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Appendix I
Soxhlet- Soxhlet-
% Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic % Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic
acid (°SH) (°T) (°D) acid (°SH) (°T) (°D)
Soxhlet- Soxhlet-
% Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic % Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic
acid (°SH) (°T) (°D) acid (°SH) (°T) (°D)
Appendix II
Temperature conversion*
Centigrade/Celsius Fahrenheit
°C = 5/9 (F - 32) °F = (9/5 ¥ C) + 32
= 0.555 (F - 32) = (1.8 ¥ C) + 32
°C °F °C °F °C °F
°C °F °C °F °C °F
°C °F °C °F °C °F
* Find the known temperature to be converted in the “boxed” column, then read the conversion to the
left for °C and/or right for °F.
Example: Convert the following known temperature, i.e. 50
10.0 50 122.0
\ 50°C = 122.0°F
or 50°F = 10.0°C
Appendix III
Volume units
Millilitres to gallons (Imp) 0.00022
gallons (US) 0.00026
fluid ounces (Imp) 0.03520
fluid ounces (US) 0.03380
Cubic centimetres to cubic inches 0.06100
cubic inches 61.0 ¥ 10-3
cubic feet 35.30000
Cubic metres to gallons (Imp) 220.00000
gallons (US) 264.17000
cubic feet 0.03500
cubic inches 61.03000
fluid ounces (Imp) 35.19600
fluid ounces (US) 33.81400
gallons (Imp) 0.21990
Litres to gallons (US) 0.26420
pints (Imp) 1.75980
pints (US) 2.11340
quarts (Imp) 0.87880
quarts (US) 1.05670
cubic inches 1.80500
gallons (US) 0.00780
Fluid ounces (US) to litres 0.02950
millilitres 29.57000
fluid ounces (Imp) 1.04100
gallons (Imp) 0.00630
Fluid ounces (Imp) to millilitres 28.41000
fluid ounces (US) 0.96000
litres 0.47320
Pints (US) to pints (Imp) 1.20090
Quarts (Imp) to litres 1.13650
Quarts (US) to litres 0.94600
cubic inches 1728.00000
gallons (Imp) 6.48100
Cubic feet to gallons (US) 7.48100
litres 28.32000
cubic centilitres 16.38700
cubic feet 0.00058
gallons (Imp) 0.00360
Cubic inches to gallons (US) 0.00430
litres 0.01640
fluid ounces (US) 0.55400
Fluid drams to fluid ounces (US) 0.12500
Fluid ounces to drams (US) 8.00000
Fluid ounces to litres (Imp) 0.02080
Fluid ounces (US) to litres 0.02960
cubic feet 0.16000
cubic inches 277.30000
litres 4.54600
Gallons (Imp) to gallons (US) 1.20090
millilitres 4546.00000
cubic metres 0.00460
ounces (Imp) 160.00000
cubic feet 0.13370
cubic inches 231.30000
litres 3.78530
Gallons (US) to gallons (Imp) 0.83270
millilitres 3785.00000
cubic metres 0.00380
ounces (US) 128.00000
Appendix IV
Weight/mass units
grain 15.4300
Gram to ounce 0.0353
pound 0.0022
ounce 35.2700
Kilogram to pound 2.2040
gram 28.3500
Ounce to grain 437.0000
pound 0.0625
gram 453.6000
grain 7000.0000
Pound to kilogram 0.4500
ounce 16.0000
ounce 0.0023
Grain to pound 0.00014
gram 0.0648
grain/gallon (Imp) 70.1140
grain/gallon (US) 58.4000
Gram/litre to grain/ounce (US) 0.4600
pound/gallon (US) 0.0083
Gram/millilitre to pounds/gallon (US) 8.3450
gram/cubic centimetre 0.0160
Pound/cubic foot to pound/gallon (US) 0.1337
gram/millilitre 0.1198
Pound/gallon (US) to pound/cubic foot 7.8410
gram/litre 119.9470
Appendix V
Miscellaneous units
Appendix VI
Quantity SI factor
Energy
cal 4.1868 J
kcal 4.1868 ¥ 103 J
Btu 1.0551 ¥ 103 J
Horse power (hp) hour-1
metric 2.6477 ¥ 106 J
hp hour-1 (Imp) 2.6845 ¥ 106 J
kW hour-1 3.6000 ¥ 106 J
ft lb-1 1.3558 J
Therm 1.0551 ¥ 18 J
Thermic 4.1855 ¥ 106 J
Calorific value (volumetric)
cal cm-3 4.1868 ¥ 106 J m-3
kcal m-3 4.1868 ¥ 103 J m-3
Btu ft-3 3.7260 ¥ 104 J m-3
Therm ft-3 3.7260 ¥ 109 J m-3
Coefficient of expansion (volumetric)
g cm-3 °C-1 1.0000 ¥ 103 ¥ kg m-3 °C-1
lb ft-3 °C-1 28.8330 ¥ kg m-3 °C-1
Heat flux
cal s-1 cm-2 4.1868 ¥ 104 W m-2
kcal hour-1 m-2 1.1630 W m-2
