Lecture Slides On Small Scale Fading PDF

FADING CHANNELS: SMALL SCALE FADING
B. Sainath
sainath.bitragunta@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
March 18, 2019
B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 1 / 33

OUTLINE
1 SMALL SCALE FADING
2 f -SELECTIVE VS FLAT FADING
3 SLOW VS FAST FADING
4 NARROWBAND FADING MODEL
5 RAYLEIGH & RICIAN FADING
6 NAKAGAMI FADING
7 OUTAGE PROBABILITY
8 REFERENCES

Small Scale Fading
Large scale fading

Small Scale Fading
Large scale fading
Important for cell-site planning, link budget
Small scale fading ⇐ Focus lies here!
Important for wireless communication system design
Wireless digital communication
Employs high RF carrier frequency fc

Small Scale Fading
Large scale fading
Important for cell-site planning, link budget
Small scale fading ⇐ Focus lies here!
Important for wireless communication system design
Wireless digital communication
Employs high RF carrier frequency fc
e.g., fc = 900 MHz, fc = 1.9 GHz for mobile cellular communication
Multipath fading
Due to constructive & destructive interference of transmitted EM waves
Figure: Source: Wireless communication by A. F. Molisch

Multipath Fading
Channel varies when mobile moves about carrier wavelength (λc )
e.g., 0.3 m for 900 MHz cellular
For vehicular speeds (e.g., 60 Kmph), Doppler shift of order of 100 Hz
Driving force for diligent design of wireless communication systems!
In typical wireless applications, communication occurs in

Multipath Fading
Channel varies when mobile moves about carrier wavelength (λc )
e.g., 0.3 m for 900 MHz cellular
For vehicular speeds (e.g., 60 Kmph), Doppler shift of order of 100 Hz
Driving force for diligent design of wireless communication systems!
In typical wireless applications, communication occurs in a passband
[fc − W2 , fc + W2 ]
Processing (coding/decoding, modulation/demodulation) takes place at
baseband [− W2 , W2 ]
Figure: Passband and its baseband. Source: Tse & Viswanath Book

Mulipath Resolution
Sampled baseband-equivalent channel model

P
ym = ` h` x[m − `]
h` : `th complex channel filter tap at time m

X
h` ≈ aj ej2πfc τj
j
" #
` 1 ` 1
Sum is over all paths that fall in delay bin W
− 2W
, W
+ 2W
Resolvable multipaths: up to delays of

Mulipath Resolution
Sampled baseband-equivalent channel model

P
ym = ` h` x[m − `]
h` : `th complex channel filter tap at time m

X
h` ≈ aj ej2πfc τj
j
" #
` 1 ` 1
Sum is over all paths that fall in delay bin W
− 2W
, W
+ 2W
1
Resolvable multipaths: up to delays of W
Multipath fading: Frequency-flat & f −selective

Flat Fading Vs. f -Selective Fading
(Multipath) Delay spread Td

Important general parameter of wireless communication system
Difference in propagation time between the longest & shortest paths with
significant energy

Td = maxi,j τi − τj
Coherence bandwidth Wc
Minimum frequency separation for which the channel response is roughly
independent
Td of the channel dictates frequency coherence
Wc ∝ T1
d
1
Td << W , Wc >> W ⇒ single tap, flat fading
1
Td > W , Wc < W ⇒ multiple taps, f -selective fading

An Illustration of f -Selective &
Flat Fading
Figure: (a) & (b): f -Selective fading & its spectral content;
(c) & (d): flat fading & its spectral content. Source: Tse & Viswanath book

Slow Fading Vs. Fast Fading
Time variations of the channel

How fast the filter taps hl [m] vary
1
Coherence time Tc ∝ Ds
Doppler spread Ds = maxi,j fc τi0 (t) − τj0 (t)

Max. taken over all significant energy paths
Numerical example:
v = 60 kmph, fc = 900 MHz
Direct path has Doppler shift of
Figure: Source: Tse & Viswanath book


1

Numerical example:
fv
c
= 50 Hz
Indirect path has shift of


1

Numerical example:
fv
c
= 50 Hz
Indirect path has shift of
− fvc = −50 Hz
Doppler spread Ds = 100 Hz

