &nbsp; Causes a change in an mRNA codon so that a different amino acid is
inserted into the polypeptide
mutagenesis the creation of mutations
mutation the process by which the sequence if base pairs in a DNA molecule is
altered
mutation rate the probability of a particular kind of mutation as a function of
time
neutral mutation a mutation that changes the amino acid in the sequence but it
doesn't change the protein function or folding pattern
silent mutation a mutation that changes the third base pair but doesn't change
the amino acid and doesn't change the function of the protein
nonsense mutation &nbsp;mutation that changes a codon to a stop codon, halting
translation before the protein is done being made
nucleotide excision repair (NER)/ dark repair/excision repair system responsible
for fixing thymine dimers
partial reversion type of reversion mutation; goes from mutant back to wild-type
but not completely
point mutation a change of one or a few base pairs
retrotransposition transposition process
retrotransposons Type of transposable element in eukaryotic
cells&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>&nbsp;possesses some characteristics of
retroviruses&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>&nbsp;transposes through an RNA
intermediate.</div>
retrovirsues single stranded RNA viruses that replicate via double stranded
DNA intermediates
somatic mutation the mutation characteristics affects only the individual in which
the mutation occurs and is not passed on to the next generation
suppressor genes genes that cause the suppression of mutation in other genes
suppressor mutation a mutation at a different site from that of the original
mutation; a suppressor mutation masks or compensates for the effects of the initial
mutation but it does not reverse the original mutation
temperature-sensitive mutants things that become mutants at certain temperatures
pryamidine dimers (typically2thymine) a pyriminidne bonded with another bonded
forms this structure. on same strand of DNA, 2 adjacent
pyrimidines&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>disrupts normal hydrogen bonding between
complementary bases and distorts the normal configuration of the DNA
molecule.</div><div><br></div><div>blocks
replication</div><div><br></div><div>repaired by mechanisms</div>
transition mutation a mutation from one purine-pyrimidine base pair to the
other purine-pyrimidine base pair
transposable elements DNA sequences that can move about in the
genome<div><br></div><div>often cause of mutations</div>
transposase the enzyme that is responsible for the moving of an IS element
transposon&nbsp; Transposable element that transposes as DNA.
molecular genetics structure and functions of genes<br>aka genomics
Gene locus Where a gene is located
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
Chromatin DNA + structrural protiens(histones)<div><br></div><div>can be a mess
of unwravelled DNA in the nucleas</div>
Ribosome site of protein synthesis
Neurospora crassa Bread mold
difference between 2 humans sequence 1000 bp difference between humans
Watson and Crick determined that the structure of DNA was a double helix with
Franklins work [photo 51]
Deoxyribonucleotide base+sugar+phosphate (no o2)
nucleoside base + sugar
nucleotide base + sugar + PO4 (phosphate)
constitutive heterochromatin regions of chromatin that are always condensed and
present in all cells at identical positions
highly repetitive DNA repeats a lot
SINES 100-400 bp long; mobilized non-coding RNA genes); transcribed into RNA but
not translated<div><br></div><div>-retrotransposon&nbsp;</div><div>-non
autonomous<br>-non ltr</div><div>-can move only in the presense of
LINEs</div><div>-transcribed by RNA polyA<br>-11% of our total DNA<br></div><div>-
doesnt code for anything&nbsp;</div><div>-most abundant are the Alu
elements<br></div><div><br></div><div><br></div>
looped domains form when bacterial DNA is supercoiled
nonhistones <div>Non-histone proteins are proteins that remain after the histones
have been&nbsp;<b>removed.</b></div><div><br></div><div>Non-histone proteins that
help maintain chromosome structure and functions.</div><div><br></div><div>“But the
role of non-histone is more than structural, because their arrangement also effects
the activity of DNA with which they are associated”</div>
topoisomerase NO super-coiling
c-value paradox expectation that the more complex the organism, the larger the
genome BUUTTTT, this is not true
Semiconservative replication Replicated dna has 1 strand from parent and 1 new
strand. (The 1 parent strand is said to have been conserved)
ligase "glues okasaki fragments <div><img src=""quizlet-
Ga19b9COYMHpgrUodvQOnQ_m.png"" /></div> "
dna polymerase I "removes the RNA primer and replaces it with DNA
<div><img src=""quizlet-MxwKP-dfq8kG-QXBm6SjLw_m.png""></div> "
dna primase "Synthesizes a short RNA primer to provide a 3′-OH group for the
attachment of&nbsp;DNA&nbsp;nucleotides<div><img src=""quizlet-
g7G2msBedNSprUCZYH7IPg_m.png""></div> "
Replicator initiation of replication is directed by this
rolling circle replication for some viruses and some bacterial chromosomes a
circular double stranded DNA replicates to produce linear DNA
ORC (origin recognition complex) initiator protein in
<u>eukaryotes</u><div><br></div><div> binds at the replicator and recruits
proteins</div>
reverse transcriptase telomerase is an example synthesis of DNA form an RNA
template
temperature sensitive mutants mutants that function normally until the temp is
raised past a threshhold and are used to see how effective telomeres are
nucleotides are added to what of the DNA? to the 3' OH end of DNA
prototroph strain that can grow on a minimal medium
auxotroph would not grow on a minimal medium and requires nutritional supplements
one gene one polypeptide hypothesis more than one gene specifies an enzyme
autosome chromosome other than a sex chromosome
genetic counseling advice based on analysis of the probability that patients
have a genetic defect and of the risk that prospective parents may produce a child
with a gene defect
pedigree analysis study of a family tree and careful compilation of phenotype
records of both families over several generations
n terminus marks the start/beginning of a protein or
polypeptide&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>refers to the (free amine group) that is
located at the end of a polypeptide.</div>
alkaptonuria and phenylketonuria autosomal recessive disorder<br>metabolic
pathway disease in humans
chorionic villus sampling prenatal test that tests for down syndrome
enhancers req for maximum transcription of a gene<br>usually upstream
dna dependent rna polymerase produces primary tRNA
general transcription factors on the core promoter<br>GTFs bind and then call up
RNA polymerase to bind and form complex
promoter-proximal elements upstream from the TATA box, in area from -50 to -200
nucleotides from start
rna polymerase i In eukaryotes, the enzyme that synthesizes rRNA, often associated
with the nucleolus
RNA polymerase ii *** In eukaryotes, the enzyme that synthesizes mRNA
poly (a) polymerase adds a long tail of adenine nucleotides at the end of pre-
mrna
snRNPs make spliceosome
aminoacyl trna charged along with some elongation factors, deliver the amino acid
to the ribosome for incorporation into the polypeptide chain that is being
produced.
