Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the soft ground improvement using Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) including PVD installation and
preloading techniques, settlement and stability design calculations, observational methods and back analyses of monitoring data and
performance of conventional preloading with surcharge fill and preloading using vacuum consolidation method (VCM) in combination with
fill embankment. Several case histories were studied. The monitored data illustrated that the effectiveness of VCM is dependent on the
method of applying vacuum pressure to the PVDs. Measured pore pressure in the PVDs at different depths indicated that the effective
vacuum pressure inside the PVDs is distributed uniformly along the PVD depth with a magnitude of over 80 kPa for VCM using airtight
membrane. Back-calculated ch values from measured settlement data using Asaoka method confirmed that with the assumed values of ds/dm
= 2 and kh/ks = 2, the corresponding value of ch/cv,oed = 3 to 5 were obtained for both soft Bangkok (BKK) clay and soft clays in Mekong
River Delta (MRD). Also, the linear relationship between compression index and water content for soft clays in MRD is similar to that of
BKK clay. The settlements versus time calculated by 1-D method are in very good comparison with measured data for both conventional
preloading and VCM considering the vacuum pressure as an induced vertical stress distributed uniformly in the PVD zone. From the results
presented in this paper, simple procedures can be made for selection of soil parameters and design calculations of embankments on PVD
improved soft ground using conventional preloading and vacuum consolidation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Most of coastal plains in Southeast Asia (SE) region are covered
with soft clay deposits (Figure 1). The soft Bangkok (BKK) clay in
Thailand and Muar flat clays in Malaysia are marine clays and
extend to great depths of about 10 m to 25 m (Balasubramaniam et
al., 2010). In Vietnam, the soft clays in Mekong river delta (MRD)
and in Saigon-Dong Nai river lower plain (SDR) including Ho Chi
Minh city (HCMC), Ba Ria – Vung Tau and Dong Nai provinces are
also typically characteristic of marine deposits. Generalized soil
profile of MRD in Figure 2 (Giao et. al, 2008) indicated that the soft
soil thickness varies from 10m to more than 40 m. The distribution
of soft clay in HCMC and soil profile along the right bank of Saigon
River is presented in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. The average
thickness of soft clay in this area is more than 20 m (Figure 4). Figure 2 Generalized soil profile in MRD
Figure 1 Distribution of soft clay in SE region Figure 3 Distribution of soft ground in HCMC
36
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
The low shear strength and high compressibility of these soft band drains (VCM-MB), VCM using membrane and flexible
clays have challenged the wit of the geotechnical design engineer in perforated tube (VCM-MT).
solving problems related to the stability condition during
construction as well as to the residual settlement including
differential settlement during operation. Typical failure of
embankment slope constructed on soft clay can be seen in Figure 5.
Typical landslide of river bank as seen in Figure 6 has occurred very
often along Saigon river and Mekong river. Differential settlement
(Figure 7) is the major problem of most highway projects
constructed on soft ground in MRD and SDR regions.
Preloading using PVD with and without vacuum pumping is the
most favorable soft ground improvement method that has been
applied in SE Asia but significant differences between the field
performance and the design expectations has still existed
particularly for the residual settlement after construction. Moreover,
the ch value and the smear effects are still a matter of argument even
for soft BKK clay that has been extensively studied in many
decades. For example, at the site of the Second Bangkok Figure 4 Soil profile along the right bank of Saigon River
International Airport (SBIA), the ch value of 0.75 m2/year was back-
calculated by Seah et al. (2004) while the values of higher than 3
m2/year were obtained by Balasubramaniam et al. (1995) and
Bergado et al. (2002).
This paper presents: i) current pre-loading techniques with PVD;
ii) settlement calculation; iii) stability analysis; iv) observational
methods; v) case histories; and vi) conclusions and
recommendations on practical design calculations of PVD improved
soft ground. In addition, back-calculations were analyazed from
performance data obtained from test embankments on soft clay
improved.