Fading Channel Parameters & Types

Narrowband Fading Model
(Td << Ts , Wc >> W )
Let s(t) denote transmitted signal, fc denote carrier frequency

s(t) = Re{u(t)ej2πfc t }, where u(t) is equivalent low-pass signal with
bandwidth W
s(t) propagates through wireless fading channel. Neglecting thermal
noise, what is the expression for received signal r (t)?
Sum of LOS path and resolvable1 multipath components (MPCs)
N(t): number of resolvable MPCs

an (t) (or αn (t)): amplitude associated with pathloss and shadowing
r (t)
τn (t) , nc : path delay
φDn (t): Doppler phase shift
2πfDn (t 0 ) dt 0 ⇒ stationary & ergodic RPs
R
an (t), τn (t) & φDn (t) = t
v cos θn
fDn = λ
, θn (t) denotes angle-of-arrival (AoA) relative to direction of motion
1 Two MPCs with delay τ1 and τ2 are resolvable if |τ1 − τ2 | >> W −1

Canonical Form of Received Signal
Consider the transmission of unmodulated carrier with phase shift φ0
s(t) = Re{ej2πfc t+φ0 }
Received signal r (t) ⇐ stationary and ergodic random process
r (t) = rI (t) cos (2πfc t) + rQ (t) sin (2πfc t)

PN(t) PN(t)
rI (t) = n=0 an (t) cos Φn (t), rQ (t) = n=0 an (t) sin Φn (t)
Φn (t) = 2πfc τn (t) − ΦDn − φ0


PN(t) PN(t)
From CLT, rI (t) and rQ (t) are jointly Gaussian if


PN(t) PN(t)
From CLT, rI (t) and rQ (t) are jointly Gaussian if amplitudes an (t) are
Rayleigh distributed & phases Φn (t) are uniformly distributed on [−π, π]
Quantities of interest:


PN(t) PN(t)
From CLT, rI (t) and rQ (t) are jointly Gaussian if amplitudes an (t) are
Rayleigh distributed & phases Φn (t) are uniformly distributed on [−π, π]
Quantities of interest: Autocorrelation, crosscorrelation, power spectral
density (PSD), received power
Note that performance measures, viz., outage probability, SEP, spectral
efficiency, energy efficiency are functions of received SNR

Narrowband Fading Model:
Key Assumptions
Assumptions
No dominant LOS component
an (t), τn (t) & fDn (t) are constant over time intervals of interest
an (t) ≈ an , τn (t) ≈ τn , and, fDn (t) ≈ fDn
Doppler phase shift at t = 0 is zero
Phase offset will not affect analysis
Phase of nth multipath component Φn (t) = 2πfc τn − 2πfDn t − φ0 is
uniformly distributed
Φn ∼ U [−π, π] ⇒ Mean value of Φn =?

Narrowband Fading Model:
Key Assumptions
Assumptions
No dominant LOS component
an (t), τn (t) & fDn (t) are constant over time intervals of interest
an (t) ≈ an , τn (t) ≈ τn , and, fDn (t) ≈ fDn
Doppler phase shift at t = 0 is zero
Phase offset will not affect analysis
Phase of nth multipath component Φn (t) = 2πfc τn − 2πfDn t − φ0 is
uniformly distributed
Φn ∼ U [−π, π] ⇒ Mean value of Φn =? Zero

Mean Values of rI (t), rQ (t)
Note that an and Φn are statistically independent

MV of rI (t)


MV of rI (t) " #
X
E [rI (t)] = E an cos Φn = 0
n
MV of rQ (t)


MV of rI (t) " #
X
n
MV of rQ (t) " #
X
E [rQ (t)] = E an sin Φn = 0
n
=⇒ r (t) = rI (t) cos(2πfc t) + rQ (t) sin(2πfc t) is


MV of rI (t) " #
X
n
MV of rQ (t) " #
X
E [rQ (t)] = E an sin Φn = 0
n
=⇒ r (t) = rI (t) cos(2πfc t) + rQ (t) sin(2πfc t) is

zero-mean Gaussian random process

Crosscorrelation of rI (t), rQ (t)
E [rI (t)rQ (t)] = 0 (Prove this)

rI (t) and rQ (t) are uncorrelated and also independent (?)

