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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
hybrid composites laced with leather waste, beach sand and used tea
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
iii
ABSTRACT
used tea powder and beach sand. Beach sand comprises mainly of silica
The flexural, bending, hardness and impact tests of the specimens are
tested and their results compared. It was found that Sample 1 (4.1 % LW,
15.07 % GF) was found to be the best, followed by the Sample 3 (18 %
LW, 21.7 % STL, 9.9% GF) and Sample 2 (23.5 % LW, 54.5 % S).
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
No. No.
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS xi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
2.1 Overview 13
3 COMPOSITE MATERIALS 17
3.1.1 Leather 17
3.2.1 Introduction 21
5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 29
6 CALCULATIONS 39
7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 41
8 COST ESTIMATION 56
9 CONCLUSION 57
10 APPENDIX 58
11 REFERENCES 65
vii
LIST OF TABLES
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
x
LIST OF SYMBOLS
1 C Degree Celsius 6
3 BC Before Christ 17
6 Dia Diameter 39
7 LW Leather Waste 57
8 S Sand 57
9 GF Glass Fibre 57
xi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1
small amount of dispersed phases in their structures, however they are not
considered as composite materials since their properties are similar to those of their
base constituents (physical property of steel are similar to those of pure iron) .
Favorable properties of composites materials are high stiffness and high strength,
low density, high temperature stability, high electrical and thermal conductivity,
adjustable coefficient of thermal expansion, corrosion resistance, improved wear
resistance etc.
Composites are able to meet the various design requirements with significant
weight savings as well as high strength-to-weight ratio as compared to
conventional materials.
2
Fig 1.4.1 First level of composite classification
3
1.5 PHASES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
4
3. Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples
include silicon carbide fibers fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass. The
ceramic matrix makes them particularly suitable for use in lightweight, high-
temperature components, such as parts for airplane jet engines.
A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original
form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition
too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no
chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat.
Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the
structures.
Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which,
research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated.
Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of
5
this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit
boards and similar areas.
6
fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by
their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive
environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as
matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a
range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the
choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for
temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned
reasons are characterized by high moduli.
Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic
bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good
corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive
strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications
requiring a structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC.
Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature
applications.
1.5.2 MATRIX SELECTION
The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a
composite structure. However, selection of a matrix has a major influence on the
interlaminar shear as well as in-plane shear properties of the composite material.
The interlaminar shear strength is an important design consideration for structures
under bending loads, whereas the in-plane shear strength is important under torsion
loads. The matrix provides lateral support against the possibility of fibre buckling
7
under compression loading, thus influencing to some extent the compressive
strength of the composite material. The interaction between fibres and matrix is
also important in designing damage tolerant structures. Finally, the processability
and defects in a composite material depend strongly on the physical and thermal
characteristics, such as viscosity, melting point, and curing temperature of the
matrix.
8
orientations possible lead to there being many different types of fabrics, each of
which has its own characteristics.
Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers.
Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes
either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so
does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter
and length as compared to fibers.
A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer
than the matrix and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the
composite. This means that the ductility should be minimal or even nil the
composite must behave as brittle as possible.
9
This doesn’t mean the longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load
irrespective of the direction in which it is applied. Optimum performance from
longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is applied along its direction. The
slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce the strength of the
composite.
Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a
mix of orientations for fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected
to be the heaviest.
Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to
be less efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament
winding.
1.5.3.2 LAMINAR COMPOSITES
Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of
materials. They can be described as materials comprising of layers of materials
bonded together. These may be of several layers of two or more metal materials
occurring alternately or in a determined order more than once, and in as many
numbers as required for a specific purpose.
Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are
known to follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view.
Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are
also fairly well known.
1.5.3.3 PARTICULATE REINFORCED COMPOSITES (PRC)
Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of
one phase strewn in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square,
triangular and round shapes of reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all
10
their sides are observed to be more or less equal. The size and volume
concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials.
The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and
volume concentration is greater than 28%. The difference between particulate
composite and dispersion strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism
used to strengthen each of them is also different. The dispersed in the dispersion-
strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by arresting motion of dislocations
and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by dispersion.
Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties,
because of the three systematical orthogonal planes.