37
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
2.2.2 VCM using geomembrane with sand blanket (VCM-MS) Table 1 Specifications of PVD
Sand blanket and embedment of PVDs in the sand blanket are Properties and
similar to that of CPM-S. The sand blanket is covered with an Testing Standard DOH FHWA MOT
airtight membrane enable to transfer vacuum pressure from sand Apparent Opening Size, m
blanket to soft soil through PVDs. Vacuum pressure can be applied ASTM D4751-87 ≤ 90 - ≤ 75
in the sand blanket through a sub-drain system using flexible Grab Tensile Strength, kN
perforated pipes placed at spacing of several rows of PVDs. (whole PVD)
≥ 0.35 ≥ 0.35 -
ASTM D4632-91
2.2.3 VCM using geomembrane with band drain (VCM-MB) Tensile strength, kN (whole
Typical construction of this method is presented in Figure 9. PVD)
- - ≥ 1.00
Vacuum pressure can be applied to PVDs through longitudinal drain ASTM D4595
using perforated pipe and horizontal band drains. Puncture Resistance, kN
(filter only)
≥ 0.20 ≥ 0.22 -
ASTM D4833-88
Discharge Capacity
@7days, 200 kPa at i = 1,
m3/year ≥ 500 ≥ 500 -
ASTM D4716-87
Discharge Capacity 350 kPa
at i = 0.5, m3/year
- - ≥ 1890
ASTM D4716-87
3. SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
3.1 Final Primary Settlement
From 1-D conventional oedometer test, final primary settlement,
Soed, can be calculated as follows:
Figure 9 VCM using membrane and PBDs Soed = ∑h[RR.log(’p/’vo)+CR.log(’vf /’p)] (1)
2.2.4 VCM using membrane and perforated tube (VCM-MT) where h is thickness of the calculated sub-soil layer, CR and RR are
compression and re-compression ratio, ’v0 is existing overburden,
For this method, horizontal drainage system under airtight
’p is pre-consolidation pressure, and ’vf is the calculated final
membrane consisted of horizontal drains using flexible, corrugated,
effective vertical stress.
perforated tube and longitudinal main drain of PVC or HDPE pipe.
The final primary settlement of soft ground may consist of final
PVD was connected to horizontal pipe by winding with string tie
primary consolidation settlement due to effective stress increase, Scf,
(Figure 10a) and using 4-way or T-shaped connector for connection
and immediate settlement due to undrained deformation, Si. For
between horizontal drainage tube and longitudinal pipe
most non-sensitive soft marine clays, following expressions have
(Figure 10b).
been used in design practice:
38
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
The value of kh/qw in Eq. (10) is often smaller than 0.0001 for
Scf = c Soed and Si = (1-c )Soed (2) most practical cases. Thus, value of the well resistance Fr becomes
negligible in comparison with the values of Fn and Fs.
where c can be taken as 1 to 0.8 depending on the ratio of soft Balasubramaniam et al. (1995), Bergado et al (1996, 2002) and
ground thickness to embankment width, OCR of the soft soil, and Long et al (2006) also indicated that the well resistance has very
preloading technique. little effect when the in-situ discharge capacity of PVD greater than
The final primary consolidation settlement under long-term 50 m3/year. Therefore, with a known value of PVD spacing, the
service loads of embankment on soft ground can be calculated using main parameters influencing on the calculated consolidation rate are
Eq (1) and Eq. (2) with the value of ’vf in Eq. (1) should be the values of ch, Rs = kh/ks, and ds/dm that have to be assumed in
determined as below: design practice.
’vf = ’v0 + v + (u0 – uf ) (3) 3.2.2 Consolidation settlement during preloading
Consolidation settlement at time t during preloading stage can be
where v is increase of total vertical stress due to dead load of estimated from the corresponding degree of consolidation, Ut, and
embankment materials and permanent imposed loads acting on the the final consolidation settlement, Scf, under peloading load.
embankment surafce, u0 is initial pore pressure (just before
embankment construction), and uf is the final pore pressure. It can Sct = Ut. Scf (14)
be seen that uf can be smaller than u0 for the case of pore pressure
draw-down due to ground water pumping. The value of Scf can be calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2), in which,
the value of ’vf can be estimated as follows:
3.2 Consolidation with PVD -For PVD with conventional preloading (without vacuum pumping):
3.2.1 Degree of consolidation
’vf = ’v0 + v (15)
The degree of consolidation, U, can be estimated as below:
where v is induced vertical stress caused by the embankment
U = 1 – (1-Uh )(1-Uv ) (4) pressure, pfill, acting on the ground surface, pfill.