Crosscorrelation of rI (t), rQ (t)
E [rI (t)rQ (t)] = 0 (Prove this)

rI (t) and rQ (t) are uncorrelated and also independent (?) (Ans. rI (t) and
rQ (t) are Jointly Gaussian)

Autocorrelation of rI (t)
Autocorrelation of rI (t)
ArI (t, t + τ ) = E [rI (t)rI (t + τ )]
Φn (t) = 2πfc τn − 2πfDn t − φ0 & Φn (t + τ ) = 2πfc τn − 2πfDn (t + τ ) − φ0

Relative to other phase terms, 2πfc τn changes rapidly
Φn (t) uniformly distributed
Show that
1 X 2
ArI (t, t + τ ) = E an E [cos(2πfDn τ )]
2 n
fDn = v cosλ
θn
ArI (t, t + τ ) = ArI (τ ) ⇒ rI (t) is WSS random process

Similarly, show that rQ (t) is also WSS random process & ArI (τ ) = ArQ (τ )

Crosscorrelation of rI (t) & rQ (t)
Crosscorrelation of rI (t) and rQ (t)
ArI ,rQ (t, t + τ ) = ArI ,rQ (τ ) = E [rI (t)rQ (t + τ )]
For uniform scattering environment, ArI ,rQ (τ ) = 0

Autocorrelation of Received Signal r (τ )
Ar (τ ) = E [r (t)r (t + τ )] = ArI (τ ) cos(2πfc τ ) + ArI ,rQ (τ ) sin(2πfc τ )

More assumptions on propagation channel
Uniform scattering environment [Clarke, Jakes]
Propagation channel
Figure: Uniform, isotropic scattering model.
Dense scattering environment

2π
N multipath components (MPCs) with AoA θn = n∆θ, where ∆θ = N
Each MPC has same received power Pr

Autocorrelation & Received Power
Autocorrelation

1 X 2 2πvτ
ArI (τ ) = E an E cos cos θn
2 n λ
1
P 2
Pr = 2 nE an (How?)
2Pr
2
Since E an = N , we have

Pr X 2πvτ
ArI (τ ) = E cos cos n∆θ
N n λ

Pr X 2πvτ
= E cos cos n∆θ ∆θ
2π n λ
For very large N, ∆θ → 0. Express ArI (τ ) in integral form

Autocorrelation Function (ACF) ArI (τ )
Autocorrelation in integral form

Z 2π
Pr 2πvτ
ArI (τ ) = cos cos θ dθ,
2π 0 λ
= Pr J0 (2πfD τ )
1
Rπ
where J0 (t) , π 0
exp (−jt cos θ) dθ ⇐ Bessel function of zeroth order of
the first kind
Verify:
Z 2π
1
J0 (t) = cos (t cos θ) dθ
2π 0
J0 (0) = 1

Bessel Function & Observations
0.5
J0 (2πfD τ)
X: 0.38
Y: 0.008969
0
-0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
fD τ
Observations:

0.5
J0 (2πfD τ)
X: 0.38
Y: 0.008969
0
-0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
fD τ
Observations:
ArI (τ ) = 0 for fD τ ≈ 0.4
v
For fD = λ
, vτ ≈ 0.4λ
λ
Signal decorrelates over distance of approximately 2
under uniform Θn
assumption

0.5
J0 (2πfD τ)
X: 0.38
Y: 0.008969
0
-0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
fD τ
Observations:
ArI (τ ) = 0 for fD τ ≈ 0.4
v
For fD = λ
, vτ ≈ 0.4λ
λ
Signal decorrelates over distance of approximately 2
under uniform Θn
assumption
For f = 900 MHz, λ = 0.3 m ⇒ vτ ≈ 13.33 cm
MIMO: Antenna spacing ≈ 0.4λ for each antenna to receive independent
fading path

Power Spectral Density (PSD)
Recall that ACF ArI (τ ) and PSD SrI (f ) form Fourier transform pair
To determine PSD, use Laplace transform pair J0 (bt) ⇔ √ 1
b2 +s2
PSD: (Verify)
 Pr r 1
 2πfD 2 , |f | ≤ fD ,
SrI (f ) = 1− f f
D
0, elsewhere.

Note that SrI (f ) = SrQ (f ) (Why?)

