Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219
DOI 10.1007/s00126-008-0209-z
ARTICLE
Carbonate spots: understanding the relationship to gold
mineralization in Central Victoria, southeastern Australia
Allison L. Dugdale & Christopher J. L. Wilson &
Lawrence D. Leader & Jamie A. Robinson &
L. Jonathon Dugdale
Received: 27 August 2007 / Accepted: 2 September 2008 / Published online: 8 October 2008
# Springer-Verlag 2008
Abstract Historically, carbonate spots have been identified
as an indicator of gold mineralization throughout central
Victoria, Australia. However, the exact timing relationships
between the growth of carbonates, development of defor-
mation fabrics, and the introduction of gold has only been
determined in more recent times through isolated studies on
individual gold deposits. Detailed examination of the
evolution of hydrothermal alteration associated with the
Magdala gold deposit at Stawell recognized the fact that
there were at least two generations of carbonate growth, an
early rounded ankerite phase that predated gold minerali-
zation and a later euhedral siderite phase coincident with
gold mineralization. This pattern of carbonate growth is
repeated in the majority of significant gold deposits,
including Bendigo and Ballarat, throughout central Victo-
ria. Timing relationships within the carbonates suggest that
Editorial handling: A. Boyce
A. L. Dugdale (*)
Ballarat Goldfields Pty Ltd,
10 Woolshed Gully Drive,
Ballarat, Victoria 3350, Australia
e-mail: allison.dugdale@lglgold.com
A. L. Dugdale : C. J. L. Wilson : L. D. Leader
School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
J. A. Robinson
CSIRO Exploration and Mining, Australian Resources Centre,
Bentley, Western Australia 6102, Australia
L. J. Dugdale
Lion Selection Group,
Queen St,
Melbourne 3000, Australia
a fluid was introduced along bedding planes and early
deformation fabrics prior to the main upright folding events
that significantly modified the original sedimentary basin. It
is suggested that the early rounded carbonates may have
formed as a result of anaerobic oxidation of methane,
derived from the sediments and advected along normal
growth faults within the sedimentary basin, through
interaction with downward diffusing seawater sulfate.
Although the growth of the early carbonates is not related
to gold mineralization, the change in the speciation of the
carbonate during the later carbonate event is critical and can
be tracked using a simple geochemical index that can be
used not only in areas of outcrop but also in conjunction
with exploration undercover.
Keywords Hydrothermal alteration . Carbonate . Gold .
Central Victoria
Introduction
The Victorian gold fields (Fig. 1) are one of Australia’s
most important gold mining regions with over 2,500 t of
gold produced since 1851 (Phillips and Hughes 1996).
Historically, exploration has followed traditional methods
in regions where Cambrian and Palaeozoic ‘turbidite’ or
‘slate belt’ rocks host confirmed orogenic gold deposits.
However, exploration for new deposits under cover in
central Victoria is difficult, although the prize for persis-
tence can be great (e.g., Bendigo ∼1,900 kg Au produced;
Willman and Wilkinson 1992). The majority of known
deposits are structurally controlled with dilation associated
with reverse faults, extensional fracture arrays and saddle
reefs particularly adjacent to anticlines (Cox et al. 1991).
DO00209; No of Pages
206 Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219

The use of geographical information systems (GIS) soft-
ware in gold exploration and spatial modeling techniques
(Miller et al. 2006; Rawling et al. 2006) provide relatively
new approaches for assessing the spatial relationship
between known deposits and individual parameters of a
deposit model (e.g., favorable lithology, alteration, and
tracing exposed structural trends under cover using aero-
magnetic and gravity imagery). The target area using this
approach will be large enough to encompass an entire
goldfield. However, the surficial projections of the majority
of individual deposits (Fig. 1) within a field have
dimensions of less than 2 km2. Therefore, more localized
indicators to mineralization are necessary to reduce the
target size. Historically, carbonaceous “indicator” beds
were thought to indicate the presence of gold (e.g.,
Whitelaw 1911; Baragwanath 1923), although more recent
research has shown that these indicators do not necessarily
point to the presence of economic gold (Bierlein et al.
2001a). So-called carbonate porphyroblasts or poikilo-
blasts, commonly known as spots, are ubiquitously associ-
ated with central Victorian gold deposits (Sandiford and
Keays 1986; Binns and Eames 1989; Cox et al. 1991; Forde
1991; Phillips and Hughes 1996; Bierlein et al. 1998, 2000;
Dugdale et al. 2006). The occurrence of early carbonate
spots is well known in other turbidite-hosted orogenic gold
metallogenic provinces (e.g., Dolaucothi goldfield, Wales,
United Kingdom, Annels and Roberts 1989; Hill End
goldfield, NSW, Australia, Windh 1995; Moose River
goldfield, Meguma Terrane, Nova Scotia, Canada, Ryan
and Smith 1998; Reefton goldfield, Buller Terrane, New
Zealand, Christie and Brathwaite 2003; Macraes goldfield,
New Zealand, Craw 2002) and is recognized distal to
mineralization. This is particularly true within greenschist
facies metamorphic terranes, where the deposits share
numerous characteristics (e.g., elemental associations,
alteration assemblages, and ore fluid properties) and are
likely to originate from a common source. Kerrich and
Cassidy (1994) argued that many orogenic gold provinces
are formed close in space and time within accretion and
metamorphism of the host terranes. Similarly, Kerrich and
Ludden (2000) argue that, in such a metallogenic province,
there will be brines rich in CH4 that penetrate the basement
during an extensional phase.
An examination of modern deep sea basins (e.g.,
Derugin Basin and Santa Barbara Basin) shows that
carbonates commonly occur proximal to cold seep sites
where they form acicular botryoids (Greinert et al. 2002;
Eichhubl et al. 2000). The mechanism of formation for
these authigenic carbonates is thought to involve the
interaction between methane-bearing fluid, either biogenic
or thermogenic in origin, that is advected along fault
structures with downward diffusing of seawater sulfate,
which results in the anaerobic oxidation of the methane and
the release of bicarbonate and sulfide into the pore water
(Irwin et al. 1977; Welhan 1988; Hinrichs et al. 1999;
Whiticar 1999; Boetitus et al. 2000). Is it possible that some
of the carbonate spots spatially associated with gold
mineralization in central Victoria are the result of cold seep
methane advection during the rapid deposition of turbidite
sediments in the Ordovician? If so, how can we distinguish
between these carbonates and identify which carbonate
phase is directly related to gold mineralization? Could the

Fig. 1 Distribution and location 1 Avoca 10 Maldon

of principal orogenic gold 2 Ballarat 11 Maryborough
3 Beufort 12 Percydale
deposits with carbonate spots 4 Bendigo 13 Pitfield
within Victoria 5 Clunes 14 Raywood N
6 Creswick 15 St Arnaud
7 Drummond-Lauriston-Taradale-Malmsbury 16 Stawell
8 Dunolly 17 Tarnagulla
9 Fosterville 18 Wattle Gully
19 Wederburn
20 Kewell
Avoca
Fault
Coongee
Fault
Fault

