Tectonophysics, 149 (1988) 299-322 299

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

Deep structure and tectonics of the Burmese arc:

constraints from earthquake and gravity data

MANOJ ~UKHOPADHYAY ’ and SUJIT DASGUPTA ’

’ Department of Geophysics, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad-826004 (India)

’ Publication Division, Geological Survey of India, 29, J. L Nehru Road Calcutta-16 (India)

(Received January 1.1987; revised version accepted October 27,1987)

Abstract

Mukhopadhyay, M. and Das8upta, S., 1988. Deep structure and tectonics of the Burmese arc: constraints from
earthquake and gravity data. Tectonophysics, 149: 299-322.

Active subduction of the Indian plate is currently occurring beneath the Burmese arc along an east dipping Benioff
zone which extends to a depth of about 180 km. The overriding Burma plate has an appearance of an inland seismic
slab that is deflected downwards in the vicinity of the Benioff zone. A crustal seismic zone some 60-80 km east of the
Benioff zone correlates to backarc activity. A triangular aseismic wedge in the top part of the crust outlines the Central
Belt molasse basin east of the Burmese foldbelt. Fault plane solutions show that the Burmese Benioff zone is
characterized by shallow angle thrusting at its upper edge whereas down-tip tensional events dominate its tower edge.
Most of the backam seismicity is accounted for by the Sagaing transform or by the activity of the Shan scarp normal
fault zone at the margin of the Asian plate. A gravity anomaly pair with amplitude of 175 mGal coincides with the
1100~km long Burmese arc lying in a north-south direction. The gravity anomalies along a profile in central Burma and
in adjacent areas of the Bengal basin are interpreted in terms of plate subduction as well as near-surface mass
anomalies. This suggests that sediments below the Central Belt may have an average thickness of the order of 10 km
but may be as thick as 15 km at the subduction zone. The oceanic crust underl~g deeper parts of the Bengal basin
experiences phase transition at about 30 km depth in a Benioff zone environment east of the Burmese foldbelt. Several
thrust planes are present within the folded and deformed Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments of the fold belt; these are
often associated with ophiolites and basic to ultrabasic rocks. A low density zone, at least 60 km wide, underlies the
andesitic volcanic axis in the overriding plate.

Mroduction 1946; Gulatee, 1956). With the advent of plate

A variety of natural resources was perhaps one
reason which attracted the early explorers and
field geologists to Burma during the last century;
this eventually led to the publication of two com-
prehensive accounts of the geology and mineral
wealth of Burma, compiled by Chhibber (1934a,
b) more than fifty years ago. The general pattern
of the gravity field for Burma and its adjoining
Indian territories came to be known quite early
through the work of the Burmah Oil Company
and the Survey of India (Evans and Crompton,
tectonics Burma was again studied with renewed
interest with an emphasis on explaining the
tectonic development of the Burmese arc as a
whole together with its neotectonics (see, among
others, Bnmnschweiler, 1966, 1974; Mitchell and
McKerrow, 1975; Curray et al., 1979). More re-
cently correlative study of surface geology with
aerial photographs and Landsat imagery (Nandy,
1980; Le Dain et al., 1984) has significantly in-
creased our knowledge on the tectonic framework
of Burma. It is now commonly accepted, as was
initially suggested by Chhibber (1934a), that the

0040-1951,‘88,‘SO3.50 0 1988 Elsevier science Publishers B.V.

300

Burmese and Andaman arcs together provide an structure of the Burmese arc. For gravity interpre-
important transitional link between the Himalayan tation, we use geologic information and available
collision zone and the Indonesian arc; the latter is seismic data as important constraints. The results
in direct tectonic continuation of the Western obtained from the analysis of earthquake and
Pacific arc systems. gravity data are then discussed from the viewpoint
Several contrasting views have been put for- of tectonics of the Burmese arc.
ward concerning the tectonic development and
current stress regime of the Burmese arc. For Regional geology
instance, Mitchell and McKerrow (1975) ascribed
the evolution of the arc to a process of eastward Burma comprises three major physiographic di-
subduction of the Indian plate at the Asian con- visions extending north-south: the Shan plateau
tinental margin continuing from at least the Late to the east, the Central Belt (CB) including the
Cretaceous to the present affecting the Benioff basins of the Irrawaddy, Chindwin and Sittang
zone lying to the west of the Burmese foldbelt (the rivers, and the Burmese Fold Mountain Belt
Arakan-Yoma mountains). Curray et al. (1979) (FMB) on the west (Fig. 1). The Fold Mountain
have proposed a lenticular plate, the Burma plate, Belt includes the Arakan-Yoma mountains and
forming a structural province in the area between the Chin, Naga, Manipur, Lushai and Patkai hills.
the Arakan-Yomas on the west and the Indochina Further west lies the Bengal basin. The eastern-
highlands on the east. This plate has been created most tectonic unit is the Shan plateau forming the
since Middle Miocene time as a result of opening eastern highlands which is elevated by about 0.7
of the Andaman Sea by at least 460 km (Curray et km above the Burmese plains (CB) containing the
al., 1982). Le Dain et al. (1984) suggest that sub- Tertiary deposits against a prominent scarp/fault,
duction of the Indian plate below the Burmese arc called the Shan scarp. Burma, west of the Shan
has stopped recently or occurs aseismically and plateau is believed to have formed a part of an-
the hanging lithospheric slab is being dragged cient Gondwanaland whose shore line possibly
north by India through the surrounding litho- ran along the western boundary of the Shan
sphere. We have suggested elsewhere (Mukho- plateau and is now marked by this great scarp or
padhyay, 1984) that the Indian plate actively sub- the boundary fault (Chhibber, 1934a, p. 510). The
ducts below the Burmese arc as shown by an Mogok metamorphic belt, consisting of undif-
east-dipping Benioff zone that extends to about ferentiated igneous and metamorphic rocks with
180 km depth below the central lowlands east of acid intrusives, runs north-south along the west-
the Arakan-Yomas. However, recently Tapponnier ern edge of the Shan plateau for a distance of
et al. (1982) propose that active spreading in the more than 1000 km with an average width of
Andaman Sea and lateral motion along the Saga- 24-40 km. According to Searle and Haq (1964),
ing transform in Burma is a consequence of prop- metasediments which range in age from Pre-
agating extrusion tectonics in response to rigid cambrian to possibly Cretaceous were migmatized
indentation by India into Asia at the northeast during the Himalayan orogeny to form the Mogok
corner of the Himalaya. metamorphic belt. The Mogok Series consists of
In the present article we consider earthquake migmatites, gneissic rocks (garnet-biotite gneiss,
data for the Burmese arc in order to study details biotite gneiss and g~et-Capote-si~manite
of the subduction zone geometry over various gneiss), and calcareous and arenaceous rocks
segments of the 1100 km long arc. Stress distribu- (marbles and talc-silicate granulites). Associated
tion and the pattern of faulting within the Burmese intrusive rocks contain alaskitic suite and mafic
Benioff zone are studied using a large number of rocks (Late Eocene-Early Oligocene in age),
selected earthquakes. Using the Benioff zone con- pegmatites and aplites (Middle Miocene in age),
figuration, we next interpret a representative grav- and the Kabaing granite which is the largest and
ity profile across central Burma and its forearc youngest intrusive (Late Miocene-Pliocene). TO-
region covering the Bengal basin to infer the deep wards the east, the Mogok belt is covered by
 301