Power Spectral Density (PSD)
Recall that ACF ArI (τ ) and PSD SrI (f ) form Fourier transform pair
To determine PSD, use Laplace transform pair J0 (bt) ⇔ √ 1
b2 +s2
PSD: (Verify)
 Pr r 1
 2πfD 2 , |f | ≤ fD ,
SrI (f ) = 1− f f
D
0, elsewhere.

Note that SrI (f ) = SrQ (f ) (Why?) (Ans. Since ACFs of rI (t) & rQ (t) are
equal)

PSD of r (t)
Exercise: Prove that

 Pr r 1
 4πfD 2 , |f ± fc | ≤ fD ,
|f ±fc |
Sr (f ) = 1− fD
0, elsewhere.

Observations:
While SrI (f ) goes to ∞ at f = ±fD , Sr (f ) goes to ∞ at f = ±fc ± fD
Not true in practice since uniform scattering model is an approximation
For dense scattering environments, PSD will be maximized at frequencies
close to maximum Doppler frequency
In general, fD (Θ) =

PSD of r (t)
Exercise: Prove that

 Pr r 1
 4πfD 2 , |f ± fc | ≤ fD ,
|f ±fc |
Sr (f ) = 1− fD
0, elsewhere.

Observations:
While SrI (f ) goes to ∞ at f = ±fD , Sr (f ) goes to ∞ at f = ±fc ± fD
Not true in practice since uniform scattering model is an approximation
For dense scattering environments, PSD will be maximized at frequencies
close to maximum Doppler frequency
In general, fD (Θ) = v cos
λ
Θ

Statistical Channel Models: Continuous & Discrete
Probabilistic model provide better insights into wireless systems

Continuous-time & discrete-time multipath fading channel
X
y (t) = aj (t)x(t − τj (t)) + w(t)
j
X
y[m] = h` [m]x[m − `] + w[m]
`
For frequency-flat fading-single channel tap:
y[m] = h[m]x[m] + w[m]
Q. How to probabilistically model channel filter taps?

Statistical Channel Models: Continuous & Discrete
Probabilistic model provide better insights into wireless systems

Continuous-time & discrete-time multipath fading channel
X
y (t) = aj (t)x(t − τj (t)) + w(t)
j
X
y[m] = h` [m]x[m − `] + w[m]
`
For frequency-flat fading-single channel tap:
y[m] = h[m]x[m] + w[m]
Q. How to probabilistically model channel filter taps?

Rayleigh Fading & Rician Fading
Rayleigh frequency-flat fading: many scattered paths

σ`2 σ`2
h` [m] ∼ N (0, 2 ) + jN (0, 2 ) ∼ CN (0, σ`2 )
‘CN ’ means circularly symmetric complex Gaussian

(CSCG)
r2
Let R = |h` [m]|. pdf of R: pR (r ) = σr2 exp − 2σ 2 ,r ≥ 0
` `
Q. What is the distribution of W = R 2 ?


σ`2 σ`2
h` [m] ∼ N (0, 2 ) + jN (0, 2 ) ∼ CN (0, σ`2 )

(CSCG)
r2
` `
2
Q. What is the distribution of W = R ? (Ans.
Power is exponentially
1
distributed with pdf pW (w) = σ2 exp − σw2 , w ≥ 0)
` `
Rician fading: many scattered paths plus one LOS path

q q
K 1
h` [m] = K+1 σ` ejθ + K+1 CN (0, σ`2 )


σ`2 σ`2
h` [m] ∼ N (0, 2 ) + jN (0, 2 ) ∼ CN (0, σ`2 )

(CSCG)
r2
` `
2
1
` `

q q
K 1
h` [m] = K+1 σ` ejθ + K+1 CN (0, σ`2 )
First term: specular path arriving with uniform phase θ


σ`2 σ`2
h` [m] ∼ N (0, 2 ) + jN (0, 2 ) ∼ CN (0, σ`2 )

(CSCG)
r2
` `
2
1
` `

q q
K 1
h` [m] = K+1 σ` ejθ + K+1 CN (0, σ`2 )

Second term: large number of reflected & scattered paths


σ`2 σ`2
h` [m] ∼ N (0, 2 ) + jN (0, 2 ) ∼ CN (0, σ`2 )

(CSCG)
r2
` `
2
1
` `

q q
K 1
h` [m] = K+1 σ` ejθ + K+1 CN (0, σ`2 )