20
19
cote

Moyston 15 17 14
4 9
Heath

8
Fault
Go

12 11 10
ve

16 1 18
no

7
rF

Stawell 5 Bendigo Melbourne

au

6
lt

Zone 3 2
Zone Zone
Melbourne
13
Extent of outcrop

100 Km
Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219
distinction between these carbonates provide a simple tool
to aid in the exploration for turbidite-hosted gold deposits
under cover? The purpose of this paper is to address these
questions through the examination of structural timing
relationships and geochemistry of spots, using current
research from the Stawell and Bendigo Zones and previous
published research on other deposits within central Victoria.
Regional setting of the gold deposits
The majority of gold deposits in central Victoria are
located in the Bendigo Zone (Fig. 1), within the Lachlan
Orogen, and are hosted by the Ordovician Castlemaine
Group that comprises mudstone, siltstone, sandstone de-
posited as a turbiditic sequence (Gray et al. 2003). Gold
deposits in the Stawell Zone are hosted by Cambrian St
Arnaud Group turbiditic sedimentary rocks similar to the
Castlemaine Group in the Bendigo Zone. However,
deposits west of the Coongee Fault (e.g., Stawell; Fig. 1)
are hosted by similar sedimentary rocks that have been
geochemically modified in response to seawater interaction
with underlying hot basaltic edifices (Squire and Wilson
2005; Dugdale et al. 2006).
The Cambrian aged sediments (Squire and Wilson 2005)
within the Stawell Zone have been deformed by both the
Delamerian and the Lachlan orogenies (Miller et al. 2005).
The Delamerian Orogeny resulted in the main ductile (D1–
D3) and initial brittle (D4a–b) deformation (Miller et al.
2006), and the Lachlan Orogeny is manifested by brittle
deformation (D4c–D5; Miller et al. 2006). Regional meta-
morphism in the Stawell Zone ranges from lower greens-
chist in the east to upper amphibolite facies on the western
margin abutting the Moyston Fault (Fig. 1) and is pre- to
syn-D2 (Miller et al. 2005).
An early foliation (S1) that is subparallel to bedding is
pervasive in the Ordovician sequences of the Lachlan
Orogen and has been identified by numerous researchers,
e.g., Powell and Rickard (1985); Wilson and de Hedouville
(1985); Wilson et al. (1992); Forde and Bell (1994);
Schaubs and Wilson (2002); Gray et al. 2003; and Willman
(2007). Subsequent to this, the main deformation event (D2)
in the Bendigo Zone (Fig. 2) occurred between 455 and
425 Ma (Bucher et al. 1996; Foster et al. 1996) and
produced the main folding (F2), faulting and cleavage (S2)
development and associated subgreenschist to lower
greenschist facies metamorphism (Offler et al. 1998;
Fig. 2). The mid-Devonian (385–380 Ma; Foster et al.
1999) Tabberabberan Orogeny produced kink folds and
minor crenulation cleavage (S3) throughout the Bendigo
Zone (VandenBerg et al. 2000).
Gold mineralization in deposits of Bendigo and eastern
Stawell Zone is primarily restricted to quartz veins of which
207
there are five main types: subhorizontal (spurs); fault reefs
(leather jacket or legs); saddle reefs; laminated veins and
breccia veins, all of which postdate the D2 cleavage
development (Cox 1987, Cox et al. 1991; Willman and
Wilkinson 1992). In the western portion of the Stawell
Zone, gold occurs in tensional quartz vein arrays, reac-
tivated laminated quartz veins, and disseminated in associ-
ation with sulfides (Miller and Wilson 2002; Dugdale et al.
2006). Mineralization in the Stawell Zone also post-dates
D3 ductile deformation and is related to the Lachlan
Orogeny. Bierlein et al. (2001b) suggested that there were
three periods of significant gold mineralization within the
Bendigo and Stawell Zone, although the youngest event
∼370 Ma is attributed to gold remobilization (Fig. 2). The
earliest gold event ∼440 Ma resulted in the formation of the
larger gold deposits (e.g., Bendigo, Ballarat, Stawell) and
the second and third events 425–400 and 370 Ma respec-
tively, produced generally smaller tonnage mineralization
(e.g., Wonga, Tarnagulla, Percydale, and Fosterville).
The sedimentary sequences and their metamorphic
derivatives in the Stawell Zone are dominated by the
quartz-rich turbidites of the Cambrian St Arnaud Group
west of the Avoca Fault that were deposited in a
sedimentary basin developed by rifting of the Gondwana
craton and its margin in the Early Cambrian (Squire and
Wilson 2005). To the west and east of these basins, major
faults are inferred to flank major continental basement
blocks, as imaged by geophysical data sets (Murphy et al.
2006), and there appears a spatial coincidence in the
depositional style of the turbidite sediments that may be a
product of the variable basin-margin configuration and its
subsequent reactivation (Miller et al. 2006).
Convergence during the Delamerian Orogeny along part
of the western continental margin in the Late Cambrian
resulted in the inversion of preexisting normal faults and
the development of a fold and thrust belt verging toward the
craton (Flöttmann and James 1997; Miller et al. 2005). On
the eastern margin of the Bendigo Zone, the Lachlan
orogenesis is characterized by east vergent structures that
are probably related to the reactivation of the Heathcote
Fault (Miller et al. 2005). The total thickness of the St
Arnaud Group is >2,000 m thick, whereas, the total
thickness of the Ordovician turbidite succession in the
Bendigo Zone is in excess of >3,000 m (Squire et al. 2006).
These sedimentary basins are underlain by basalts that can
be related to an extensional event that affected the entire
proto-Pacific margin of East Gondwana and was accompa-
nied by rapid deposition of a massive volume of quartz-rich
detritus (Squire et al. 2006). The onset of the ∼440 Ma
east–west compression in the Lachlan Orogen shortened the
Cambrian–Ordovician sedimentary basins and their base-
ment between the Selwyn Block and the Australian Craton
to the order of 70% (Cayley et al. 2002).
208 Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219

STAWELL ZONE BENDIGO ZONE

Stawell Fiddlers Reef Ballarat East Ballarat West Bendigo & Tarnagulla Fosterville
TABBERABBERAN

390
& St Arnaud & Wattle Gully Clunes
DEVONIAN

400 x x x x
Au Au
410

FAULT

FAULT
Au

FAULT
SILURIAN

420 Au Au
Au

430

WHITELAW
Au
COONGEE

440 Au Au Au

AVOCA
LACHLAN

450
Au M M M M M
ORDOVICIAN

460

470
Castlemaine Group
480 St Arnaud Beds
DELARMERIAN

490

M M
500

x x Granite intrusions Commencement of ductile deformation

Au Gold mineralization M Regional metamorphism

Carbonate spots Brittle deformation

Fig. 2 Schematic summary of stratigraphy, deformation, mineralization and hydrothermal alteration for the Stawell, St Arnaud, Percydale,
Bendigo, Ballarat East and West, Clunes, Tarnagulla, and Fosterville orogenic gold deposits