1.5.3.4 LEATHER COMPOSITES
Leather is a fibrous protein consisting of collagen in a three dimensionally
crosslinked network. Chrome tanning of leather improves the appearance of leather
but at the same time emits both solid and liquid chrome leather wastes. Scrap
rubber recycling using untreated and neutralized leather fibrous particles in natural
rubber has been studied. Vulcanization, mechanical, morphological and swelling
properties of the natural rubber - scrap rubber composites containing neutralized
leather have been discussed. Use of chrome leather particles has been found to
improve the consumption of scrap rubber powder in natural rubber formulations.
Polymer composites based on leather wastes as fillers are reported to be useful for
many applications such as in construction materials, automobile interior moldings,
heat and sound insulating boards, shoe soles, flooring materials and moldings with
good anti-static properties, air permeability and good appearances.
When waste leather fibers are added to elastomers, the former could function as
short fiber reinforcement for the matrix provided the inherent fibrous nature of the
11
former is retained during processing. Since processing of elastomers is carried out
relatively at high temperatures, retention of the fibrous nature in leather under such
conditions however is very difficult. It is therefore prudent to use and consider the
leather waste in the particulate form and study its effectiveness either as filler or as
a processing aid in elastomer formulations.
12
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW
Literally the term composite means a solid material that results when two or
more different substances, each with own characteristics are combined to create a
new substance whose properties are superior to those of the original components
for any specific application. The term composite more specifically refers to a
structural material with in which a reinforcement material is embedded. And the
engineering definition would also go along side - A material system composed of a
mixture or combination of two or more constituents that differ in form or material
composition and air essentially insoluble in each other. In principle, composites
can be fabricated out of any combination of two or more materials-metallic,
organic, or inorganic; but the constituent forms are more restricted. The matrix is
the body constituents, serving to enclose the composite and give it a bulk form.
Major structural constituents are fibres, particulates, laminates or layers, flakes and
fillers.
When two or more materials are interspersed, there is always a contiguous region.
Simply this may be the common boundary of the two phases concerned, in which
case it is called an interface. A composite having a single interface is feasibly
fabricated when the matrix and reinforcement are perfectly compactable.
On the other end, there may an altogether separate phase present between the
matrix phase and the reinforcement phase. The matrix is body constituent, serving
to enclose the composite and give it a bulk form. Major structural are fibres,
particulates, laminates or layers, flakes and fillers.
13
[1] “Processing and characterization of waste leather based polycaprolactone
biocomposites” –Seena Joseph, Tushar Ambone, E. Deenadayalan, et al
(December 2015)
It infers that addition of leather powder to polycaprolactone (PCL) resulted
in improvement of tensile modulus of neat PCL and reduction in percentage
crystallinity of PCL matrix was observed with increase in WLB content.
[2] “Polymer sand composites based on the mixed and heavily contaminated
thermoplastic waste” – I. Slieptsova, B. Savchenko, N. Sova, A. Slieptsov (2015)
This paper gives an idea of the represents production and characterization of
highly filled polymer composites based on recycled plastics and sand as a filler.
With increase of filling degree from 50% to 80% decrease in tensile strength and
increase in compressive and bending strength is observed.
14
This paper inferred that the mechanical parameters were found to depend on
the leather dust concentration. Moreover, the stiffness rose with the increase of
leather shavings.
[6] “Utilization of Spent Tea Leaves and Waste Plastics for Composite
Boards” – Juanito P Jimenez Jr., Erlinda Mari, Edgaro M. Vilena, Rico J.
Cabangon (January 2013)
This paper deals with the use of used tea leaves and waste plastics as
composites. The materials exhibited remarkable dimensional stability.
[7] “Effects of spent tea leaf powder on the properties and functions of
cellulose green composite films” - J. Duan, K. Obi Reddy, B. Ashok, et al (March
2016)
This paper concludes that the used tea leaves along with cellulose as the
matrix showed excellent mechanical properties as well as excellent adsorption.