where Uh and Uv is degrees of consolidation in horizontal and pfill = ∑fill.hfill - w.hw (16)
vertical direction, respectively. For PVD improved zone, Uv can be
neglected. For underlying soil layers without PVD, Uh = 0 and the where fill is total unit weight of fill materials, hfill is thickness of fill
upper drainage boundary for vertical consolidation can be set at the
layer, w is unit weight of water, and hw is the thickness of
bottom of PVDs.
embankment fill below water table during preloading period.
Hansbo (1979) presented the solution for calculating the degree
-For PVD with vacuum pumping using direct tubing system
of horizontal consolidation, Uh, of soft ground improved by PVD as
(without air-tight membrane):
follows:
Uh = 1 – exp(-8Th / F) (5)
’vf = ’v0 + v + pvac (17)
Th = ch t / de2 (6) where v is induced vertical stress due to embankment fill, pfill, as
given in Eq. (15), and pvac is effective vacuum pressure.
F = F n + Fs + Fr (7) For PVD with vacuum pumping using air-tight membrane: the
value of ’vf can also be estimated by Eq. (17) but the induced
vertical stress v should be determined with embankment pressure
n2 3n 2 1 (8)
Fn log e (n) of pfill = ∑fill.hfill considering that porepressure in embankment fill
n 1 4n 2 under the airtight membrane is negative.
Fs = (kh/ks -1) loge (ds /dw) (9) 3.3 Secondary Compression Settlement
Fr = z (2L –z)kh/qw (10) Secondary compression is the slow compression of soil that occurs
under constant effective stress after the excess pore pressures in the
dw = (a+b)/2 (11) soil fully dissipated. From conventional oedometer test, the
secondary compression settlement, Ss, at time t can be expressed as
where ch is the coefficient of horizontal consolidation, de is the below:
equivalent diameter of a unit PVD influence zone, kh is the
horizontal permeability of the soft soil, ks is the horizontal Ss = h.C log(t /tp) (18)
permeability of soft soil in smear zone, z is the distance from the
drainage end of the drain, L is the length PVD for one way drainage where C is secondary compression ratio, and tp is the time at the
and is half of PVD length for drainage boundary at both ends of end of primary consolidation. For embankment on soft clay without
PVD, qw is the in-situ discharge capacity of the PVD, dw is the ground improvement, secondary settlement can be neglected
equivalent diameter of PVD, a and b are thickness and width of because the time to complete primary consolidation settlement
PVD, and ds is the diameter of smear zone due to PVD installation would be greater than the life time of the project. However, for soft
that can be related to the equivalent diameter of the mandrel, dm, ground improved by PVD, the time to reach 90% of consolidation
recommended by Hansbo (1987) as follows: can be of about one year. Thus, the value of tp = 1 year has been
widely used in design practice for evaluating the residual settlement
ds = 2 dm (12) of PVD improved soft ground. The value of C in Eq. (18) should
be taken in normally consolidated (NC) state, C(NC), or in over-
dm = 2(w.l/)0.5 (13) consolidated (OC) state, C(OC), depending on stress state of the soil
under service load in operation period.
where w and l are the width and thickness of the mandrel.
39
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
40
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
Figure 11 Fundamentals of 1-D consolidation behavior Figure 12 SFV versus plasticity index
(Ladd & DeGroot, 2003)
3.5.3 Flow parameters and Smear effect
3.5.1 Compressibility parameters
During preloading, the PVD improved soft soil is mainly in NC state.