Distribution, timing, and composition of carbonate spots
In the majority of the central Victorian gold deposits,
carbonate spots extend less than 50 m into the surrounding
country rock. However, in a minority of cases (e.g., Percydale
and Bendigo), carbonate spots can define a 1-km wide
envelope surrounding mineralization. Documented timing
relationships and composition of carbonate spots from various
gold deposits within the Stawell and Bendigo Zone are
presented to establish the relationship to gold mineralization.
Stawell zone
Stawell Carbonate spots occur in the fine-grained meta-
sandstone and mudstone of the Albion Formation (Squire
and Wilson 2005) in a 50- to 70-m wide zone in the hanging-
wall to the main reactivated laminated quartz vein (Central
Lode, Fig. 3). At least two generations of carbonate spots
occur at Stawell, which comprise: (1) rounded grains, which
accumulate along bedding (S0) and microfractures and also
occur parallel to the S2 cleavage but are rotated in the S3
cleavage; and (2) euhedral crystals that occur as isolated
rhombohedra and as strain shadows to the rounded grains.
The initial development of the Central Lode structure during
D2 is interpreted to have been the conduit for the
hydrothermal fluid that promoted the growth of the
carbonates within essentially carbonate poor turbiditic sedi-
ments (Dugdale et al. 2006). The rounded grains and
euhedral crystals distal to Central Lode both comprise
ankerite. However, within 30 m of Central Lode, carbonates
display compositional zonation and are pseudomorphed by
siderite (Dugdale et al. 2006). Formation of the main Central
Lode quartz vein occurred during D3, and reactivation during
Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219 209

t
Leviathan ou N
Formation t ing n
o t gi
(pervasively muscovite altered) e sp ottin
t p
na te s
rbo a
ca rbon
ca ou
t
te
h l ori i n
c rite
chlo
Albion Formation
(pervasively muscovite Stawell
altered) Stawell Facies
Facies
lo de
ct

e
ta
lod
C on
alt
al
s
Ba
ntr
Ce

SD607

SD606W2
110

ane SD598CW1
Albion Formation
el Magdala
m Basalt
no
50 m ilp
st SD598CW2
basalt
SD 606

Fig. 3 A cross-section through the Stawell gold deposit showing the < 110 Kewell
location of the main gold-bearing structures (Central Lode and Basalt Basalt
Contact Lode), diamond drill hole traces, interpreted geology, the
distribution of carbonate spots and the distribution of alteration of the
hydrothermally altered turbidites (Stawell Facies) and the muscovite
< 110
alteration of the overlying Albion and Leviathan Formations (after Projection of resource
Dugdale et al. 2006)

D4 coincided with introduction of a gold-bearing fluid

(Miller et al. 2006). Siderite overgrows the S3 cleavage and
hence is related to gold mineralization with the reactivation A A'

of Central Lode during D4 (Fig. 2; Dugdale et al. 2006).

Kewell The Kewell prospect is located approximately 100 km
north of Stawell on the northern extension of the Stawell
stratigraphy under the Tertiary Murray Basin sediments
(Fig. 1). The geology of the Kewell area is similar to Stawell
in terms of lithologies, structure, and timing of gold
mineralization and contains a scoped resource that is
estimated to be 500,000 T at 6 g Au/t for 3,000 kg (Fig. 4).
Rounded carbonate spots predominantly occur within the
hydrothermally altered sedimentary rocks (Stawell Facies)
adjacent to the Kewell basalt, although these spots are
invariably replaced by siderite in association with stilpnome-
lane and pyrrhotite. Spots however, do extend up to 10 m
within the mudstone-dominated upper Albion Formation, and
the carbonate spots in this vicinity are elongated within the
S2 slaty cleavage (Grewar 2004). Hence, the timing of
carbonate spots within the Albion Formation is pre-S2.
Percydale The occurrence of carbonate spots in the Percydale
gold field forms an extensive envelope to known mineraliza-
tion (Fig. 5). Sandiford and Keays (1986) noted that spots
extended up to 1 km across strike from mineralization at
Fiddlers Reef mine. Carbonate spots also occur proximal to
Leviathan Formation
120
500 m
Fig. 4 A plan view of the interpreted geology of the Kewell Prospect,
derived from aircore and diamond drill holes beneath the Tertiary
Murray Basin sediments (the depth of which is contoured in 10 m
intervals) and showing the location of cross-section A-A’ (Fig. 12)
the Poverty and Fiddlers Faults (Fig. 5). Two generations of
carbonate occur within the metasedimentary host rocks and
comprise rhombohedral ankerite spots that become over-
grown by Fe- and Mg-rich carbonate which contributes to a
rounded appearance, proximal to mineralization. Marek
(1997) shows that even though the rounded spots are
elongated within the S2 cleavage, the calcium-rich cores
preserve the S1 cleavage. Figure 2f in Bierlein et al. (2000)
shows a carbonate spot that is interpreted to have been
rotated and is elongated parallel to external cleavage (S2,
NNW–SSE), which in turn has been crenulated by a
nonpervasive cleavage S3 (N–S). An internal NE–SW
210 Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219

N N

Pe
rcy
Fa
ult

da
le
Laminated
10 30
siltstone + mudstone 40 30
10

extent of carbonate spots 10

10
B-B'
Fiddlers Reef 10

Mine 10
40
30

30
40

Sandstone 40

40

Po
ve
Fa
Fid

Mudstone
rty
ult
Fa

dle

40
ult

rs

40
40

40

2 km mine
30
10

Glenfine Mine
10
Fig. 5 Geological plan of Percydale gold field showing location of 30

gold workings, principal faults, and the extent of carbonate spots (after
Marek 1997) A-A'
30

cleavage is preserved within the rounded Ca-rich core. Cambro-Ordovician

Sandiford and Keays (1986) suggested that the carbonate 30 sedimentary rocks
40
spot development accompanied reef formation. However,
main quartz vein development in the Fiddlers Reef mine
postdates S2 (Marek 1997) and clearly postdates the
asalt

development of the carbonate spots; hence, carbonate spots drill holes

40
Pitfield B

developed prior to gold mineralization (Fig. 2).