Second term: large number of reflected & scattered paths
K : {specular path energy}/{scattered paths energy} ⇐ Fading factor
(indicator of severity of fading)

Rician Distribution & Marcum Q Function
Q: Prove that Z = |h` [m]| is Rician distributed with pdf
2
z + s2

z zs
pZ (z) = 2 exp − I0 ,z ≥ 0
σ 2σ 2 σ2
I0 (.) denotes modified Bessel function of zeroth order

Z 2π
1
I0 (z) = exp (z cos ψ) dψ
2π 0
Total average received power Pr = s2 + 2σ 2

Z ∞
Pr = z 2 pZ (z) dz
0
Average power in LOS component: s2
Average power in NLOS MPCs: 2σ 2
s2
Fading factor K = 2σ 2
⇐ Measure of severity of fading
K=0⇒

2
z + s2

z zs
pZ (z) = 2 exp − I0 ,z ≥ 0
σ 2σ 2 σ2

Z 2π
1
2π 0

Z ∞
Pr = z 2 pZ (z) dz
0
s2
K = 0 ⇒ Rayleigh fading
K=∞⇒

2
z + s2

z zs
pZ (z) = 2 exp − I0 ,z ≥ 0
σ 2σ 2 σ2

Z 2π
1
2π 0

Z ∞
Pr = z 2 pZ (z) dz
0
s2
K = 0 ⇒ Rayleigh fading
K = ∞ ⇒ Rician fading
Larger value of K ⇒ stronger LOS component!

Marcum Q Function
Characterize error probability performance of digital signals

communicated over Rician fading channels
Z ∞ M−1 2
x + a2

x
QM (a, b) = x exp − IM−1 (ax) dx
b a 2
Z ∞ 2
√ x + s2

Q1 (s, y) = √ x exp − I0 (sx) dx
y 2
Computation in MATLAB: Q = marcumq(a,b,m) computes the generalized

Marcum Q
Marcum Q Function
Characterize error probability performance of digital signals

communicated over Rician fading channels
Z ∞ M−1 2
x + a2

x
QM (a, b) = x exp − IM−1 (ax) dx
b a 2
Z ∞ 2
√ x + s2

Q1 (s, y) = √ x exp − I0 (sx) dx
y 2
Computation in MATLAB: Q = marcumq(a,b,m) computes the generalized

Marcum Q

Nakagami Distribution
More general distribution

Need for Nakagami distribution
Some experimental data- not fit well into either Rayleigh or Rician distribution
Nakagami−m pdf (m fading parameter)
2mm y 2m−1 my 2

pY (y ) = exp − , m ≥ 0.5
Γ(m)Pr m Pr
Z ∞
Γ(m) = t m−1 e−t dt
0
Rayleigh fading when

Nakagami Distribution
More general distribution

Need for Nakagami distribution
Some experimental data- not fit well into either Rayleigh or Rician distribution
Nakagami−m pdf (m fading parameter)
2mm y 2m−1 my 2

pY (y ) = exp − , m ≥ 0.5
Γ(m)Pr m Pr
Z ∞
Γ(m) = t m−1 e−t dt
0
Rayleigh fading when m = 1

2
For m = (K+1)
2K+1
⇒ approximately Rician fading
m = ∞ ⇒ No fading

Power Distribution
Let Z = Y 2 , Y denotes Nakagami RV

pdf of X m
x m−1

m mz
pZ (z) = exp − ,z ≥ 0
Pr Γ(m) Pr
Verify that for m = 1, power is exponentially distributed
Verify that pZ (z) is a valid pdf, i.e.,
∞ m
x m−1
Z
m mz
exp − dz = 1
0 Pr Γ(m) Pr

Outage Probability
Important physical layer performance measures

Outage probability, symbol error probability (SEP), spectral efficiency
Outage probability pout : Probability that instantaneous SNR (iSNR) Γ falls
below SNR threshold γth

Outage Probability

Z γth
pout = pΓ (γ) dγ
0
pΓ (γ) denotes pdf of iSNR

Q: What is pout for Rayleigh fading?

Outage Probability

Z γth
pout = pΓ (γ) dγ
0
pΓ (γ) denotes pdf of iSNR

Q: What is pout for Rayleigh fading?