d8” da*
m Quoternary m Tethyan ophiolite
Crystalline rocks of Himalaya
m and Burma

Cretoceous-Paleogene m Crystalline rocks of Indian

IK-P9 Flysch Shield
m Mesozoic votcanics .-+“‘x Structural trend
[-“%-j Subrecent forecent volcano # Fault ,Thrust

Fig 1. Generalized tectonic map of the Burmese arc, Shari plateau and adjoining areas including the eastern Himdaya (after Gansser,
1964). The Burmese arc is comprised of the Naga hills, At&an-Yoma ranges and the Central Belt molasse basin. The arc is convex
towards the Indian foreland. EBT-Eastern Boundary Thrust in Burma. EBT--Eastern Boundary Thrust in Burma.

fossiIiferous Paleozoic strata that are frequently
cut by outcrops of the Chaung Magyi Series (Fre-
cambrian micaschists).
The CB and the FM3 conjugately form a broad
convex arc towards the Indian foreland. This 1100
km long, 250-700 km wide, Tertiary erogenic belt
is best described in terms of the following seven
zones from east to west (after ~~~schweiler~
1974): (I) the Pegu-Sagaing Rise, a molasse basin
resting on a mainly Paleozoic floor and grading
into (2) the CB malasse basin in which post-Eocene
molasse rests on flysch, folded neritic Creta-
ceous-Eocene and older metamorphics; (3) the
adjoining Inner Thrust zone contains more de-
302

formed sediments with exposed pre-Alpine meta- up to 20 km thick which are folded and mildly
morphics including Cretaceous ophiolites: (4) fur- thrust; (7) beyond the Indian border is the
ther west is a Cretaceous-Miocene flysch trough Bengal-Surma foredeep and relatively undisturbed
of great thickness resting on abyssal Cretaceous- Bengal-Asam peri-cratonic foreland in which only
Mesozoic strata with ophiolites; (5) the coastal the Pliocene deposits achieved major thicknesses
Ramri-Andaman Ridge has a comparable belt of (Fig. 2). In the CB (zones 1 and 2) young ande-
Cretaceous-Eocene strata, strongly folded and sitic and basaltic volcanics occur along the Mt.
thrust which overlies (6) an outer molasse basin Popa-Chindwin-Wuntho volcanic line in south
containing Tertiary sediments (Tripura fold belt) Burma (Chhibber, 1934a) and continue through

INDEX
PRE-CRETACEOUS ROCKS OF
issl EASTERN AND WESTERN BURMA

Fig. 2. Prominent geologic and tectonic features of Burma. Data sources are cited in text.
 24’ L J

22’
L
67’

#S DEEP WELL LOCATIONS GTiGJPDE~~td TO ABASEMENT (MI ~~J=ELEVATlON (Ml

Fig. 3. Basement configuration map for the Bengal basin (see text for source), and average elevation map for the Shilloag and Shan plateaux located to the immediate west and east of
the Burmese arc, respectively. Contours are in meters. The most interesting tectonic feature of the Bengal basin is perhaps the Eocene Hinge Zone (see text).
304

the Jade mines area in north Burma, whereas to tectonics (cf. Santo, 1969: Fitch, 1970, 1972:
Cretaceous ophiolites together with basic and ul- Chandra, 1975, 1978; Verma et al., 1976: Khattri
trabasic submarine flows are found in zones 3. 4 et al., 1984; Le Dain et al., 1984). It was Santo
and 5 (Bender, 1985). The Upper Creta- (1969) who first drew attention to an inclined
ceous-Eocene flysch constituting the FMB is seismic zone underlying Burma. However. a major
limited by step faults and thrusts on the east side difficulty in preparing a reliable seismicity map of
and also partly on the west side. Ophiolitic rocks Burma is the poor distribution of recording sta-
occur along the eastern thrust (cf. Nandy, 1980) tions. This led Le Dain et al. (1984) to apply a
which has been called the Eastern Boundary Thrust selection procedure on the basis of distribution of
(EBT). The EBT represents a major tectonic ele- seismic stations and the number and consistency
ment as it defines the contact between the FMB of reported P- or pP-wave phases for each earth-
and the CB throughout Burma; north of about quake located by the ISC for preparing the
24” N it adopts a NNE trend south of the steeply seismicity map. However, Gupta (1976) has shown
thrust Naga hills (Fig. 2) and then turns to the that earthquake detectability levels for the Burmese
northeast only to be cut off by the Mishmi crystal- seismic zone are extremely poor at present: they
line thrust sheet at the eastern Himalayan syn- are mb = 5.2 for all earthquakes which are re-
taxis. The Bengal basin underlies a thick section of ported for the region, while for mb = 4.5 only 4%
Cretaceous-Tertiary deposits whose total thick- earthquakes are reported. The corresponding fig-
ness may be as high as 13 km in deeper parts of ures for the western U.S. are mb = 4.3, and 100%.
the basin. Major tectonic features of the basin Gupta (1976) also estimates that the error in-
(after Zaher and Rahman, 1980) and its underly- volved in epicenter location for Burmese
ing basement configuration including the peri- earthquakes is about 2 km for an event of mb = 5.0
cratonic areas of the Shillong plateau (source: which increases to about 5 km for m,, = 4.0, al-
Evans, 1964; Rao, 1973; Choudhury and Datta, though the actual capability of the seismic net-
1973) are illustrated in Fig. 3. Note that the “Hinge work could be one order of magnitude worse than
zone” (HZ) underlying the basin is taken to mean these statistical figures. The status of the seismic
the slope feature defined by the Eocene limestone network has not presumably improved much over
seismic reflector. Structural dips on this reflector the past decade. It is therefore obvious that severe
increases from 2-3” at the shelf edge to 6-12” on restraint must be exercised in evaluating any ex-
the Bogra slope, flattening out to l-2” in the isting seismic map of Burma, in particular, for
basin foredeep (Salt et al., 1986). The HZ outlines geologic correlation and hazard studies.
a zone of clear differential thickening and subsi- Keeping in view the limitations of the seismic
dence of the overlying Oligo-Miocene sections, network and errors involved in epicentral de-
between the shelf on the northwest and deeper terminations, we have prepared a seismicity map
basin to the southeast. The HZ is at least 500 km of Burma (Fig. 4) using ISC data for the period
in length between the Dauki fault on the north 1964-1980 with events having m,, > 4.0 M, >, 5.0;
and Calcutta on the south; it also extends further for purposes of the present study this is consid-
south into the Bay of Bengal. Its width varies from ered as the cut off magnitude level. With this we
25 km in the north, 110 km in the central part and also include ISS/NOAA earthquake data for the
35 km in the south (Matin et al., 1986). Across the immediately preceding period 1956-1963 using
HZ, the Bengal basin basement steeply plunges only those events of M, 2 5.0. For reasons dis-
from 4 to 10 km or even further (Fig. 3). cussed earlier, this allows us to deal with a greater
volume of data for purposes of correlation with
Seismicity and Benioff zone regional structures. However, for smaller events
Several authors gave prepared seismicity maps the error involved in epicentral determination is
for the Burmese arc and its adjacent areas, utiliz- rather high for the Burmese earthquakes. Gen-
ing data for different time periods and from vari- eralized tectonic features of the Burmese arc are
ous agencies to study the correlation of seismicity also superposed on Fig. 4.
 305