St Arnaud Two generations of carbonate spots have been

identified spatially associated with mineralization in the St 60
60

Arnaud gold field and comprise euhedral to subhedral

carbonate cores that preserve an internal cleavage. These
are overgrown by a poikiloblastic generation of carbonate
500 m
(Krokowski De Vickerod et al. 1997). Motton (1990) noted
that the internal cleavage within the early cores was discordant
with the main regional S2 cleavage that may suggest that the
cores had been rotated (Fig. 2). Krokowski De Vickerod et al.
(1997) interpreted that the carbonate spots precipitated from Fig. 6 Geological plan of the Pitfield area, derived from aircore and
diamond drill holes beneath the Tertiary basalt, the depth of which is
metamorphic fluids accompanying the growth of D3 and D4
contoured, showing the location of previous gold workings including
faults, during formation of the quartz reefs. Glenfine and cross-section traverses A-A’ (Fig. 8) and B-B’ (Fig. 13)

Pitfield Gold mineralization at Pitfield is hosted by Cambro-

Ordovician sedimentary rocks, similar to the Albion Formation Pitfield area comprises at least two coaxial ductile events and
at Stawell, adjacent to Cambrian tholeiitic basalt under a the preservation of early mesoscopic folds within transposed
blanket of Tertiary basalt, of variable thickness, and recent layering (Fig. 7). Hydrothermal alteration associated with
colluvium (Fig. 6; Morand et al. 1995). Deformation in the mineralization at the Glenfine Prospect (Fig. 6) comprises
Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219 211

S2a/S2b Bendigo Zone

Ballarat Carbonate spots occur up to ∼60 m from quartz

5 cm
Fig. 7 Photograph and sketch of diamond drill-core from the Glenfine
area showing transposition of folded quartz veins into the S2a/S2b
foliation
pervasive muscovite, the development of carbonate spots and
wisps up to 50 m from mineralization and chlorite growth
proximal to mineralization (Fig. 8). Mineralization is hosted
solely within bedding parallel laminated and discordant
tensional quartz veins that postdate S2b. Carbonate spots at
Glenfine overgrow the crenulated and transposed S2a fabric
but are wrapped by the S2b fabric (Fig. 9a,b).
vein hosted mineralization at Ballarat East and comprise
two generations of carbonate. The early generations are
rounded Fe- and Mg-rich carbonate elongated in the S2
cleavage with cores of quartz, pyrite, and kaolinite
(Besanko 1996). The second generation are rhombohedrons
of calcite to dolomite composition that exhibit preferential
growth along the S2 cleavage without any elongation
Quartz vein
(Besanko 1996). Gold mineralization at Ballarat East is
folded into
F2b associated with faults that postdate D2 and D3 and (Taylor
et al. 1996), therefore, postdate the development of the
carbonate spots (Fig. 2).
At Ballarat West, carbonate spots are strongly associated with
pervasive sericite alteration, and their intensity increases with
decreasing distance to the lode (Bierlein et al. 1998). Two
generations of carbonate are present: (1) dolomite that is
elongated within the pervasive S2 cleavage and, (2) ran-
domly oriented siderite that overprints, rims and traverses the
dolomite and forms as wisps along the S2 cleavage (Bierlein
et al. 1998). Gold mineralization at Ballarat West clearly
overprints the cleavage (S2), and hence, the timing of the
early carbonate spotting clearly predates gold mineralization
(Fig. 2).

Wattle Gully Carbonate spots at Wattle Gully occur up to

A A'
50 m away from mineralization (Bierlein et al. 1998). Two
PFD004 PFD021 PFD005 PFD020 PFD010
0
0 0 0 0

generations of carbonate have been identified: (1) dolomite

(plus minor calcite) spots, that are deformed and elongated
0.6 m @
5.43 gAu/t
along the main penetrative slaty cleavage (S2), and (2)
ankerite rims the dolomite spots and overgrows the slaty
mRL100 cleavage (Bierlein et al. 1998). Gold mineralization at Wattle
Gully postdates the development of the slaty cleavage and is
localized in dilational sites along a network of reverse faults
that traverse the chevron folds (Fig. 2; Cox 1995).
1m@
13.9 gAu/t
Tarnagulla The lateral extent of carbonate spots at Tarnagulla
mRL0 is variable from 1 m up to 50 m from the main Poverty Reef
0.3 m @
11.1 gAu/t
(Cooke 1997). Only one generation of carbonate has been
identified and comprises a magnesite–siderite composition
(Molloy 1994). The carbonate spots are elongated along the
0.6 m @
main axial planar slaty cleavage (S2) and are overprinted by
50 m 1.57 gAu/t the spaced S3 cleavage (Molloy 1994). Mineralization at
Tarnagulla is hosted within laminated veins formed during
Tertiary basalt Chlorite Carbonate spots sinistral strike–slip reactivation on the Poverty Fault that
Cambro-Ordovician Graphite
clearly post dates D2 (Cuffley et al. 1995).
sedimentary rocks Quartz reefs

Cambrian basalt Carbonate wisps

Fig. 8 Diamond drill-hole cross-section through the Glenfine area
(Fig. 6) showing interpreted geology and the distribution of
hydrothermal alteration about mineralized quartz reefs
Clunes Two generations of carbonate spots occur: (1) ankerite
elongated within the pervasive slaty S2 cleavage and, (2)
siderite, which rims the ankerite spots with atoll textures and
overprints the S2 cleavage (Binns and Eames 1989; Taylor
212 Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219

Fig. 9 Photomicrographs from ankerite

Pitfield (a–b) and Fosterville spots
(c–e) with: a Carbonate spots, ankerite
ankerite–siderite in composition, spots
overprint the crenulated S2a
cleavage but are traversed by the S2b
S2b cleavage, cross-polarized
light (PFD5 133 m); b carbonate
spots, ankerite–siderite in com- S2b
position, dislocated by strong
S2a 0.30 mm 0.30 mm
S2b cleavage, plane polarized a b
light (PFD5 133 m); c Ankerite
spots traversed by the main S2
penetrative cleavage, plane po-
larized (DD32); d Ankerite ankerite
spots overprint the early bedding spots
parallel cleavage and dismem-
bered by main penetrative
cleavage, plane polarized
(DD18B); and e Ankerite also
occurs within fractures that S2
parallel and cross-cut the main ankerite S1
penetrative cleavage, plane c spots 0.25 mm d 0.25 mm
polarized (DD09)

ankerite/siderite
S2 filled fractures

e 0.25 mm

et al. 2000). Mineralization at Clunes transgresses meso-
scale folds, associated axial planar cleavage (S2), and locally
developed crenulation cleavage (S3; Taylor et al. 2000).
Bendigo At least two generations of carbonate spots have
been documented at Bendigo: (1) zoned subrounded and (2)
euhedral zoned crystals (Swann 2002). The subrounded
spots overprint the penetrative S2 slaty cleavage and are
elongated within this cleavage, therefore the timing of
carbonate precipitation is pre- to syn-S2. Compositional
analysis of these carbonates by Swann (2002) revealed
cores of ankerite–dolomite with rims of siderite. The
euhedral zoned carbonate crystals only occur proximal to
mineralization and clearly overprint the S2 cleavage;
therefore, the timing of this carbonate deposition is post-
S2. Swann (2002) showed that the composition of these
carbonates is siderite which is identical to that within the
rims of the rounded spots. This is however, the reverse of
the timing relationship suggested by Li et al. (1998); even
though Fig. 11 of Li et al. (1998) shows siderite, associated
with gold mineralization, concentrated in the core of the
anticline at Nell Gywnne, rimmed by siderite with ankerite
as the outermost carbonate.
Fosterville Carbonate spots at Fosterville are limited to the
finer grained lithologies and comprise spots up to 75 μm in
diameter, which increase in abundance toward mineraliza-
tion and persist to a distance of 25–50 m from mineraliza-
tion (Kwak and Roberts 1996; Bierlein et al. 2000).
Contrary to the observations of Bierlein et al. (2000), there
is a cleavage that predates the upright penetrative S2
cleavage (Fig. 9c). Rounded carbonate spots postdate the
early cleavage but predate the main penetrative cleavage
(Fig. 9d). A second generation of carbonate occurs in
fractures and parallel to the main penetrative cleavage
(Fig. 9e). Quantitative SEM analyses of the carbonate spots
indicates compositions from ferroan dolomite to dolomite,
although zoned individual spots shows a trend toward more
ferroan compositions from core to rim (Arne et al. 2000).
Geochemistry
Visible alteration halos to the central Victorian turbidite-
hosted ore deposits are narrow and often defined by
arsenopyrite and pyrite, both confined to an area <10 m
Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219 213