γth
pout = 1 − exp −
γ
γ denotes average SNR

Numerical Example
Q: Consider Rayleigh fading channel. Average received power

Pr = 20 dBm. What is the probability that the received power is below
10 dBm?

Numerical Example

10 dBm?
Pr = 0.1 W
pth == 0.01 W
pout = 1 − exp (−0.1) = 0.0952
Q: Repeat the problem when pth = 0 dBm

Numerical Example

10 dBm?
Pr = 0.1 W
pth == 0.01 W
pout = 1 − exp (−0.1) = 0.0952
Q: Repeat the problem when pth = 0 dBm (Ans:1%)
Exercise: Express pth in terms of pout . If pout is too small, show that
pth ≈ Pr pout

Amount of Fading (AoF)
Let Γ denote path SNR per symbol

AoF is defined as
2
E Γ2 − E [Γ]
AoF =
2
E [Γ]
Exercise: Shadow fading can be modeled by a log-normal distribution for

different indoor and outdoor environments. Instantaneous fading SNR per
symbol has pdf given by
!
2
(10 log10 γ − µ)
pΓ (γ) = √ exp − , γ > 0,
2πσγ 2σ 2
where = ln1010 , and µ (dB) and σ (dB) are the mean and the standard
deviation of 10 log10 Γ, respectively
Derive an expression for the AoF in terms of σ 2 and

Reading Exercise
Figure: Comparison of narrowband & wideband fading channels. Bu denotes signal

bandwidth. Source: http://slideplayer.com/slide/3921678/#
Wideband fading channel model

Andrea Goldsmith book, Section 3.3.

References
”Fundamentals of wireless communication” by Tse & Viswanath

“Wireless communications” by Andrea Goldsmith
www.eecs.berkeley.edu/˜dtse/taiwan_course.pdf
http://slideplayer.com/slide/3921678/#

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FADING CHANNELS: SMALL SCALE FADING

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

March 18, 2019

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 1 / 33

1 SMALL SCALE FADING

2 f -SELECTIVE VS FLAT FADING

3 SLOW VS FAST FADING

4 NARROWBAND FADING MODEL

5 RAYLEIGH & RICIAN FADING

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B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 3 / 33

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 3 / 33

Figure: Source: Wireless communication by A. F. Molisch

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B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 4 / 33

Sampled baseband-equivalent channel model

h` : `th complex channel filter tap at time m

Resolvable multipaths: up to delays of

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Sampled baseband-equivalent channel model

h` : `th complex channel filter tap at time m

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 5 / 33

(Multipath) Delay spread Td

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Time variations of the channel

Max. taken over all significant energy paths

Figure: Source: Tse & Viswanath book

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Time variations of the channel

Max. taken over all significant energy paths

Figure: Source: Tse & Viswanath book

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Time variations of the channel

Max. taken over all significant energy paths

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Let s(t) denote transmitted signal, fc denote carrier frequency

N(t): number of resolvable MPCs

1 Two MPCs with delay τ1 and τ2 are resolvable if |τ1 − τ2 | >> W −1

Consider the transmission of unmodulated carrier with phase shift φ0

s(t) = Re{ej2πfc t+φ0 }

Received signal r (t) ⇐ stationary and ergodic random process

r (t) = rI (t) cos (2πfc t) + rQ (t) sin (2πfc t)

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 11 / 33

Consider the transmission of unmodulated carrier with phase shift φ0

s(t) = Re{ej2πfc t+φ0 }

Received signal r (t) ⇐ stationary and ergodic random process

r (t) = rI (t) cos (2πfc t) + rQ (t) sin (2πfc t)

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 11 / 33

Consider the transmission of unmodulated carrier with phase shift φ0

s(t) = Re{ej2πfc t+φ0 }

Received signal r (t) ⇐ stationary and ergodic random process

r (t) = rI (t) cos (2πfc t) + rQ (t) sin (2πfc t)

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 11 / 33

Consider the transmission of unmodulated carrier with phase shift φ0

s(t) = Re{ej2πfc t+φ0 }

Received signal r (t) ⇐ stationary and ergodic random process

r (t) = rI (t) cos (2πfc t) + rQ (t) sin (2πfc t)

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 11 / 33

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 12 / 33

B. Sainath (BITS, PILANI) SMALL SCALE FADING March 18, 2019 12 / 33