[8] “Physical and Sound Absorption Properties of Spent Tea Leaf Fiber Filled
Polyurethane Foam Composite” - Qumrul Ahsan, Chia Pooi Ching, Mohammed
Yuhazri bin Yaakob (October 2014)
15
The paper shows that the spent tea leaves provide the best sound absorption
coefficient and for composites using granulated fibers from any grade have lower
sound absorption coefficient. Also, tea leaves are rich in tannin, which contribute
towards high durability, high resistance to fungal and termites, and high resistance
to fire.
[9] “Natural rubber: leather composites” – K. Ravichandran, N. Nachimuthu
(June 2005)
This journal infers that suitably neutralized leather wastes can assist the
addition of large quantities of scrap rubber into a virgin rubber matrix without
affecting the vulcanization characteristics seriously. The natural rubber-scrap
rubber compositions containing treated leather could be processed safely in the
temperature range of 140 - 150 °C without much reversion in the matrix.
Morphological studies of treated leather particles have revealed a loosely bound
structure when compared with the closely knitted fibrous structure of the untreated
leather.
16
CHAPTER 3
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
The following materials were used in the preparation of composite samples:
3.1 LEATHER WASTE
3.1.1 LEATHER
Leather is a collective term for all hides and skins which have been tanned.
These can come from any type of animal. Because it is a by-product of the meat
industry most leather is produced from cow, sheep, goat and pigskin. There are
smaller amounts of deerskin and exotic leathers such as crocodile, lizard and the
like. The majority of leather products are made from cow-hide especially in the
upholstery trade as these provide the skin area needed to cut the largest panels.
The most common raw material is cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing
scales ranging from artisan to modern industrial scale. Leather is used to make a
variety of articles, including footwear, automobile seats, clothing, bags, book
bindings, fashion accessories, and furniture. It is produced in a wide variety of
types and styles and decorated by a wide range of techniques. The earliest record
of leather artifacts dates back to 2200 BC.
3.1.2 TANNING METHODS
Leather is mainly produced by tanning. The different tanning methods are: -
17
stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if left to soak and then dry, it shrinks
and becomes harder. This is a feature of oak-bark-tanned leather that is
exploited in traditional shoemaking. In hot water, it shrinks drastically and
partly congeals, becoming rigid and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an
example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot
water, or in boiled wax or similar substances. Historically, it was occasionally
used as armor after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding.
Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium
sulfate and other chromium salts . It is also known as "wet blue" for the pale
blue color of the undyed leather. The chrome tanning method usually takes
approximately one day to complete, making it best suited for large-scale
industrial use. This is the most common method in modern use. It is more
supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose
shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. However, there are
environmental concerns with this tanning method, as chromium is a heavy
metal.
Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned
using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds. It is referred to as "wet white"
due to its pale cream color. It is the main type of "chrome-free" leather, often
seen in shoes for infants and automobiles. Formaldehyde has been used for
tanning in the past; it is being phased out due to danger to workers and
sensitivity of many people to formaldehyde.
Chamois leather is a form of aldehyde tanning that produces a porous and
highly water-absorbent leather. Chamois leather is made using marine oils
18
(traditionally cod oil) that oxidize to produce the aldehydes that tan the
leather.
Brain tanned leathers are made by a labor-intensive process that uses
emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle, and buffalo.
They are known for their exceptional softness and washability.
Alum leather is transformed using aluminium salts mixed with a variety of
binders and protein sources, such as flour and egg yolk. Alum leather is not
actually tanned; rather the process is called "tawing", and the resulting material
reverts to rawhide if soaked in water long enough to remove the alum salts.
3.1.3 LEATHER GRADES
Top-grain leather includes the outer layer of the hide, known as the grain,
which features finer, more densely packed fibers, resulting in strength and
durability. Depending on thickness, it may also contain some of the more
fibrous under layer, known as the corium. Types of top-grain leather include:
Full-grain leather contains the entire grain layer, without any removal of
the surface. Rather than wearing out, it develops a patina during its useful
lifetime. It is usually considered the highest quality leather. Furniture and
footwear are often made from full-grain leather. Full-grain leather is
typically finished with a soluble aniline dye. Russia leather is a form of full-
grain leather.
Corrected grain leather has the surface subjected to finishing treatments to
create a more uniform appearance. This usually involves buffing or sanding
away flaws in the grain, then dyeing and embossing the surface.