aminoacyl-trna synthase attaches correct amino acid to trna
Degeneracy redundency; wobble theory; multiple codons code for the same amino acid
just diff thirb code
fmet an aminoacyl-tRNA that initiates bacterial protein synthesi
open reading frame START @ BEGINNING & NO STOP TILL END...A sequence of
nucleotide codons (from start to stop) that encodes one protein<br>AUG followed by
a number of codons and a stop codon in the same reading frame
polyribosome complex of mRNA with several ribosomes
polysome a cluster of ribosomes held together by a strand of messenger RNA that
each ribosome is translating.
base analogs chemical that can substitute for a normal nucleobase in nucleic
acids
depurination A mutation due to the loss of a purine base (A or G).
germ line mutation a mutation occurring in gametes; passed on to offspring
intercalating agents ethidium bromide and proflavine, are molecules that may
insert between bases in DNA, causing frameshift mutation during replication.
dna difference between two humans .1%
transversion mutation going from a-g to c-g (purine to pyrmidine change)
visible mutants A mutation that affects the morphology or physical appearance of
an organism.
transition mutation purine swapped with a purine (A or G), or pyrimidines with
pyrimidines (C or T)
true reversion Original mutation followed by reverse mutation, AAA->GAA->AAA
tautomers isomers that differ in the positions of their atoms and in the bonds
between the atoms
NO TANNING, why? creates thymine dimers
suppressor mutation mutation that counteracts the effect of another mutation at
a different site
IS element simplest transposon: just transposase gene flanked by inverted repeat
sequences
Heterochromatin are regions on chromosome that is more condensed
The eukaryotic centromere is constitutive heterochromatin
chromosome functionality. more vs less coiled? the more coiled=less active gene
expression<br>less coiled=more active
histones are small basic proteins that are positively charged and bind to
negatively charged dna
LINES and SINES are repetitive sequence DNA, they make up X% of genome making up 15
% and 10% of genomes
"16. LINES can ""jump"" through transposition to another part of the genome" SINES
cannot transpose
BARB mclintock studied zea mays with transmission genetics techniques
centrioles are in animal cells
autosomal dominant the offspring only needs one allele from one parent to
inherit trait
autosomal recessive Disorders are manifested only when both members of the gene
pair are affected
heterochromatin highly condensed regions on dna that are genetically inactive
independent assortment occurs at metaphase I
partial dominance heterozygotes expressing a phenotype that is intermediate bw the
homozygote phenotypes
rho dependent needs rho protein
dna is packaged in nucleosomes
to begin transcription in eukaryotes General transciption factors bind to TATA
box promoter first, allowing the RNA polyA get a hold of the DNA
prokaryotic RNA does not have introns
termination sequences for transcription in eukaryotes dont exist
what does the 3 prime free end of DNA with no attached nucleotides to it bond to
is bonded to an OH group
Based upon Griffith's transformation work, Avery determined that DNA can transform
cells after adding DNase
photo 51 found that .34 nm or .34 X 10-9 meters between each base pair along a
strand
chargoff found? amounts of A=T AND G=C
phosphodiester bonds have a negative charge
11. There is one replication unit in bacteria and thousands of units in humans.
What must occur after telomerase leaves the end of the chromosome? RNA Primer
is added
introns begin with 5' GU and end with AG 3'
if thymine is 30%, what is the % of cytosine? 20%
pribnow vs tata both are promoters<div><br></div><div>pribnow = prokaryotes
(TATAAT)<div><br></div><div>tata= eukaroyes (TATAAAA)</div></div>
promoter "the promoter tells the polymerase where to ""sit down"" on the DNA and
begin transcribing"
promoters in bacteria -10 and -35 elements
promoters in humans/EUs TATA box&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>General transciption
factors bind to promoter first, allowing the RNA polyA get a hold of the DNA</div>