23r

C-
22*

21

Fig. 4. Seismoteetonic map of Burma; earthquake data sampling period: 19561980. Notice the different notations used to represent
the data for the periods 1956-1963 and 1964-1980 for reasons discussed in the text. Maximum earthquake concentration is seen for
the Central Belt to the east of tire Eastern Boundary Thrust. The seismicity map is classified into four sectors, I-IV, in accordance
with the change in strike direction of the convex Burmese are. Section AA’ through DD’ taken across the middle of the individual
sectors are illustrated on Fig. 5. Results of 45 focal mechanism solutions are schematically shown on the map; dark and blank areas
refer to compressional and dilatational quadrants respectively. Digits identify the solution number as listed in Table 1. Diverging
half-arrows indicate fateral slip.
 NWW lndlan plate

Period 1964-1980 Period 1956-1963

Data source-l SC Data source-NOAAIISS
MS > 5.0 A
Scale

A.B. Aseismic Belt. E.F.Z. Earthauako Free Zone

’
J
Fig. 5. Section lines, AA’ through DD’, between north and south Burma (see Fig. 4 for locations) illustrate surface geology and the underlying seismic zones. The Indian plate cleari~
underthrusts the Burma plate below the Burmese arc. Digits refer to fault plane solution of earthquakes listed in Table 1. Geologic index. / 2. crystalline basement:

2 = metamorphics; 3 = flysch; 4 = molasse: 5 = volcanics; 6 = ophiolites.


In order to best define the seismicity of Burma,
Fig. 4 is classified into four sectors, of comparable
sizes, having their characteristic mo~holo~c and
tectonic settings. They are: Sector I corresponding
to the Naga Hills area in the extreme north to the
northeastern part of the Burmese arc where the
collision process has just set in (cf. Mitchell and
McKerrow, 1975); Sector II corresponding to the
Chin Hills area where the northeast trend of the
Burmese arc takes an arcuate trend to become
N-S in more southern areas, and where deforma-
tion is believed to be largely controlled by a
basement spur of the Precambrian Shillong-Mikir
massif of the Indian foreland (cf. Evans, 1964;
Fig. 1); Sector III corresponding to the central
portion of the Burmese arc where the arc is widest
and folding is mostly N-S; and Sector IV covering
coastal Burma where the arc orientation changes
to NW-SE. For each of these sectors we present a
representative geologic section on the basis of
available informations including our field studies
data in parts of the FMB, and a seismologic
section using the data given on Fig. 4. These are
discussed below.
Figure 4 demonstrates that Sectors I to III are
seismically very active whereas Sector IV is far
less seismic. Four east-west sections, AA’-DD’
(Fig. 5), taken through the midparts of these sec-
tors illustrate the surface geology and the hypo-
central pattern of earthquakes underlying these
section lines. The earthquake events have been
projected onto a vertical plane below the section
lines from both the north and south areas located
within the individual sectors. As can be seen from
Fig. 5 an inclined seismic zone is colon for
Sectors I to III, while for coastal Burma this
pattern is either greatly subdued (a quiet zone) or
not well represented by the present data set. The
earthquake foci range in depth from near surface
to around 180 km. The foci dist~bution in the
inclined seismic zone is used here to define the
boundaries of the subducting Indian plate below
the Burmese arc. The horizontal lower boundary
of the lithosphere is placed immediately below the
lowest foci at a depth of 75 km; when traced
eastward this boundary dips to the cast in the
region below the FMB and plunges to a depth of
about 180 km in Sectors I and II, to 160 km in
307
Sector III, but reaches up to about 80-100 km in
Sector IV. The thickness of the Benioff zone is of
the order of 60 km below the CB, having an
average dip of about 45 O. The Burmese volcanic
arc generally corresponds to the deepest part of
the Benioff zone. Further east of the Benioff zone
two shallower seismic zones are located within the
overriding Burma plate in Sectors I to III. Follow-
ing Sacks et al. (1978) and Yamashina et al.
(1978), we designate this as the inland seismic slab
within the Burma plate. The relatively shallow
seismic zone closest to the Benioff zone occurs
below the Chindwin forearc basin; hence, it is
termed the forearc seismicity, whereas the crustal
seismic zone farthest away from the Benioff zone
corresponds to backarc activity. The backarc
seismicity is most intense in the Jade Mines area
in north Burma, although the Shan-Sagaing fault
shows appreciable activity over its full extent. It
further appears that the forearc and backarc
seismic zones are distinguished by an aseismic
zone between them. The inland seismic slab un-
derlying the CB is 50-70 km thick; this provides
an approximate indication of the thickness of the
Burma plate (Fig. 5). A triangular “aseismic belt”
at shallower depths appears to be defined by the
upper surfaces of the Benioff zone and the inland
seismic slab in all the four sectors in Burma. The
western margin of the aseismic belt is, however, ill
defined at present because of poor depth control
for seismic events; Fig. 5 sections give only an
approximate idea about its configuration. Note
that the apex of the “aseismic belt” is always
deflected downward-concordant with the dip di-
rection of the Benioff zone. This bending of the
inland seismic slab is presumably a consequence
of downward drag experienced by the overriding
plate near the subduction zone.
Focal mechanism study and stress pattern
Here we examine 45 focal mechanism solutions
for both shallow and intermediate depth
earthquakes in Burma for purposes of infering the
stress distribution and faulting pattern. For Sec-
tors I-III there is a total of 43 solutions de-
termined which are more or less evenly distributed
in these sectors, while for Sector IV only two
solutions could be obtained. Of these 37 events projection of the lower hemisphere of the focal
relate to the Benioff zone seismicity, 3 events are sphere employing (i, A) curves of Ritsema (1958).
for the forearc seismic zone whereas the remaining A double couple source mechanism was assumed.
5 events correspond to backarc activity. The solu- The focal mechanism solutions are illustrated on
tions have been determined using P-wave (both Fig. 6 and the solution parameters are given in
short and long periods) and first motion directions Table 1. Their main results are discussed below.
(source: ISC Bulletin) plotted as stereographic