19
Nubuck is top-grain leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side
to give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a velvet-like surface.
Split leather is created from the corium left once the top-grain has been
separated from the hide, known as the drop split. In thicker hides, the drop split
can be further split into a middle split and a flesh split.
Suede is made from the underside of a split to create a soft, napped finish. It
is often made from younger or smaller animals, as the skins of adults often
result in a coarse, shaggy nap.
Bicast leather is split leather that has a polyurethane or vinyl layer applied
to the surface and embossed to give it the appearance of a grain. It is slightly
stiffer than top-grain leather but has a more consistent texture.
Patent leather is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish by the
addition of a coating. Dating to the late 1700s, it became widely popular
after inventor Seth Boyden developed the first mass-production process,
using a linseed oil-based lacquer, in Newark, New Jersey, in 1818. Modern
versions are usually a form of bicast leather.
Bonded leather, also called reconstituted leather, is a material that uses leather
scraps that are shredded and bonded together with polyurethane or latex onto a
fiber mesh. The amount of leather fibers in the mix varies from 10% to 90%,
affecting the properties of the product.
20
3.1.4 LEATHER WASTE
The leather processing industry produces large amounts of solid organic
wastes in the form of un-tanned (trimmings , fleshings, splits) and tanned
(trimmings, splits and shavings) waste from raw hides and skins, semi-provessed
leather, as well as sludge as a result of wastewater treatment. If these solid wastes
are not properly treated and disposed of, they can cause environmental damage to
soil and groundwater as well as emissions of odour and poisonous greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere.
Young’s Density Poisson’s Tensile load Melting
Modulus (kg/m3) Ratio (N/mm2) temperature
(GPa) (°C)
0.51 108 0.81 24.3 117
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Epoxy is either any of the basic components or the cured end products of epoxy
resins, as well as a colloquial name for the epoxide functional group. Epoxy resins,
also known as polyepoxides, are a class of
reactive prepolymers and polymerswhich contain epoxide groups. Epoxy resins
may be reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through catalytic
homopolymerisation, or with a wide range of co-reactants including polyfunctional
amines, acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols, alcohols and thiols (usually called
mercaptans). These co-reactants are often referred to as hardeners or curatives, and
21
the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to as curing. Reaction of
polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners forms
a thermosetting polymer, often with favorable mechanical properties and high
thermal and chemical resistance. Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including
metal coatings, use in electronics/electrical components/LEDs, high tension
electrical insulators, paint brush manufacturing, fiber-reinforced plastic materials
and structural adhesives.
22
material behaves more and more like a thermoplastic. Very high molecular weight
polycondensates (ca. 30 000 – 70 000 g/mol) form a class known as phenoxy resins
and contain virtually no epoxide groups (since the terminal epoxy groups are
insignificant compared to the total size of the molecule). These resins do however
contain hydroxyl groups throughout the backbone, which may also undergo other
cross-linking reactions, e.g. with aminoplasts, phenoplasts and isocyanates.
23
performance protective characteristics by undergoing a controlled chemical
reaction that occurs between carefully calibrated resin and hardener components.
Once the different elements of the floor coating are mixed together, some may
require “induction”, wherein they are left for 15-30 minutes to react to each other
and allow the chemical process to take place before installation. Still other systems
may have very short pot lives that demand the blended liquid be immediately
“ribboned” out onto the prepared concrete substrate and spread, since leaving the
mixed product as a mass in the bucket would further accelerate the reaction speed.
When this does occur, the container and contents can becomes very hot and in
some cases even begin to emit smoke as a result of the extreme molecular activity.
While individual component may be kept on the shelf for months or longer, once
the epoxy coating and hardener have been mixed, the contractor may have only 15
minutes to install the combined material. Multiple layers of product may be
installed, with the next coating being applied within a recoat window typically
falling within the 4 to 12 hour range. The method of application may vary, based
on the specific formula’s chemical makeup, thickness, and cure time.