Btu hour-1 ft-2 3.1546 W m-2
Heat release rate
A. Mass
cal s-1 g-1 4.1868 ¥ 103 W kg-1
kcal hour-1 kg-1 1.1630 W kg-1
Btu hour-1 lb-1 6.4612 ¥ 10-1 W kg-1
B. Volumetric
cal s-1 cm-3 4.1868 ¥ 106 W m-3
kcal hour-1 m-3 1.1630 W m-3
Btu hour-1 ft-3 1.0350 ¥ 10 W m-3
Heat transfer coefficient
cal s-1 cm-2 °C-1 4.1868 ¥ 104 W m-2 °C-1
Appendix VII
Appendix VIII
Appendix IX
82.5 ¥ 500
The amount of skimmed milk required = = 468.75 litres
88
5.5 ¥ 500
The amount of skimmed milk powder = = 31.25 kg
required 88
Total 500.00 litres
Since the above mix contains only small quantities of fat, e.g. 0.1 g 100 g-1, the balance of the
required fat comes from the cream as follows:
48.5 ¥ 500
The amount of fortified skimmed milk = = 485.97 litres
required 49.9
1.4 ¥ 500
The amount of cream required = = 14.03 litres
49.9
Total 500.00 litres
Although the above calculation does not take into consideration the amount of solids-
not-fat present in the cream (4.5 g 100 g-1) and the starter culture inoculum (12 g 100 g-1), the
accuracy is sufficient for most practical purposes. However, as an additional check, the final
composition of the yoghurt can be calculated as follows:
100 ¥ 7.51
\ the % of fat in yoghurt = = 1.37
546.25
76.48 ¥ 100
The % of solids - not - fat in yoghurt = = 14.00
546.25
Hence, the difference in the composition (g 100 g-1) is fat 0.13 and solids-not-fat 0.5, and such
small margin of error is due to the fact that the cream (SNF) and the starter inoculum (SNF)
are not considered. If such small % of fat and SNF is compensated for, then the prepared
milk base will have the desired level of fat and SNF.
For convenience, the liquid ingredients could be measured in litres and the procedure of
calculation is as follows:
The source of fat is whole milk (3.5 g 100 g-1) and skimmed milk (0.1 g 100 g-1) and the level
in the mix is 1.5 g 100 g-1
3.5X 0.1Y
+ = 1.5 (1)
100 100
The source of SNF (g 100 g-1) is whole milk (8.5), skimmed milk (9) and skimmed milk powder
(97), and the level in the mix is 14.5; however, the amount of SNF (0.36 kg) which originates
from the starter culture must be deducted, i.e.
8.5X 9Y 97Z
+ + = 1.45 - 0.36 = 14.14 (2)
100 100 100
The source of water (g 100 g-1) is whole milk (88.0), skimmed milk (90.9), skimmed milk
powder (3.0) and the weight of the water from the starter culture; therefore, the formula
becomes:
Divide the value (Z) in equation (10) by the value (Z) in equation (11) in order to calculate
the multiplication factor by which the value (Y ) can be calculated
339.5Z
= 32.33
10.5Z
490 199.08
\Y =
9970.64
= 49.16 kg or l of skimmed milk required
Substitute the value of Y in equation (10) to calculate the value of Z
49.16(30.65) + 339.5Z = 3674
1506.75 + 339.5Z = 3674
339.5Z = 3674 - 1506.75 = 2167.25
2167.25
\Z =
339.5
= 6.38 kg of skimmed milk powder required
Substitute the value of Y in equation (7) to calculate the value of X
150 - 0.1(49.16)
X=
3.5
150 - 4.916
=
3.5
145.08
=
3.5
= 41.45 kg or l of whole milk required
The above total should amount to exactly 100, but the slight discrepancy is due to various
approximations made in the above calculations; however, a second check from the above
weights of raw materials can be made to confirm the chemical composition of the final
yoghurt:
The above example could be applied to calculate exactly the weight of any dairy raw
material which could be used for the manufacture of yoghurt (see Chapter 2) and since the
quantity or unit of a 100 is used, it can be easily converted to a much larger volume of
production.
Reference
hyde, k.a. and rothwell, j. (1973) In Ice Cream, Churchill Livingstone, London.