@W 27 03 1964 25.82N95.7lE 5.3 ll5Km.

12 07 1964 24.88N 953lE 55 152Km. 29 07 1970 26.02N 95.37E 6.4 68Km.

28 04 1969 25.93N 9520E 5.0 68Km. 03 06 1964 25.88N 95.69E 5.4 I21 Km. 23 07 1975 26.58N 96.36E 5.2 22Km.

Fig. 6. Lower hemisphere stereographic projection for 45 fault plane solutions of Burmese earthquakes. Solid circle and triangle
symbols indicate compressional and dilational first motions of P waves, respectively. P and T correspond to the P and T axes. The
solution parameters are listed in Table 1.
3001 1967 26.lON 96.l4E 5.4 39Km. 29 12 1971 25.17N 94.73E 5.6 46Km. 25 II 1979 25.21\96.32E5.0 50Km.
N N

3005 1971 25.20N96.4lE 5.6 40Km. 31 05 1971 2522N 96.5tE 5.2 22Km. 2606 1971 24.6ON94.78E 5.0 74Km.
N

I I 08 1979 24.20i94.93E 5.0 ll3Km. 13 12 1975 23.62N94.27E 5.2 62Km 27 07 1973 23.27N 94.49E 5.4 60Km.
N N N

04 07 1973 23.60N 94.86E 5.0126Km. 29 05 1979 24.5ON 94.74E 5.2 82Km.

Fig. 6 (continued).
1802 1965 24.97N 94.21E 5.4 45Km. 31 05 1973 243lN 93.52E 5.8 3OKm. 29 05 1970 2396N 94.06E 5. I 49Km.
N N N

20 05 IS80 23.72N 94.20E 4.8 63Km. 13 IO 1977 23.47N 93.33E 5.2 61Km. IS 06 1963 24.97N92.06E 5.9 44Km.

17 IO1969 23.OW97.70E 6.1 i24Km. 23 02 IS78 23.Ofk S4.7OE 5.0 113Km. 22 01 1964 2233i 93.58E 6.3 60Km.

Fig. 6 (continued).
 311

15 12 1965 22.OON94.47E5.2 lO9Km. 03 02 1978 23.02N94.70E 5.1 92Km. 120519772(.66N92.96E5.439Km

N

05 04 1974 21.33N 93.&8E 5.0 47Km. 0807 1975 2t.42N94.62E 5.9 112Km. L3 06 1964 23.OON93.95E 5.2 6OKm.
Y-+---L 8

@U
22 IO 1966 23.04N 94.28E 5.1 72Km.
@F-L
20 II 196022_7&&t92E 5.2 30Km. 1410197123.&%3.86E: 5. I 47Km.

IO IO 46Km.
197123.CON95.92E4.9 15 02 1967 2033h93.99E 5.4 55Km.