24
3.3 BEACH SAND
Tropical islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands, don't have a rich source of quartz,
so the sand is different in those locations. The beach sand on tropical islands often
looks white because it is made up of calcium carbonate, which comes from the
shells and skeletons of reef-living marine organisms, including corals, mollusks
and microorganisms called foraminifera. Sand forms when the reef breaks down,
either by mechanical forces — such as waves and currents — or from bio-erosion
caused by grazing fish, urchins and other marine life. The famous pink sand of
Bermuda is also composed of eroded calcium carbonate; the sand gets its ruddy
hue from the abundant red foraminifera, Homotrema rubrum. Tropical beaches
25
may also have black sand, which is composed of black volcanic glass. Sometimes,
erosive forces separate the mineral olivine from other volcanic fragments, leading
to green sand beaches, such as Hawaii's Papakōlea Beach.
Specific Particle Size Minimum dry Maximum Critical state
Gravity d10, d50, d60 density dry density friction angle
(mm) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (°)
2.65 0.10, 0.19, 1461 1774 30
0.22
26
3.5 GLASS FIBRE
Glass fiber also called fiberglass. It is material made from extremely
fine fibers of glass Fiberglass is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust
material. Although strength properties are somewhat lower than carbon fiber and it
is less stiff, the material is typically far less brittle, and the raw materials are much
less expensive. Its bulk strength and weight properties are also very favorable
when compared to metals, and it can be easily formed using molding processes.
Glass is the oldest, and most familiar, performance fiber. Fibers have been
manufactured from glass since the 1930s. They have been one of the most
frequently used filler materials in composites due to their low weight and high
tensile strength as well as resistance to chemical and thermal attack. The type used
in the project is class E fibre, due to its low cost and nigh - chemical resistive
nature.
Tensile Compressive Density Thermal Softening
Strength Strength (g/cm3) Expansion Temperature
(MPa) (MPa) (μm/m°C) (°C)
3445 1080 2.58 5 846
27
CHAPTER 4
Site Selection
Material Purchase
Mould making
Testing
Result compilation
Report Generation
28
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
DEMARCATING
The sheet metal of the required length is demarcated along its length to be ready
for the cutting operation.
29
CUTTING
After marking, the sheet metal is cut along the marked contours using a cutting
vice.
BENDING
The cut sheet metal is again marked along the edges to be bent. It is then bent to
the required dimensions using a vice and mallet. A minimum of four moulds had
been prepared for the composite making process.
30
Fig. 5.1.3 The prepared mould
31
Fig. 5.2.1 Laying the filler materials
The resin and hardener are mixed thoroughly in the ratio 10:1 in batches and the
first layer of resin is poured into the mould. The mould set up is tilted along the
sides to distribute the resin evenly. Then, calculated amounts of the filler materials
are laid up onto the resin, followed by another layer of resin mixture. It is to be
kept in mind that the resin mixture is to soak the filler materials thoroughly,
otherwise this could lead to formation of air bubbles and eventually weaken the
composite internally.
32
The layers of resin-filler materials are laid up until the mixture reached a thickness
of about a centimeter, the last layer of resin is poured and the surface is
smoothened using a roller. It is then shaken moderately to remove any air bubbles.
A slab of brick is placed onto the composite mixture to compress it and remove
further air bubbles.
33
Fig. 5.2.4 One of the prepared composites
For the hardness testing and study purpose, a separate batch of samples (using a
combination of leather waste and other fillers without glass fibre) were prepared,
this time using a plastic disposable cup as the mould. The samples were about 5 cm
in diameter and approximately 1 cm thick.
34
The samples were subjected to the following tests: -
Flexural Test
Tensile test
Impact Test
Hardness test
35
Fig. 5.3.1 Flexural Test Machine
36
Fig. 5.3.2 Tensile Testing Machine
37
5.3.4 HARDNESS TEST
Shore hardness is a measure of the resistance of a material to penetration of
a spring loaded needle-like indenter. Hardness of Polymers (rubbers, plastics) is
usually measured by Shore scales. Hardness of hard elastomers and most other
polymer materials (Thermoplastics, Thermosets) is measured by Shore D scale.
Shore hardness is tested with an instrument called Durometer, which utilizes an
indenter loaded by a calibrated spring. The measured hardness is determined by the
penetration depth of the indenter under the load. Two different indenter shapes (see
the picture below) and two different spring loads are used for two Shore scales (A
and D). The loading forces of Shore A: 1.812 lb (822 g), Shore D: 10 lb (4536 g).