from mineralization, and carbonate spotting, which can speciation index for Bendigo, Ballarat East, and Tarnagulla
occur up to 70 m from mineralization (e.g., Stawell). An plotted against arsenic and low-level (ppb) gold is shown in
effective measure of the extent of carbonate development Fig. 11. These figures show that areas distal to mineraliza-
beyond the visible alteration halo is the analysis of CO2. tion have calcite as the dominant carbonate with a gradual
The CO2 halo at Fosterville extends to 73 m from increase in the carbonate speciation index toward mineral-
mineralization; at Bendigo, it extends to 45 m; at Fiddlers ization with values >2 coincident with elevated As and Au.
Reef, it extends >49 m; and at Ballarat East, it extends This index has been applied in the exploration for gold
>60 m (Arne et al. 2000; Bierlein et al. 2000). Samples of deposits beneath Tertiary cover sequences in northwestern
background sediment, in general, have CO2 values of ≪1%, (Kewell) and western (Pitfield) Victoria. Drill samples (e.g.,
although exceptions to this include calc-silicate inclusions aircore or reverse circulation chips) were collected from
developed in the contact aureoles of Devonian granites fresh rock beneath the base of oxidation. Whole-rock
(Morand 1994) and cone-in-cone limestone that occurs in samples from the bottom of aircore holes at Kewell and
rare thin beds conformable with the enclosing turbidites in Pitfield were analyzed for a range of multi-elements
the Bendigo area (Willman and Wilkinson 1992). However, including Ca via induced coupled plasma mass spectrom-
samples adjacent to mineralization can contain up to 8% eter (ICPMS) and CO2 via Leco furnace. Plots of the
CO2 (Stüwe et al. 1988; Binns and Eames 1989; Bierlein et
al. 2000). A plot of the range in CO2 values for several of
10000 30
the deposits within central Victoria (Fig. 10) combined with Ballarat East Au
As 25
the total gold production shows that the larger deposits 1000 CO2/CaO
have average CO2 values in excess of 1%. 20
The carbonate spots in most deposits displays a 100
15
systematic change from Ca-rich to Ca-poor or Fe-rich
10
carbonates toward the area of mineralization. A simple 10
geochemical index that tracks changes in the carbonate 1 5
speciation is a molar ratio of CO2/CaO developed by
Davies et al. (1990). This index was originally defined for 0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
basalt, although it can be equally applied to turbiditic Distance to mineralization (m)
sediments that typically have minimal carbonate inclusions.
10000 4
An index value of ≤1 indicates the presence of calcite, and Ballarat West
3.5
a value of between 1 and 2 is indicative of ankerite and/or 1000
3
dolomite. Index values >2 suggest the change from
100 2.5
calcium-bearing to non-calcium-bearing carbonates, e.g.,
2
siderite and magnesite. Bierlein et al. (2000) provided
10 1.5
detailed whole-rock geochemical data for many of the
1
larger gold deposits in central Victoria. The carbonate 1
0.5

0.1 0
12 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
684 t* Distance to mineralization (m)
10 0.025 t*
10000 16
Bendigo
56 t* 1.5 t* 14
8 1000
12
CO2 %

6 27 t * 100
10
10 8
4 62 t
17 t
6
1
2 31.5 t* 4
0.1
2
0
Ballarat Ballarat Bendigo Stawell Fosterville Fiddlers Tarnagulla Clunes 0.01 0
West East Reef 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Distance to mineralization (m)
Fig. 10 Chart illustrating the range and average (horizontal line)
value of CO2% for Ballarat East and West, Bendigo, Stawell, Fig. 11 Graphs of data (logarithmic scale) from Ballarat East, Ballarat
Fosterville, Fiddlers Reef, Tarnagulla, and Clunes plus the total gold West, and Bendigo showing the variation in carbonate index, Au ppb and
production for each of respective mines. Asterisk indicates historic As ppm with respect to distance to mineralization (m). The two horizontal
production only light dashed lines highlight carbonate index values of 1 and 2
214 Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219

carbonate index across key aircore traverses, which were
later tested with diamond drilling, showed significant
anomalies without significant supporting Au or As in the
metasediment >100 m above mineralization (Figs. 12, 13).
In addition, an aircore hole above the up-dip projection of
the Stawell Facies at Kewell shows coincident anomalous
carbonate index, Au and As.
Discussion
Timing of the carbonate spots Bierlein et al. (1998)
recognized four different types of carbonate spots compris-
ing genuine carbonate, quartz–carbonate aggregates, mica–
carbonate, and pyrite–carbonate spots. However, analysis of
the structural timing relationships between fabric develop-
ment and carbonate spot growth from numerous previous
studies shows that only two main carbonate events
occurred. In the Stawell Zone, the early carbonate event
occurred coincidentally with the main upright folding event
(D2), whereas in the Bendigo Zone, the early carbonate
event occurred prior to D2 (Fig. 2). The later carbonate
event in both the Stawell and Bendigo Zones is coincident
with gold mineralization (Fig. 2). The time gap between the
formation of the early carbonates and gold mineralization in
the Stawell Zone is in excess of 50 million years, whereas
in the Bendigo Zone, this time gap is reduced to 20 million
years. Therefore, the occurrence of the early carbonates is
not related to gold mineralization apart for the coincidental
spatial association. However, the later carbonates that form
as overgrowths and pseudomorphs of the early carbonates
are directly related to gold mineralization.
Formation of the carbonate spots The early carbonate spots
typically comprise either rounded aggregates or euhedral
crystals of calcite or ankerite. The rounded morphology of
these spots is unusual for calcite or ankerite, which have a
trigonal crystal lattice that will form rhombohedral crystals
in an unstressed environment (Reeder 1983). This com-
bined with the aggregated nature of these spots suggests
that the calcite or ankerite has replaced a precursor mineral.
The most likely precursor mineral is aragonite, which has
an orthorhombic crystal lattice that forms acicular radiating
crystals (Lippmann 1973). Aragonite commonly occurs
proximal to cold seep sites in rapidly forming deep sea
basins (e.g., Derugin Basin and Santa Barbara Basin) where
it can form acicular botryoids (Agar 1990; Greinert et al.
2002; Eichhubl et al. 2000). The mechanism of formation
for these authigenic carbonates is thought to involve the
interaction between methane-bearing fluid that is advected
along fault structures with downward diffusing seawater
sulfate, which results in the anaerobic oxidation of the
methane and the release of bicarbonate and sulfide into the
pore water (Boetitus et al. 2000; Hinrichs et al. 1999).
It is generally accepted throughout the literature that
formation of the carbonate spots in central Victoria is
related to an influx of CO2–H2O-bearing hydrothermal
fluid, which caused the breakdown of metamorphic chlorite