Fig.6 fcontinued).
TABLE 1

Parameters of fault plane solutions of earthquakes *

No. Date Epicentre Depth Magnitude Paxis Taxis Baxis Nodal plane 1 Nodal plane 2
cw (MI,)
Lat”N Long. o E PI0 AZ0 P1° AZ0 P1° AZ0 S” Do Dd” So Do Dd”
- ~__.
1 06-04-1970 26.45 96.34 98 5.0 18 309 72 142 06 40 N30E 28 120 N43E 64 313
2 01-11-1972 26.44 96.37 93 5.2 19 307 71 135 04 38 N32E 26 121 N4OE 64 310
3 29-08-1969 26.35 96.06 72 5.2 13 308 77 143 04 39 N32E 32 122 N42E 58 312
4 27-03-1964 25.82 95.71 115 5.3 16 276 72 62 10 184 N23E 30 113 N2W 62 268
5 12-07-1964 24.88 95.31 152 5.5 28 240 48 08 27 145 N16E 30 106 N5lW 78 219
6 29-07-1970 26.02 95.37 68 6.4 46 239 24 126 49 26 NllE 76 101 N85E 50 355
I 28-04-1969 25.93 95.20 68 5.0 57 257 21 133 23 33 N24E 70 114 N77E 31 347
8 03-06-1964 25.88 95.69 121 5.4 50 288 40 102 03 194 N14E 84 104 N9W 06 261
9 23-07-1975 26.58 %.36 22 5.2 30 126 04 221 59 317 NlOW 72 260 N88E 66 358
10 30-01-1%7 26.10 96.14 39 5.4 06 80 12 172 76 320 N36E 78 306 N54W 85 36
11 29-12-1971 25.17 94.73 46 5.6 07 32 21 124 68 286 N80E 80 350 N14W 70 256
12 25-11-1979 25.21 96.32 50 5.0 05 246 18 338 71 144 N23E 74 113 N67W 80 203
13 30-05-1971 25.20 96.41 40 5.6 02 262 12 353 77 165 N37E 80 121 N52W 82 218
14 31-05-1971 25.22 96.51 22 5.2 18 240 10 333 69 91 N17E 70 107 N74W 84 16
15 26-06-1971 24.60 94.78 74 5.0 11 280 69 100 08 06 NlOW 26 80 NlOE 56 280
16 11-08-1979 24.20 94.93 113 5.0 22 288 67 116 03 19 NllE 22 102 N20E 68 290
17 13-12-1975 23.62 94.27 62 5.2 37 314 50 145 06 48 N5E 09 95 N50E 84 320
18 27-07-1973 23.27 94.49 60 5.4 32 250 56 56 08 156 NlOE 12 100 N24W 78 246
19 21-05-1975 23.86 94.09 51 5.3 40 196 12 95 42 350 N29W 70 61 N45E 48 315
20 04-07-1973 23.60 94.86 126 5.0 16 105 72 310 07 196 N20E 60 110 N5E 30 275
21 29-05-1979 24.50 94.74 82 5.2 03 336 40 241 60 70 N26E 60 116 N79W 65 11
22 18-02-1965 24.97 94.21 45 5.4 17 58 17 153 66 288 N74W 90 N16E 66 286
23 31-05-1973 24.31 93.52 30 5.8 08 48 14 139 73 287 N86W 86 04 N3E 74 273
24 29-05-1970 23.96 94.06 49 5.1 01 22 15 112 76 294 N67E 80 337 N25W 80 245
25 20-05-1980 23.72 94.20 83 4.8 04 204 14 114 75 300 N71E 78 341 N20W 82 250
26 13-m-1977 23.47 93.33 61 5.2 06 16 59 114 31 282 N45W 48 225 N79E 58 349
27 19-06-1963 24.97 92.06 44 5.9 35 175 54 349 02 84 N83E 80 173 N72W 10 19
28 25-01-1969 22.98 92.40 49 5.2 29 280 60 118 08 14 N12W 18 78 N16E 74 286
29 27-02-1964 21.65 94.40 91 6.0 35 258 54 73 02 166 N 10 90 N14W 80 256
30 15-12-1966 21.51 94.43 84 5.4 25 274 65 108 06 06 N8W 21 82 N9E 70 279
31 17-10-1969 23.09 94.70 124 6.1 63 276 25 120 09 26 N22E 70 112 N48E 22 318
32 23-02-1978 23.08 94.70 113 5.0 35 203 18 98 48 345 N28W 80 62 N54E 50 324
33 22-01-1964 22.33 93.58 60 6.3 54 254 25 123 24 22 N14E 74 104 N74E 30 344
34 15-12-1965 22.00 94.47 109 5.2 66 254 23 60 03 152 N26W 68 64 N38W 22 234
35 03-02-1978 23.02 94.70 92 5.1 06 81 37 170 52 347 N48W 66 42 N28E 62 298
36 12-05-1977 21.68 92.96 39 5.4 07 195 27 102 61 299 N62E 66 332 N34W 76 236
37 05-04-1974 21.33 93.68 47 5.0 19 85 28 185 55 326 N44W 84 46 N43E 56 313
38 08-07-1975 21.42 94.62 112 5.9 25 251 63 50 08 159 N 22 90 N24W 70 256
39 13-06-1964 23.00 93.95 60 5.2 40 278 24 24 49 144 N63E 50 153 N31W 86 59
40 22-10-1966 23.04 94.28 72 5.1 12 259 15 356 63 118 N39E 63 129 N52W 85 38
41 20-11-1980 22.74 93.92 30 5.2 02 222 16 314 74 125 N3W 77 87 N89E 80 179
42 14-10-1971 23.06 95.86 47 5.1 27 196 18 98 57 340 N31W 84 59 N55E 58 325
43 10-10-1971 23.00 95.92 46 4.9 29 189 12 92 57 343 N36W 78 54 N47E 60 317
44 15-02-1967 20.33 93.99 51 5.4 20 176 28 74 53 295 N38E 54 308 N56W 84 214
45 01-06-1965 20.13 94.83 81 5.2 47 240 39 86 13 344 N17W 85 73 N52E 14 322

l PI = Plunge,AZ = Azimuth, S = Strike, D = Dip, Dd = Dip direction.