Shore hardness value may vary in the range from 0 to 100. Maximum penetration
for each scale is 0.097-0.1 inch (2.5-2.54 mm). This value corresponds to
minimum Shore hardness: 0. Maximum hardness value 100 corresponds to zero
penetration.
38
CHAPTER 6
CALCULATIONS
The various amounts of materials used were weighed using a beaker and
portable digital weighing machine and the values were tabulated and calculated.
Parameters Composite Slab Composite Pellets
Dimensions (cm) 23 x 23 x 0.7 5 (dia) x 1 (thickness)
Volume (m3) 370.3 x 10-6 1.57 x 10-6
= 1.071/1x10-5
= 1071 kg/m3
= 80.72 %
39
= 15.07 %
= 4.1 %
Using the same formula, the ratio was calculated to be 1 : 2.44 : 0.68
Using the same formula, the ratio was calculated to be 1 : 1.2 : 0.55 : 3.01
40
CHAPTER 7
41
The flexural tests of the three composite slabs are observed in the following results
accordingly: -
SAMPLE 1
42
SAMPLE 2
43
SAMPLE 3
44
The flexural tests of the three composite slabs are summarized in the graph below:
0.95 0.98
1
0.8 0.72
0.6
Flexural Load (kN)
0.4
0.2
0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
From the graph, it can be seen that the sample 2 (beach sand + leather waste) has a
higher value of flexural load as compared to the samples 1 (leather waste + glass
fibre) and samples 3 (Leather waste + glass fibre + tea waste) The addition of tea
waste causes a reduction in the flexural load, while the inclusion of sand
contributes to the higher flexural durability.
Furthermore, the reason for the reduction in the flexural durability in sample 3
could be due to the presence of milk particles, which easily break down and cause
weakening of the resin-fibre bond. Since complete purification of the tea waste is a
tedious and expensive process, it is used powdered and untreated.
45
7.2 TENSILE TEST
The tensile tests were carried out using computerized universal testing
machine as per ASTM standards. Three samples of each specimen are used for
each test and average value is reported. The fig. 7.2 shows the ASTM D638
standard dimensions, which is used for the testing purpose.
46
The tensile tests of the three composite slabs are observed in the following results
accordingly: -
SAMPLE 1
47
SAMPLE 2
48
SAMPLE 3
49
The tensile tests of the three composite slabs are summarized in the graph below:
60
Tensile Test Parameters
51.75
50
40
30 Fmax (kN)
UTS (MPa)
20 18.71
9.18
10
3.51
1.61 2.39
0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
From the graph, it can be seen that the sample 1 (Leather waste + glass fibre) has a
higher value of tensile strength as compared to the samples 2 (beach sand + leather
waste) and samples 3 (Leather waste + glass fibre + tea waste), while Fmax also
tends to vary respectively in the samples. The inclusion of beach sand or tea waste
did not contribute to higher tensile durability. Instead the beach sand contributed
its brittle nature in sample 2, which has the lowest value of tensile durability.
50
7.3 IMPACT TEST
The load is applied as an impact blow from a weighted pendulum
hammer that is released from a position at a fixed height h. The specimen is
positioned at the base and with the release of pendulum, which has a knife edge,
strikes and fractures the specimen at the notch. The dimensions of a standard
specimen for ASTM D256 are 63.5 × 12.7 × 3.2 mm (2.5 × 0.5 × 0.125 in). The
most common specimen thickness is 3.2 mm (0.13 in), but the width can vary
between 3.0 and 12.7 mm (0.12 and 0.50 in).
51
The impact tests of the three composite specimens are observed in the following
results accordingly: -
Parameter Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Impact Values 12 2 10
(Joules)
Table 7.3.1 Impact Test values
The impact tests of the three composite slabs are summarized in the graph below:
4
2
2
0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
From the above data, it can be seen that sample 1 (Leather waste + Glass fibre) has
the highest impact strength of 12 J as compared to sample 3 (Leather waste + Glass
fibre + tea waste) and sample 2 (beach sand + leather waste). The brittle nature of
the sand caused the sample 2 to break off easily at just 2 J. The tea waste in sample
3 added to the toughness and was able to hold the sample together until 10 J.