100

10

Au ppb
As ppm
CO2/CaO
0.1 A A'
100 m RL
Murray Basin
Sediments
saprolite
0 m RL base of oxidation

-100 m RL
Leviathan 1.35 m @ 5.88 Au g/t Albion Formation
Formation Stawell 3 m @ 1.62 Au g/t
-200 m RL 0.75 m @ 3.38 Au g/t Facies
KD
05

KD
2

016

1.1 m @ 4.7 Au g/t

KD

-300 m RL
02

Kewell 200 m
KD 51
K

2
D

Basalt
02
0

Fig. 12 A geological cross-section through the Kewell Prospect (Fig. 4), for carbonate index, Au ppb and As ppm for bottom of hole samples
showing aircore and diamond drill hole traces and key intersections of from the aircore holes. The two horizontal light dashed lines highlight
mineralization, together with a graph (logarithmic scale) showing values carbonate index values of 1 and 2
Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219 215

100
The composition of the fluid that produced the early
10
carbonate event is unknown, although if these carbonates
1
formed from anaerobic oxidation processes (Boetitus et al.
.01
2000; Hinrichs et al. 1999), it is likely that the fluid would
.001
Au ppb
have contained methane. The two principle sources of
.0001 As ppm methane are either biogenic, created by microbial process in
CO2/CaO
.00001 low temperature anaerobic environments, or thermogenic,
B Colluvium B' where high temperatures (>100°C) are sufficient to cause
0
0
0
Clay
0
Clay 0
Clay
Clay

Tertiary Basalt TerB

TerB

TerB
thermal maturation of organic matter (Irwin et al. 1977;
c Grav 0.02

Welhan 1988; Whiticar 1999). Another by-product of this

pre Grav 0.02
Qrtz 0.02
0.04

TerB 0.00 0.01

base of oxidation
Sapr
Silt
0.02
0.01
Sapr
0.00
0.04
0.02
Sapk
0.00

oxidation process is the reduction of seawater sulfate to

0.03
0.01
0.00
Sapr

50 0.02
0.00
a PeCb
Bas 0.01
0.00
0.02
v 0.01
Gra
t 0.00
0.00 Los
k 0.04
50

sulfide, which would accumulate in the sediment surrounding

Sap t
Los b 50

saprolite
PeC t PePb
Grav PePb 50 Sapk 0.08
Los 0.01
0.00 50
0.01
Qrtz 0.10
b
PeC 0.00
Sapr 0.29 0.01
t
Los bt
PeC
Los PeCb 0.01 0.01
b 0.01
Sapk 0.00
PeC
o
ShZ Sapk
b
PeC 0.01
0.01
0.00
Basa 0.00
PePb

the vent. A signature of this sulfur, in terms of sulfur isotopes,

66 0.02
PeCb 0.02 0.01
PFA110

66
PFA109

66 0.01
PFA111

b
PeP
0.01
Psam

0.01

0.01

mRL150
should theoretically be preserved in the disseminated pyrite
Sapk
b
PeC
100
0.00

Peli b
PeC t
Los 0.07
b
PeC Lost
0.00 Psam
b 0.00
0.00 0.40
PeC 0.00
t 0.00
Qrtz 0.00

that is associated with many of these deposits. Disseminated

Los
Qrtz t 0.00
Los b 0.00
PeC 0.00
0.00 1.92
Qrtz bb 0.00
PeC o 0.00 95
PeP 0.00

PFA112
ShZ 0.00
0.00
0.00
b 0.00
PeC 0.00
Qrtz
b
PeC 0.00
0.00
Peli bb 0.01
0.05

Mudstone
PeC 0.00
PeP

pyrite samples from gold deposits within the Bendigo Zone

PeC

Peli

b
PeC

contain positive sulfur isotope values with a range of 0–20‰,

150
b
PeP

b
PeC b
PeP o
ShZ

PeP
b

Fine-grained the exception being sulfides from Ballarat East that have
PeC
b

PeP
b 200
sandstone Laminated fine- values of −5 to 0‰ . Pyrite and pyrrhotite from the
Peli

and medium- hydrothermally altered turbiditic sedimentary rocks at Stawell

mRL50 PeP
b
0

have negative values ranging from −20 to 0‰ (Dugdale et al.

0.0 0
0.0 0

grained sandstone
0.0 0
0.0 00
0.0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 10
0.0
0.0 00
z 0.0
0.0 0
Qrt b 0.0 0
0.0 0
PeP z b 0.0 0
Qrt zb 0.0 0
PeC
Qrt z
PeC
Qrt 0.0

and mudstone PeP

b

2006). Sulfides produced either by inorganic reduction of

3
0.0 40
0.0
0.0

z
Qrt

b 250 0
PeP 0.0 00
0.0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
e 0.0 0
PsP 0.0 0
b 0.0
PeP
e
PsP 0
0.0 00

seawater sulfate to sulfide have positive sulfur isotope values

0.0
0.0 0
0.0 0
b 0.0 00
PeP 0.0 00
0.0
0.0 0
0.0
0.0 01

quartz veins
0.0
0.0 00
iz 0.0 0
0.0
0.0 0
Pel
Qrt 0.0 0
b 0.0 0
PeP 0.0
ib
Pel
PeP i
Pel

(δ34S ∼0–15 ‰), and sulfides formed by the bacterial

b
PeP 0
0.0 0
0.0 00
0.0
0.0 0
0.0 2 36
0.0
b 0.0
0.0 75
PeC bz 0.5 0
0.7
PeP
0.0 0
Qrt e b 0.0 0
PsP b 0.0 00
PeP o 0.0
PeC
ShZ 0.0 6
0.0 2
0.0 6
0.0 5
b
0.0 2
0.0 0
PeP 0.0 0
0.0 4
0.0 76
1.4
0.0 0 0
0.0
m 0.0

reduction of seawater sulfate have strongly negative values,

Psa z b
Qrt
PeP 300
07
0.0
0.0 2
0.0 6
i 0.1 2
Pel
0.1 03
0.0
0.0 0 4
0.0 0
0.2 3
0.0 0
0.0
0.0 02
b 0.0
0.0 0
PeP 0.0 001
0.0 66