Y
w
Stress und fault pattern within the Benioff zone events 22-26, 39 and 40 appear to correlate to
already mapped transverse faults on the basis of
Figures 5 and 6, and Table 1 demonstrate that surface geology and airphoto inte~retation (see
three distinct categories of faulting and stress pat- Fig. 2). Event 26 occurred at the south end of the
tern are evidenced in the subducting Indian plate Mat fault, the most extensive transverse fault
They are: crossing the FMB including the Tripura foldbelt
(1) Low angle thrust events at the upper edge bordering the Bengal basin. Similarly, events 39
of the Benioff zone as indicated by solutions l-5 and 40 appear to have originated in association
in Sector I, 15-18 in Sector II and 28-30 with 38 with another major but unnamed transverse fault
in Sector III, all of which suggest pure thrusting oriented NE across the FMB. The sense of shear
along a shallow dipping nodal plane (G 30 “) to- motion as inferred from these focal mechanism
wards the east to southeast. Solutions 29 and 38 solutions is corroborated by surface geology in
are reinterpreted here from Le Dain et al. (1984). several areas (Fig. 5).
The eastward unde~~sting of the Indian plate is
evidenced by these earthquakes occurring at shal- Focal mechanism results for forearc and backarc
low to intermediate depths. Events 26-28 further seismic zones
demonstrate that thrusting continues westward at
shallower levels along the west margin of the FMB Solutions for events 9 and 10 in Sector I and 41
in areas of the T~pura-C~ttagong hills where in Sector III suggest a strike-slip m~ha~sm where
E-W shortening has produced N-S folds of the slip motion is believed to occur along
Plio-Pleistocene age. steeply-dipping NNE oriented nodal planes. All
(2) Down-dip tensional events at the lower edge three events are of magnitudes greater than 5.0,
of the Benioff zone are shown by solutions 6-8 in are of crustal origin (Table 1) and locate below the
Sector I, 19 in Sector II, 31-34 in Sector III and Chindwin forearc basin. Hence they provide sig-
45 in Sector IV. In general these events suggest nificant information about the current motion of
normal faulting or normal faulting with a compo- the overriding Burma plate by virtue of their
nent of right-lateral slip along steeply dipping depth of origin above the subducting slab. Accord-
nodal planes oriented subparallel to the strike of ing to a conceptual model given by Sacks et al.
the Burmese arc. Solutions 6, 19, 31 and 33 are for (1978) such a forearc seismic region is commonly
the events already studied by Le Dain et al. (1984). under the influence of a tensional regime. How-
Notice that the suggested normal faulting occurs ever, in the present case where only three solutions
generally below the zone of thrusting in all the are available for the forearc seismic region, we are
sectors. Inferred shallow-angle thrusting at the inclined to believe that the overriding Burma plate
upper edge of the subducting lithosphere and may be in relative motion in respect to the Indian
down-dip tensional events at its lower edge plate in addition to being deflected downwards by
strongly suggest that a double seismic zone ulti- the subducting plate. The evolution of the
mately may be discovered in Burma when the Chindwin forearc basin (the “Western Trough” of
capability of the local seismic network increases. Mitchell and McKerrow, 1975) must then be
Such a faulting and stress pattern, characteristic of ascribed to the complex deformation experienced
a double seismic zone, have been described for by the Burma plate in the vicinity of the subduc-
several Western Pacific arcs (cf. Kawakatsu, 1985). tion zone.
(3) Lateral faulting at shallower depths is indi- It is noted above that the backarc and forearc
cated by solutions for event 11 in Sector I, events seismic zones are apparently separated by a seismic
22-26 in Sector II, events 36, 37 and 40 in Sector gap. The most prominent tectonic feature of the
III, and by event 44 in Sector IV. Most of these backarc is the Sagaing transform; further east the
events or their inferred slip motion correspond to Shan scarp is located, bordering the CB against
transverse lineaments/faults transecting the the eastern highlands (Fig. 2 shows only a gen-
Burmese arc in NW-NE directions. Earthquake eralized pattern). Earthquake events 12-14 in Sec-
315
 tor I and events 42 and 43 in Sector 111 belong to Choudhury and Datta. 1973); (3) a gravity high
the backarc area. For events 12-14, focal mecha- over the Rangpur saddle that has the form of a
nism solutions suggest right-lateral shear along a structural high between the Indian shield and the
steeply dipping fault plane striking NNE. This Shillong massif across the northwestern edge of
conforms with the known slip motion for the the Bengal basin: (4) a region of falling gravity
Sagaing transform. But for events 42 and 43 which across the Bogra slope: (5) a NNE-trending grav-
are located some distance further east, dominant ity high, called the Calcutta-Mymensingh gravity
east-west tensional stress is indicated by their high, coinciding with an Eocene hinge zone at
focal mechanism results. This we interpret as due depth; (6) a region of NNE and finally E-W
to westward normal faulting at the Shan scar-p. trending zone of low gravity over the Bengal fore-
The Shan plateau belonging to the Asian plate has deep and the Surma basin (cf. Zaher and Rahman,
been uplifted in respect of the Burmese plains 1980); (7) a gravity high over the Bar&al structural
against the Shan scarp normal fault. high; and finally (8) a zone of low gravity across
the Tripura foldbelt as well as over the Hatiya
Gravity anomalies trough near Chittagong on the Burmese coast.
The gravity field of the Bengal basin steadily
The Bouguer anomalies over Burma and ad- decreases eastward across the Burmese orogen. A
joining Indian territories (source: Evans and Iinear negative-positive anomaly pair, of am-
Crompton, 1946; Gulatee, 1956; Verma and plitude in excess of 175 mGa1, runs N-S over a
Mukhopadhyay, 1977; Fig. 7) show two distinct distance of 1100 km encompassing the CB and the
contour trends reflecting the major structural lin- andesitic volcanic axis (VA) of Burma (only the
eation-an E-W trend over the Shillong plateau central portion of this extensive anomaly zone is
and the Assam Valley north of it forming the shown in Fig. 7). To the east of the positive
eastern Himalayan foredeep, and a N-S trend anomaly axis, a narrow but linear negative
over the Bengal basin paralleling the Indian shield anomaly zone is only partly developed over a
margin and also over the Burmese arc following strike distance of 700 km, which, however, gives
the Shan scarp geometry. The Bouguer anomalies way to a less well-developed zone of “high” grav-
range between 0 to -25 mGa1 over most of the ity near the Shan scarp. The Shan plateau has a
Bengal basin, while the Shiflong massif is outlined wider extent of smoothly varying negative anoma-
by a higher Bouguer gravity field up to 42 mGa1. lies spread over the Paleozoic basin in the interior
Their margin is marked by the Dauki fault system of the plateau.
that is associated with a very steep gravity gradi-
ent. Several alternating gravity highs and lows, of Deep structure
relative amplitudes up to 40 mGa1 or more,
dominate the otherwise passive gravity field of the The gravity anomalies along a profile I-I’ (Io-
Bengal basin. These clearly correspond to the cation shown on Fig. 7), extending from the In-
structural highs or depressions underlying the dian shield to the Shan plateau across the Bengal
basin as mapped by seismic, aeromagnetic and basin and Burmese arc, are interpreted here in the
other geophysical surveys. They are: (1) an exten- context of a descending lithosphere dipping east
sive N-S gravity high at the Indian shield margin below the CB. For this the regional gravity field
in the area of the Rajmahal hills on the extreme due to the sources in the upper mantle is initially
west which relates to a near-surface layer of high removed from the observed gravity field. The re-
density (= 3.08 g cm-‘) metamorphics (Mukho- gional gravity along the profile is obtained from a
padhyay et al., 1986); (2) a north-south gravity GEM 10 model as given by Lerch et al. (1979).
low over western parts of the Bengal basin, sub- The configuration of the Benioff zone under the
parallel to the shield margin gravity high, which Burmese arc (discussed above for Section BB’
results from a buried Gondwana sediment trough across Sector II) together with the lithospheric
marked by basement faults (Sengupta, 1966; boundaries are used for model construction as-
E
. -9o- a-o_0 OBSERVED