Some empirical relations of compressibility with natural water Thus, the value of horizontal coefficient of consolidation in NC state,
content, are summarized in Table 4. ch(NC), should be used in estimating the rate of consolidation. The
value of ch can be estimated from the results of laboratory
Table 4 Correlations for RR and Cc versus consolidation tests, field CPTu tests, or back analysis data. However,
it is really difficult for selecting the reliable value of ch(NC) at NC
Authors Formula Remark state. The laboratory tests normally under-estimate the cv and ch
Simon and CR = 0.06- 0.03 20 < values while the ch value obtained from field CPTu test at in-situ
Menzies (1975) stress is at lightly OC state needed to be scaled down to NC state. In
Willkes (1974) CR=0.26 ln( – 0.83 30 < design practice, the ch value is often estimated from laboratory cv
value with assumed value of kh/ks and using the relation of
Lamb and CR=0.12 ln( – 0.28 10 < ch = (kh/kv)cv. Back-calculated ch values from measured settlement
Whitman (1969) using Asaoka method are dependent on the assumed values of smear
Bergado et al Cc = 0.016 - 0.295 Bangkok clay zone diameter, ds, the ratio of Rs = kh/ks, and the field value of
(1996) discharge capacity of the drain, qw. As discussed above, for the in-
situ value of qw greater than 50 m3/year, the well resistance becomes
For secondary compression, the value C obtained from negligible. The smear effects include the smear zone diameter, dm,
oedometer test at NC state is smaller than actual due to sample and the ratio of kh/ks The smear zone is directly related to the size of
disturbance as seen in Figure 11. Back-calculated value of C(NC) is the mandrel with the value of ds/dm = 2 to 3 is commonly accepted
about 1.5 times greater than that from laboratory oedometer test (Hansbo, 1987; Jamiolkowski et al., 1983; Bergado et al. 1991;
(Long et al., 2006). Mesri et al. (1994) provided the relation Indraratna and Redana, 1998) but the value of kh/ks has been
between C and CR as in Table 5. Mesri & Castro (1987) also assumed in a wide range from 1.4 to higher than 10 (Indraratna et al.
2005; Seah et al. 2004; Bergado and Long, 1994; Bergado et al.
demonstrated that C(NC) / C(OC) = CR/RR with typical value of
1992, 1993). For soft Bangkok clay at the Second Bangkok
CR/RR = 5 to 10.
International Airport site (SBIA), based on the measured settlement
from three full scale test embankments, with assumed values of
Table 5 Correlations for C (Mesri et al., 1994)
ds/dm = 2 and kh/ks = 5, Balasubramaniam et al. (1995) and Bergado
Soil C(NC) /CR et al. (2002) obtained the minimum value of ch of about 3 m2/year
(Figure 13) for the weakest soil layer from 4 m to 8 m. Also from
Inorganic clays and silts 0.04 ± 0.01
measured settlement data of another embankment at SBIA site, with
Organic clays and silts 0.05 ± 0.01 assumptions of ds/dw = 2 and kh/ks = 1.4, Seah et al. (2004) obtained
Peat 0.06 ± 0.01 the value of ch = 0.75 m2/year that is even smaller than the cv value
from laboratory oedometer tests as seen in Figure 14.
41
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
where m = 0.8 has been applied successfully for marine soft clays
and the normalized strength at NC state, S = su/’vc, can be
estimated from Figure 15.
42
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
St = Sf [ 1 – exp(t) ] (24) From Eq. (31), the values of and can be obtained as the intercept
and the slope of the best fitted straight line of t/(St – S1) ~ t plot.
where St is consolidation settlement at time t under a constant load,
Sf is final consolidation settlement, and is a constant. Asaoka 5.1.3 Target settlement at removing surcharge
(1978) pointed out that Equation 24 is a solution of following
differential equation: The target settlement is the required settlement, Sreq, to be achieved
at the time of removing surcharge for satisfying the criteria of
residual settlement. The value of Sreq is often specified using the
dS/dt - S = f (25)
degree of settlement under preloading load, DOS = Sreq/Sf, where Sf
is final settlement under design preloading load. Depending on the
where f is an unkmown constant.
requirements of construction time and surcharge conditions, the
design value of DOS of 80% to 90% has been commonly adopted in
From Eq. (25), the time is evenly discritized in t interval, and practice.