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7.4 HARDNESS TEST
Durometer Hardness is used to determine the relative hardness of soft
materials, usually plastic or rubber. The test measures the penetration of a specified
indentor into the material under specified conditions of force and time. The
hardness value is often used to identify or specify a particular hardness of
elastomers or as a quality control measure on lots of material. The specimen is first
placed on a hard flat surface. The indenter for the instrument is then pressed into
the specimen making sure that it is parallel to the surface. The hardness is read
within one second (or as specified by the customer) of firm contact with the
specimen. The test specimens are generally 6.4mm (¼ in) thick. It is possible to
pile several specimens to achieve the 6.4mm thickness, but one specimen is
preferred.
53
The hardness tests of the three composite specimens are observed in the following
results accordingly: -
Parameter Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Shore D hardness 52 42 44
Table 7.4.1 Hardness Test values
The hardness tests of the three composite slabs are summarized in the graph below:
Shore D hardness
60
50
40
30
Shore D hardness
20
10
0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
From the above data, it can be seen that sample 1 (Leather waste + Glass fibre) has
the highest hardness of 52 as compared to sample 3 (Leather waste + Glass fibre +
tea waste) and sample 2 (beach sand + leather waste). The inclusion of beach sand
reduced the toughness of the material, while the tea waste contributed to the high
hardness value of the sample 3 due to the rich tannin content in it.
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7.5 OVERALL COMPARISON
The overall comparison of the various parameters of the three composite
specimens can be summarized as follows: -
Parameter Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Tensile load (kN) 3.51 1.61 2.39
Tensile Strength 51.75 9.18 18.71
(MPa)
Flexural Load 0.95 0.98 0.72
(kN)
Impact values 12 2 10
(Joules)
Shore D hardness 52 42 44
Fig 7.5.1 The observed values of the specimens
The graphs of the above data can be summarized as follows: -
60
51.75 52
50
44
42
40
Tensile Load (kN)
Tensile Strength (MPa)
30
Flexural Load (Kn)
55
CHAPTER 8
COST ESTIMATION
56
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
The present investigation dealt with the preparation of leather waste, sand and used
tea powder composites through the hand layup method. The flexural, bending,
hardness and impact tests of the specimens were tested and their results were
compared. The conclusions based on the current work on the preparation and
analysis of composites laced with leather waste, beach sand and tea waste are as
follows: -
The inclusion of beach sand in the composite resulted in the increase in flexural
load and composite weight but reduction in other properties such as tensile
strength, hardness etc. The addition of tea waste and leather waste to the composite
resulted in a slight enhancement of strength properties. The tea waste increased the
hardness of the composite but at the same time, decreased the flexural load. The
use of leather waste and glass fibre alone was sufficient as there was enormous
increase in the tensile strength as compared to the other two samples. The use of
leather waste in the composite led to the increase in mechanical properties. Sample
1 (4.1 % LW, 15.07 % GF) had an impact energy of about 12 J, which can be
compared to the impact strength of steel (16 J), followed by sample 3 (18 % LW,
21.7 % STL, 9.9% GF) having impact energy of 10 J and sample 2 (23.5 % LW,
54.5 % S) the lowest of the three with impact energy of 2 J. Thus the Sample 1
composite was found to be the best, when compared with the other two samples.
The resulting composite can be implemented in the use of floor tiles, as heat seals
in refrigerators and air conditioners, as well as wall linings in theatre halls.
57
CHAPTER 9
APPENDIX
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
CHAPTER 10
REFERENCES
65
7. “Effects of spent tea leaf powder on the properties and functions of
cellulose green composite films” - J. Duan, K. Obi Reddy, B. Ashok, et al
(March 2016
8. “Physical and Sound Absorption Properties of Spent Tea Leaf Fiber
Filled Polyurethane Foam Composite” - Qumrul Ahsan, Chia Pooi
Ching, Mohammed Yuhazri bin Yaakob (October 2014)
9. https://www.florock.net/2017/09/epoxy-hardeners-use/
10.http://www.mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/cueddatabooks/material
s.pdf
11.http://www.neumannleathers.com/leatherinfo.htm
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