0.4 m @ 4.95 Au g/t

0.0
0.3 59
e 0.2
0.0
4.9
0.3 0
PsP i b
Pel e 0.0 0
PeP 0.0 00
PsP z e 0.0 4
Qrt
PsP ze 0.0 0
Qrt
PsP m
0.1
0.0 7

whereas sulfides precipitated from mantle or metamorphic

Psa e 0.0 0
PsP mz 0.0 0
Psa 0.0 00
Qrt e 0.0
0.0 0
PsP 0.0 0 0
0.0 5
i 0.0 0
Pel 0.3
0.0 0
z 0.0 0
Qrt 0.0 90
i 0.0
0.0 000
Pel 0.0
0.0
0.0 0 0
e 0.0
PsP z e 0.0 0 0

0.6 m @ 12.3 Au g/t

Qrt 0.0 0
PsP z 0.0
0.0 02
Qrt 0.0 730
e 0.0
0.0
PsP 12. 8 5
0.1 3
z 0.0
Qrt ez e 0.0 0
PsP z 0.0 0 5

sulfur have isotope values of 0±3‰ (Chaussidon and Lorand

Qrt
PsP 0.0 0
Qrt 0.0 0
m 0.0
0.0
Psa 0
e 0.0
PsP 0
0.0 0 0
0.0

mRL-50
m 0.0 0
Psa 0.0 0
0.0 44
5.10.8 4
1.6 8
0.1 1
e 350 0.2 0
PsP 0.0 0
0.0 0

0.5 m @ 5.14 Au g/t

0.0 0 0
0.0
0.0 1
0.1 2
m 0.0 0 0
0.0

1990; Chambers 1982; Coleman 1977). Therefore, the sulfur

Psa 0.0 0
e 0.0 0
PsP i 0.0 0
0.0 00
Pel m 0.00.0 0
Psa 0.02
e 0.0 0
PsP m 0.0 0
Psa 0.0 0
e 0.0 0 0
0.00.0 0
PsP t
m 0.0 0
Los
Psa e 0.0 0
PsP m 0.0 0
Psa e o 0.0
0.0 0