following expression can be obtained:
If the residual settlement in Eq. 19 is calculated with C(OC) for
the PVD improved zone (zone I), then it should be preloaded to
Sk = 0 + 1 Sk-1 (26) lightly OC state under service load and the target settlement should
be determined as:
1 = 1/(1-t) (27)
Sreq ≥ Si (I+II) + Sc(II) + 1.1 Sfc (I) (33)
0 = f 1 (28)
where Si(I+II) one is immediate settlement under preloading load of
where Sk is settlement at time t = tk and Sk-1 is settlement at time zone I and underlying unimproved soil layers (zone II), Sc(II) is
t = tk - t. consolidation settlement of zone II under preloading load at the end
From Eq. (26), the values of 0 and 1 can be obtained as the of preloading (EOP), and Sfc(I) is final primary consolidation
intercept and the slope of the best fitted straight line of (Sk ~ Sk-1) settlement under long term service load of zone I.
plot. As time approaches infinity, Sk = Sk-1 = Sf , then: If the residual settlement satisfying the setttlement criteria with
secondary settlement of zone I calculated with C(NC), then the
Sf = 0 / (1-1) (29) target settlement can be as below:
From Eqs. (5), (24), and (27), the following expression can be Sreq ≥ Si (I+II) + Sc(II) + U.Sfc (I) (34)
derived for ch value that is often used for back analysis of monitored
settlement data. U ≥ [ Sfc(I) - Sc(I) ] / Sfc(I) (35)
w PL,W,LL eo
(%)
kNm3
Very Soft
5 Clay
10
(mm/day)
Rate of settlement (mm/day) 30 40
30
Ratio of lateral displacement to 0.5 0.7
settlement
35 : PL
6. CASE HISTORIES :W
Stiff Clay : LL
6.1 CMIT Project 40
10
15
D epth (m)
20
25
30
35
Figure 18 Location of the project sites Figure 19b Deformation patameters at CMIT site
44
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
For Section I, the measured data of vacuum pressure in the sand 12.0
blanket at various locations indicated that the effective vacuum
the embankment during banking and waiting period was at the 2.0
original elevation of the sand blanket. The settlement and rate of 0.0 0
Settlement (m)
1.6 20
From measured settlement, S, and corresponding maximum 2.0 25
lateral displacement, h, the stability control chart, S ~ h/S, was 2.4 Actual Fill Height 30
constructed for Section II in Figure 24. As seen in this figure, after 2.8 Measured Settlement 35
3.2 Rate of Settlement 40
reaching the maximum fill height, the values of q/qf should 3.6 1D Back-calculated
45
decrease as increasing consolidation during waiting period but it 4.0 50
continued to increase to unsafe side. Moreover, we have also found 4.4 55
that the value of q/qf approach 1 without any instability for many 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660
Elapsed Time (days)
other actual cases. Thus, it seems that the Wakita and Matsuo plot is
conservative for the case of embankment on PVD improved soft
ground. Figure 22 Measured settlement for PVD improved soft soil layer
from 0 m to 34 m of Section II
80
Soil Profile Lateral Displacement (mm)
Vacuum pressure (kPa)
0
-10
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Time (days)
75 10
60 8
45 6
-25
30 4
15 2 Inward Outward
0.0 0 -30
0.5 5
1.0 10
Rate of Set. (mm/day)
1.5 15
-35 Section I Section II
Settlement (m)
3.2
Figure 21 Measured settlement for PVD improved soft soil layer
from 0 m to 35 m of Section I 2.8
2.4
6.1.1 Back calculation of compression index, Cc
Settlement, S (m)
2.0
From the above measured settlement data, Asaoka plots were
obtained as seen in Figure 25 and Figure 26 for Section I and II, 1.6
respectively. Assuming Cr = 0.2Cc and the linear relationship of
1.2
compression index and natural water contentCc = 0.016 - C, as
suggested by Bergado et al. (1996), based on the profile of versus 0.8
q/qf = 1.0
depth, divide the soft ground to be many sub-layers with
corresponding values of then by trial and error for the value of C 0.4 q/qf = 0.9