I t
-.-.- COMPUTED
-120
a,/ “I
opo Up0 Km

~J;~~--+-BENGAL n*clhl -FM R -CR-4 VA 1 I-EASTERN HIGH

_^ I.,_~,

-Km
ieo
500 600 7DQ 600 900 loo0
200 I-

Fig. 8. Two-dimensional gravity model along profile II’. Inset shows the computed gravity effect due to the descending Indian
lithosphere below 75 km depth corresponding to the Benioff zone geometry for seismologic section BB’ illustrated on Fig. 5. The
schematic geology underlying the gravity profile is also shown. Digits refer to density values in g cmA3. B.S.-Bogra stope;
H. Z.--Hinge zone; B. F.-Bengal foredeep; B.H.-Bar&l high; T. F. B.-Tripura foldbelt; F. M. B.-Fold Mountain Belt (Indo-
Burman ranges); C.B.-Central Belt molasse basin of Burma; W.T. and E.T.-western and eastern troughs, respectively, together
constituting the C.B.; V.A.--andesitic volcanic axis of Burma; E.&T.---eastern boundary thrust of the F. M. B. against the C.B.
Geologic index is the same as in Fig. 5.

suming two-dimension~ty
model assumes a dip of about 20” on the Benioff
zone beneath the EBT at the eastern margin of the
Arakan-Yoma, but at depths more than 30 km the
dip steepens to about 45-50” below the CB. The
base of the lithosphere of the Indian plate is
assumed to be 75 km below the Bengal basin. The
density structure for the lithosphere and astheno-
sphere in the gravity model is assumed to be
primarily due to temperature perturbations in an
upper mantle of peridotite composition, and fol-
lowing Grow (1973), we assume a higher density
for the subcrustal lithosphere (3.40 g cmS3) than
for the upper asthenosphere (3.35 g cmW3). At
destructive plate margins at depths below 150 km,
the asthenosphere is probably denser than 3.35 g
cm-3 and the descending lithosphere probably
denser than 3.40 g cme3 (Grow, 1973); however,
only the density contrast between the descending
slab and the surrounding asthenosphere is signifi-
(Fig. 8). The gravity
cant for calculation of the gravity values rather
than their absolute densities.
Even though the assumed density contrast of
0.05 g cmP3 for the dipping lithosphere below the
Burmese arc against its surroundings is relatively
small, the positive gravity contribution of the de-
scending lithosphere (below 75 km) reaches a max-
imum of 45 mGa1 over the CB molasse basin and
the VA (see inset in Fig. 8). This positive gravity
contribution must be compensated by a lower
density zone above the descending slab in order to
fit the observed gravity anomalies over the CB and
VA. Although the gradient, amplitude and width
of the observed anomalies put severe constraints
on the possible configuration of the low density
zone, much uncertainty remains due to the lack of
density ~fo~ation. As a result, config~ations of
the low density zone differing from that shown in
Fig. 8 are possible. The Fig. 8 data was obtained
by inferring crustal thickening under the CB
molasse basin (in particular, under the Western ment no deep seismic sounding data are available
Trough) and by inferring a low density zone under for the basin, we can only speculate that this
the VA. For the VA. we use density values varying crustal transition possibly occurs across the east-
from 2.60 to 2.80 g cm -’ between its higher and ern slope of the Eocene hinge zone. Our main
deeper parts, and approximate its shape from the reasons for this assumption are:
inferred geometry of the inland seismic slab shown (1) The hinge zone is a regionally extensive
in Fig. 5 in relation to seismologic section BB’. curvilinear tectonic feature continuing in a
The density value of 2.60 g cm--’ for the upper NNE-SSW to SW direction from the Bengal basin
portion of the volcanic arc is our estimated aver- into the Bay of Bengal further south; in the latter
age value for the measured rock density of the area it apparently correlates to the margin of the
volcanic rocks of the VA. It is of interest to note continental crust for the Mahanadi offshore basin
that in places the core of the VA is occupied by along the east coast of India (cf. Talukdar, 1982):
intrusive granites; field evidence is available (cf. seaward of this zone, 130-100 m.y. old oceanic
Chhibber, 1934a), describing rocks of continental magnetic anomalies are believed to be present (cf.
character that were ejected during violent volcanic Johnson et al., 1976).
eruptions among others as volcanic bombs. This (2) Across the hinge zone the sediment thick-
suggests low density rocks under the VA whose ness underlying the Bengal basin rapidly increases
adjacent basement, at least towards the east, is toward its deeper parts (see above). Landsat image
possibly continental in character. According to shows (cf. Nandy, 1980) prominent NE-oriented
Grow (1973) in the Kamchatka, Alaska, Kurile lineaments over the area; the iineaments are corre-
and probably the Aleutian arc areas, the volcanic latable to the Eocene hinge zone at depth, and are
zones (comparable to the VA of the present case) seismically active. The fold pattern and subsi-
are associated with high seismic shearwave at- dence character also differ across the hinge zone
tenuation, high temperatures and low densities in (see, Morgan and McIntyre, 1959).
the crust and lithosphere. Seismological studies (3) A two-stage evolution for the Bengal basin
are, however, needed to confirm the proposed low is envisaged by Salt et al. (1986); an initial stage
density zone below the VA in Burma. of creation of a new oceanic basin in
Another significant density anomaly in the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous in association with a
mantle is caused by the crustal layer below the passive Indian continental margin, while the sec-
FMB that is carried down with the descending ond stage involves crustal subduction, collision
plate. The Bengal basin, in its deeper parts, is and orogeny in the Indo-Burman ranges to the
believed to be underlain by oceanic crust (Burke north and east of the basin during the Tertiary.
and Deway, 1973; Verma and Mukhopadhyay, This has resulted in continuous basin destruction
1977). Current subduction of the Indian plate along its eastern margin. In a framework of con-
below the Burmese arc also requires that the Ben- tinuing oblique subduction, the Bengal basin is
gai basin must be underlain by oceanic crust. The thus classified as a “remnant ocean basin”.
Indian shield crust therefore must transit into (4) The pattern of gravity signature across the
oceanic crust below the Bengal basin. However, hinge zone (Fig. 7) has a semblance with that of
keeping in view the most recent results obtained continent-ocean transitional areas; a gravity high
by Brune and Singh (1986) from the observed on the continental side and a gravity low ocean-
dispersion of fundamental mode Rayleigh and ward outlined by a zone of steep gravity between
Love Waves across the Bay of Bengal sediments, them (cf. Dehlinger, 1978, p. 231-232). This is
we believe that the crust underlying the basin may evidenced by an anomaly variation of more than
not be truly oceanic rather it may be semioceanic 70 mGa1 between the Rangpur saddle and the
considering the fact that the basin contains huge Bengal foredeep across the hinge zone (Figs. 3 and
sediments and also the fact that the basin reached 7). This change in gravity is even more pro-
its present land-status as early as Late Oligocene nounced in the N-S direction {total variation is in
(cf. Evans, 1964; Nandy. 1982). Since at the mo- excess of 105 mGa1) between the Shillong massif