PsP
0.0

ShZ m
0.0 0
1

Psa e
0.0 0

PsP m
0.0
0.0 0
0.0 0

Psa
e

0.0 0
PsP

in the disseminated pyrites from the Bendigo Zone is most

0.0 0
m
Psa

0.0 1
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.00.00 0
e
PsP

0.01.02 0

0.4 m @ 7.38 Au g/t

9
05
0.0
03
0.4
0.1
0.1
99
0.4
81
0.6
Pel e h

0.2
PeC

95
7.3
0.7
PsP

0.0
1.80.6 5
PsP i

0.1
Qrt z

0.3 0
Qrt
PsP e

6
0.3 9 88
Qrt e z

0.0
0.2
92
z
ze
PsP

4.9
PsP ze

400 0.10.0 6
Qrt
PsP

0.1
2
Qrt

0.00.01 6
Qrt e
z

0.2 0 0
PsP z e
PsP

0.0
Qrt

likely to have been derived from inorganic reduction of

0.31.310 1
e
Psa ez

0.0
Qrt

36
PsP
m

0.1
0.21.0 2
0.0
0.0 0 8
e
PsP

0.0 6
0.0 0
Qrt ez
Qrt

0.0 0
PsP

0.0 000
z

0.4 m @ 4.99 Au g/t

0.0
0.0
0.0 0
0.0 0
e

PFD36
PsP

0.0 0
0.0 0
m

0.2 0
PsP z
Psa
Qrt

0.0 4
e

0.0 2
0.0 0 0
0.0
0
0.0 00
0.0
m

0.0
0.0 0
Psa

0.0 0 0
0.0

0.0 0
z
Qrt

0.0 0
e
PsP

0.0 0

seawater sulfate which supports the anaerobic oxidation of

0.0 0
z

0.0 0
Qrt

0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 1 0
0.0

10
0.1 40
0.0
0.7
e

1.6
PsP

13
31
0.0
0.0
0.0 70
0.0
0.1
0.0 9
0.7
0.1
0.0 1 2
0
0.0 0

0.7 m @ 1.64 Au g/t

0.0
z

0.0 0
m
Qrt

0.0
0.0 0 0
Psa
ez
Qrt
PsP
PsP mz
Qrt

0.0 0
Psa
Psa e

0.0 0
m

0.0 0
20
0.0
0.0 03
0.0
0.0
0.0 0
e
PsP

0.0 0
0
0.0 0 0

methane in the production of carbonates. Sulfur isotopes

PsP m

0.0
0.0
Psa

0.6 0 0
Qrt e
z

7
4500.0

73
0.4
0.0
0.0 0 5
e

0.1
PsP

0.0
0.0 0
0
PsP m

0.0 00

25 m
0.0
Psa

0.0
0.0 0
PsP e
Qrt ez

0.0 0
Qrt

0.0 0
z
Psa e

460 0.0 0
PsP

PsP m

0
Psa e
PsP m

PF
e

D0
m
Psa

36

of sulfides from Ballarat East indicate additional contribution

Metres
E730050

E730100

E730150

E730200

E730250

E730300

from mantle or metamorphic sourced sulfur, while sulfides

Fig. 13 A geological cross-section through the northern portion of the
Pitfield Prospect (Fig. 6), showing aircore and diamond drill hole
from Stawell are most likely to be derived from bacterial
traces and key intersections of mineralization, together with a graph reduction of seawater sulfate (Dugdale et al. 2006).
(logarithmic scale) showing values for carbonate index, Au ppb and The second phase of carbonate growth is associated with
As ppm for bottom of hole samples from the aircore holes. Two light gold mineralization and fluid inclusion studies at Stawell,
dashed lines highlight carbonate index values of 1 and 2
Bendigo, Chewton, Fosterville all record the presence of CO2–
H2O–CH4 in inclusions from quartz veins associated with
and resulted in the growth of muscovite (phengite) and gold mineralization with homogenization temperatures of
carbonates in the vicinity of gold deposits in Central ∼300°C (Cox 1995; Mapani and Wilson 1998; Jia et al. 2000;
Victoria (Binns and Eames 1989; Gao and Kwak 1997; Mernagh 2001). Bierlein et al. (1998) postulated that the
Bierlein et al. 1998). This hypothesis relies on the presence source for the gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids was meta-
of sufficient chlorite within these sediments in order to morphic devolatilization with fluid injection occurring over a
produce the rounded early carbonates’ postpeak metamor- prolonged period of time from 455 to 440 Ma. However, a
phism, although the structural timing relationships of these mantle source similar to that described by Sherwood Lollar
early carbonates shows that they clearly formed pre- to syn- et al. (1997) cannot be discounted. Squire and Miller (2003)
peak metamorphism. However, this hypothesis may have proposed that a major magmatic and hydrothermal event
been responsible for the precipitation of siderite during the throughout the Lachlan Orogen may be associated with
later carbonate event associated with the gold mineraliza- upwelling of the asthenosphere in response to slab rollback at
tion, which produced isolated euhedral crystals or over- the margin of East Gondwana. Whatever the source of the
growths on early carbonates. fluid at this time, the breakdown of metamorphic chlorite in
216
the presence of a CO2-bearing fluid led to the precipitation of
phengite and siderite proximal to mineralization.
Fluid pathways The basin into which the Cambrian-aged
sediments in the Stawell Zone were deposited was filled and
deformed in less than ten million years (Miller et al. 2005).
The Ordovician–Silurian basin of the Lachlan Orogen is
interpreted by Gray et al. (2006) to be a back-arc basin that
was filled with >3,000 m of turbiditic sediments in 20–30
million years and subsequently deformed by thin-skinned
tectonics with up to 60–70% shortening. The depth of the
sediments and the timescale of filling suggest rapid
subsidence of the basin. A recent seismic survey across the
Stawell and Bendigo Zones conducted by GeoScience
Australia in cooperation with the Geological Survey of
Victoria and the pmd*CRC revealed the depth of the
sedimentary pile to be in excess of 10 km, which would
equate to >4,000 m originally (Korsch et al. 2008). The
seismic survey also revealed the lack of a décollement zone
as predicted by Gray et al. (2006) if the basin was deformed
by thin-skinned tectonics. Instead, deep rooted faults are
observed, some of which extend to the Moho, which is
indicative of thick-skinned tectonics. A feature indicative of
thick-skinned tectonics is the inversion of former extensional
faults during orogenesis (Butler and Mazzoli 2006; Gray et
al. 2006). The fact that the early carbonate spots form
parallel to earliest fabric would imply their formation in the
very early stages of the basement detachment with fluid
advection along normal faults and possible thrusts (Fig. 14).
The localization of the carbonate spotting to specific regions
of the crust may, in fact, be a direct consequence of the
STAWELL ZONE
MF
W E
CF
PF
permeation of
seawater
sulfate
CH4
biogenic or
AF
theromogenic
Fig. 14 Schematic diagram illustrating the structural architecture of the
Stawell and Bendigo zones during basin formation and deposition of the
Castlemaine Group between ca 490 to 455 Ma, together with fluid flow
including both percolation of seawater sulfate and advection of CH4
Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219
geometry and intensity of the extensional incision of the
depositional basins margins. During the contractional
Lachlan Orogeny, the deeply incised east-dipping Moyston
Fault on the western margin (Fig. 14) was transpressionally
reactivated (Miller et al. 2006; Murphy et al. 2006). In
contrast, the faults in the central section of the depositional
basin, which probably correspond to growth faults during the
initial phase of extensional opening (Squire et al. 2006) are
more or less normal to the principal displacement vector as is
the west-dipping Heathcote Fault on the eastern margin. This
scenario is common along plate boundaries and marine
basins, e.g., Shimanto Belt of SW Japan, Derugin Basin, and
Santa Barbara Basin (Agar 1990; Greinert et al. 2002;
Eichhubl et al. 2000). The uneven distribution of the early
carbonate spots along possible early faults may reflect
changes in strike along these faults where dilation occurred
permitting the flow of methane with the resultant precipita-
tion of aragonite, calcite, and ankerite. Conversion of
aragonite to calcite would occur during the early stages of
subsequent deformation and metamorphism. Reactivation
along early faults would be modified by the change in
competency between the carbonated and noncarbonated
sediment along the trace of the existing fault line. This
modification, or ground preparation, provided sites for later
dilation and brittle failure during the introduction of hot CO2
and gold-bearing fluid and the precipitation of iron-enriched
carbonate that commonly either mantles or pseudomorphs
earlier carbonate spots.
Implications for exploration The recognition and under-
standing of the timing relationships between the formation
BENDIGO ZONE
Castlemaine Group deposited from ca 490 to 455 Ma
AF
Ordovican Castlemaine Group sediments
Early to mid-Cambrian sediments
zone of anaerobic
oxidation of CH4. Cambrian volcanic rocks/oceanic substrate
Continental substrate
(either biogenic or thermogenic in origin) along normal growth faults
and the zone of anaerobic oxidation of CH4 to produce bicarbonate and
sulfides (modified after Miller et al. 2006). MF Moyston Fault, CF
Coongee Fault, PF Percydale Fault, AF Avoca Fault
Miner Deposita (2009) 44:205–219
of carbonate spots, deformation, metamorphism, and
mineralization provides exploration geologists with a
powerful targeting tool for finding buried turbidite-hosted
orogenic gold deposits. At Kewell and Pitfield, reconnais-
sance aircore drill holes penetrated unoxidised Ordovician
metasedimentary rocks beneath 60 m of Tertiary Murray
Basin sediments and noxidised Cambro–Ordovician meta-
sedimentary rocks beneath 60 m of Tertiary basalt,
respectively. Routine analysis of the bottom of hole samples
for multielements including Ca and CO2, enabled the
calculation of the carbonate index, which showed anoma-
lies within the metasedimentary rocks >100 m above
mineralization (Figs. 12, 13). Therefore, geochemical
analysis of aircore, reverse circulation chips, or diamond
core for CO2 will provide a broad anomaly (>50 m from
mineralization) that will not only express the lateral extent
of hydrothermal system but also provide information as to
the longevity of the existing structures. In general, the
larger gold deposits have CO2 levels in excess of 1%. In
addition, Ca should be analyzed to calculate the carbonate
index that will enable the mapping of the extent of
overprinting gold-related carbonate modification and pro-
vide a vector to gold mineralization.
Conclusions
Carbonate spots are ubiquitously associated with gold
mineralization in the central Victorian gold fields and they
provide the most obvious visual sign of hydrothermal
alteration. However, the absolute timing of the growth and
change in composition of these spots is not so obvious. What
is identified in this paper are two main carbonate events that
are separated by up to 50 million years in the Stawell Zone
and up to 20 million years in the Bendigo Zone. The early
calcite to ankerite event is characterized by rounded
carbonates that formed either pre- to syn- the main upright
folding event in both the Stawell and Bendigo Zones. Fluids
that resulted in this early carbonate event may not have
contained significant CO2 (low XCO2 assemblages) but
probably contained methane that was advected along normal
growth faults during the early stages of basement detach-
ment. The later carbonate event relates directly to gold
mineralization and is marked by a systematic change in the
composition of the carbonates from calcite or ankerite to
siderite with decreasing distance to mineralization. The fluid
responsible for this carbonate event contained CO2 and was
probably derived either from devolatilization processes or
from the mantle related to upwelling of the asthenosphere.
Therefore, the rounded carbonate spots are not directly
associated with gold mineralization, but the later carbonates
are, and it is the recognition of this difference in timing and
217
geochemistry and the relationship between these carbonate
events that can provide a simple geochemical tool to aid in
the discovery of giant gold deposits in the central Victorian
gold province.
Acknowledgments This paper evolved from ARC-Linkage Grant
(LP 0211491) and subsequent Predictive Mineral Discovery Coopera-
tive Research Centre (pmd*CRC) project T6 with Leviathan Resources
Ltd and project T7 with Perseverance Corporation Ltd. Comments from
an anonymous reviewer and D. Craw were very much appreciated. We
are also grateful to Larry Meinert for the editorial comments.
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