method with the Sf value from Asaoka plot. The back-calculated 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
relation of Cc versus was obtained as presented by Eq. 36 that is S/h
plotted together with all oedometer test results as seen in Figure 27. Figure 24 Stability control chart for Section II
45
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
400 9
Sk (cm)
380 8
7
360
6
ch (m2/year)
340 5
t = 7 days 4
320 1 = 0.892
3 ds/dm = 1.0
Sf = 425 cm
300 2 ds/dm = 1.5
ds/dm = 2.0
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 1
Sk-1 (cm) ds/dm = 2.5
0
Figure 25 Asaoka plot for Section I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rs
440 Figure 28 Back-calculated ch for Section I - CMIT
400 7
Sf
6
360
5
Sk (cm)
ch (m2/year)
320
4
280 3
ds/dm = 1.0
tdays 2 ds/dm = 1.5
240 1 = 0.8974 ds/dm = 2.0
1 ds/dm = 2.5
Sf = 392 cm
200 0
200 240 280 320 360 400 440 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sk-1 (cm) Rs
Figure 26 Asaoka plot for Section II Figure 29 Back-calculated ch values for Section II
46
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
w PL,W,LL eo
(%) 100
kNm3 P D-D1
Soil Profile
P D-D2
Very Soft 60
Clay
5
40
20
10
Soft Clay 0
Depth (m)
: PL 60
:W P D20 ( 9.30 m)
: LL P D22 (13.75 m)
30 40 P D50 (10.00 m)
P D51( 9.00 m)
Figure 30 Basic properties at D1 Section – NSEW 20 P D62 ( 3.85 m)
P D64 (5.60 m)
Cc Cv (NC) p
(x10-3cm²/s)
(kG/cm²) 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 Time (days)
20
Very Soft
Clay
-5
25
Sand
-10
30
Soft Clay
Elevation (m)
100
P D-C1
P D-C2
Vacuum pressure (kPa)
80
-20
60
40 Medium
-25 Stiff Clay
Inward Outward
20
Sand : EOF
: EOP
0 -30
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
Time (days)
Figure 35 Lateral displacement profiles in Section C1
Figure 32 Measured vacuum pressure in PVD (membranless type using direct tubing)
(C1 and C2 Sections using VCM-DT method)
47
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
ch (m /year)
Figure 39. Using the back-calculated values of ch coresponding to 4
ds/d.m = 2 and kh/ks = 2, the calculated settlement versus time is in
2
very good comparison with observed data as seen in Figure 36. 3
2
120 12
80 8
60 6 0
40 4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
20 2
Rs
0.0 0
0.3 5 Figure 39 Back-calculated ch value for NSEW site
0.6 10
1.5 25
1.8 30 The project site is in Ca Mau province, about 300km from HCMC
2.1 Actual Fill Height
Measured Settlement
35 (Figure 18). Soil profile and soil properties are presented in Figures
2.4 40
2.7
Rate of Settlement
45
40 and 41. The mandrel size of 70 mm x 140 mm was used to install
Vac.Pressure in PVD
3.0 1D Back-calculated 50 the PVDs down to 15 m depth at spacing of 1.2 m in square pattern.
3.3 55 High strength geotextile reinforcement with ultimate tensile strength
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 of 200 kN/m was employed for increasing the factor safety during
Elapsed Time (days) construction. Measured settlements at the center of embankment are
Figure 36 Settlement versus time of Section D1 plotted with time and embankment fill height as seen in Figure 42.
Asaoka plot for final settlement and 1 values is presented in
300 Figure 43. Back-calculated results indicated the relation of
Cc = 0.016 - 0.27 that is plotted together with oedometer test
values as seen in Figure 44. Back-analyzed results of ch are
280 presented in Figure 45. Using the above back-calculated values of
Sf Cc and ch value corresponding to ds/dm = 2 and kh/ks = 2, the
calculated settlements versus time in comparison with measured
260 data are presented in Figure 42.
Sk (cm)
PL,W,LL w e0
(%) (kN/m3)
240
Soil Profile 0 20 40 60 80 14 16 18 20 0 1 2 3
0
220
t = 7 days 2
1 = 0.884
Sf = 280 cm 4
200
200 220 240 260 280 300
6
Sk-1 (cm)
Figure 37 Asaoka plot for Section D1 8
Soft Clay
Depth (m)
1.8 10
:Back-calculated
1.6 12
:Oedometer test
1.4 14
1.2 16
1.0
18
Cc
Stiff Clay
W(%)
0.8
20 PL(%)
LL(%)
0.6
22
0.4 .