and the Surma valley across the Dauki fault; the
fault has an associated sharp gravity gradient.
For gravity modeling along profile I-I’, we
assume that the Indian shield crust underlying the
western part of the Bengal basin is a nearly 30 km
thick two layered continental crust having respec-
tive densities of 2.70 and 2.90 g cme3 in its top
and lower parts. This crust would be in approxi-
mate isostatic equilibrium as required by the low
elevation of the region. It is also assumed that
gravity variation along the profile is caused by
changes in crustal configuration from the shield
margin to deeper parts of the Bengal basin. We
have suggested elsewhere (Verma and Mukho-
padhyay, 1976, 1977) that the Bengal basin is in
approximate isostatic equilibrium as required by
its near-zero Free-air and isostatic anomalies. The
Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments forming most
of the sediment sequences of the basin are to-
gether considered to be of average density 2.40 g
cmP3 (cf. Evans and Crompton, 1946; Verma and
Mukhopadhyay, 1977); the sediment thickness un-
derlying the profile I-I’ is taken from Fig. 3. In
the gravity model we also incorporate two rather
localized geologic bodies: (1) a layer of high den-
sity (= 3.08 g cma3) metamorphics located on the
surface at the margin of the Indian shield (after
Mukhopadhyay et al., 1986) and (2) locally
densified Eocene limestone strata at about 4 km
depth near the hinge zone having density = 2.65 g
cmw3 (after Tiwari, 1983) whose dimensions are
known from seismic surveys. The gross sediment
thickness pattern and crustal geometry considered
in the following ~te~retation may, however, rep-
resent an oversimplified version of the actual sub-
surface situation. While some of these assump-
tions are ambiguous, certain important inferences
can be made on the approximate configurations of
the sedimentary and crustal layers below the FMB
and near the subduction zone in Burma which
satisfy the gravity data.
The sedimentary and crustal layers underlying
the Bengal basin are carried down the trench with
gentle dips at shallow level which steepen at depth
following the geometry of the Benioff zone (Fig.
8). Immediately to the east of the Chin hills, the
average sediment thickness is of the order of 13
km, but down the trench the sediments may ex-
319
tend to a depth of about 15 km. These figures are
comparable to geological estimates (see fig. 5 in
Brunnschweiler, 1974). Grow (1973) and Grow
and Bowin (1975) have discussed the effect on
density as the oceanic crust experiences transition
from lower to higher pressure assemblages (basalt
to eclogite) at pressures between 10 to 20 kb
(30-60 km depth) in a Benioff zone environment.
This process is grossly simplified here by a simple
density change of the oceanic crust from 2.9 to 3.4
g cme3 at about 30 km depth. The derived geom-
etry in Fig. 8 shows that both the sedimentary and
deeper crustal layers are depressed into their re-
spective substrata over a distance of 200 km below
the FMB (covering the Tripura foldbelt and the
Chin hills at the location of the gravity profile)
towards the immediate east of the Bengal basin
before being carried down the trench. The Barisal
gravity and structural high developed within the
Bengal basin would therefore correspond, both in
location and amplitude, to typical “outer” gravity
and bathymetric highs seaward of trenches as seen
for several western pacific arcs (cf. Watts and
Talwani, 1974). As the Barisal structural high is
buried below a thick sediment cover, its exact
magnitude is not known; according to Matin et al.
(1986) its dimension does not exceed that of a
local fold. But the wavelength of its associated
gravity “high’ however suggests otherwise. Our
gravity model infers that a corresponding upward
bulge by about 400-500 m at the base of the
oceanic crust is required to explain the amplitude
of the gravity high.
Focal mechanism solutions for earthquake
events 26-28 originating under the Tripura fold-
belt (see above) suggest E-W compression, where
faulting presumably occurs in a N-S direction.
This is in accordance with the mapped faults and
axial trend of the FMB. Sediments with an aver-
age thickness of 8-10 km are present for at least
50-60 km east of the gravity ~~rnurn below the
forearc basin (the western trough belonging to CB
molasse basin in Fig. 8) east of the FMB; the
basin appears to have an asymmetric shape, its
maximum sediment thickness of 15 km overlies
the area where the Burma plate is deflected down-
wards in the vicinity of the inclined seismic zone.
These sediments together with the underlying crust
of the Burma plate are seemingly thrust over the extends below the Burmese plains westward though
layers of the descending Indian plate through an it may be considerably thinner there. This thin-
efficient decoupling. Whether the decoupling is ning possibly occurs in a seismically active crustai
accomplished by a decollement plane or by im- zone below the eastern trough of the CB as stated
bricate thrusting at the juncture of the two plates above. The eastern trough is assumed to contain
it difficult to determine on the basis of gravity only 2 km sediments of density 2.4 g cm ‘” At the
data alone (see, for instance, McCaffrey and far eastern end of the profile. the discrepancy
Nabelek. 1984 on gravity modeling for Sunda arc). between the computed and observed anomalies
This is more difficult since the gravity map availa- may be attributed to the Paleozoic sediments laid
ble to us shows only the broad nature of gravity down over the Shan plateau whose effects were
anomalies; detailed gravity coverage plus seismic not considered in the present model.
control are essential for this critical region. The
gravity model (Fig. S), however, illustrates that the Acknowledgements
Cretaceous flysch and other sediment stratas of
the FMB continue subsurfacially for some dis- We are thankful to Shri DR. Nandy for helpful
tance eastward below the forearc basin as a result discussions. Shri N. Karmakar drafted the figures.
of underth~sting manifested by the EBT and its We thank Shri L.V. Ramana for assistance in
subparallel thrusts/faults. The EBT, over most computer modeling of gravity data.
parts of the FMB, denotes outcrops of
serpentinized peridotites with associated gabbros, References
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