Cc = 0.016W-0.413 Figure 40 Basic properties of soft soil at PM3-CM site
0.2
0.0
6.4 Test Embankments at SBIA Site
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Three full scale test embankments, namely: TS1, TS2 and TS3 were
W (%) constructed on soft Bangkok clay using PVD with surcharge
Figure 38 Relation of Cc versus for NSEW site preloading at the site of the Second Bangkok International Airport
(SBIA) in Thailand (Balasubramaniam et al., 1995). PVDs were
48
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
Cc
p Cv (NC) Ch (CPTU) installed down to the depth of 12 m in square pattern at the spacing
(kPa) (m²/year) (m²/year) of 1.5 m, 1.2 m, and 1.0 m for TS1, TS2, and TS3, respectively. Soil
0 0.4 0.8 0 60 120180 0 0.8 1.6 0 8 16 profile and soil properties are presented in Figures 46 and 47. Back-
0
analyzed results by Bergado et al. (2002) indicated that the
minimum ch value of the weakest soil layer from 4m to 8 m depth is
2 about 2.8 m2/year with assumptions of ds/dm = 2 and kh/ks = 5 as
seen in Figure 13.
4
1.8
6
:Back-calculated
1.6 :Oedometer test
8
1.4
Depth (m)
10
1.2
12
1.0
Cc
14
0.8
16
0.6
18 0.4 Cc = 0.016W-0.27
20 0.2
22 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5.0 10
4.0 ds/dm = 1.0
9
3.0 ds/dm = 1.5
2.0 8
ds/dm = 2.0
1.0 7 ds/dm = 2.5
ch (m /year)
0.0 0
Rate of Settlement (mm/day)
6
0.2 5
5
2
0.4 10
0.6 15 4
Piling
Settlement (m)
0.8 20 3
1.0 25
2
1.2 30
1.4 Actual Fill Height 35 1
1.6 Measured Settlement 40 0
1.8 Rate of Settlement 45 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2.0 1D Back-calculated 50 Rs
2.2 55
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Elapsed Time (days) Figure 45 Back-calculated ch values for PM3-CM
LL, W, PL eo
Figure 42 Settlements versus time for PM3-CM (T/m3 ) (%)
Soil Profile 12 14 16 18 0 30 60 90 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
160 1 Weathered Clay
2
3
140 Sf 4
5 Very Soft Clay
6
7
S k (cm)
120
Depth (m)
8
9
10 Soft Clay
100 11
12
13
80 tdays 14
1 = 0.9231 15 Medium Stiff Clay
16 : TS1 : LL : TS1
Sf = 152 cm : TS2 : W : TS2
17 : TS3 : PL : TS3
60 18
60 80 100 120 140 160
Sk-1 (cm) Figure 46 Basic properties of soft soils at SBIA
Figure 43 Asaoka plot for PM3-CM
49
Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA Vol. 44 No.4 December 2013 ISSN 0046-5828
cc cv (NC) ch (CPTU) p 7
(m2/yrs) (m2/yrs) (kPa)
6 ds/dm = 1.0
0.8 1.2 1.6 2 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 8 20 40 60 80 100
ds/dm = 1.5
0
5 ds/dm = 2.0
1 ds/dm = 2.5
c h (m /year)
2 4
3
2
4 3
5
2
6
7 1
Depth (m)
8
9 0
10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rs
11
12
13 Figure 50 Back-calculated ch values for SBIA site
14
15
: TS1
6.5 Remarks on Back-calculated Values of Cc and ch
: TS1
16 : TS2 : TS2
17 : TS3 : TS3 6.5.1 Compression index, Cc
18
Back-calculated results from several case histories presented in
above Sections indicated that the relationship between Cc and
Figure 47 Compressibility parameters at SBIA site
natural water content of soft clays in MRD and SDR can be
Measured settlements at the centerline of TS3 (Figure 48) are re- expressed in Eq. 37 that is similar to that of soft BKK clays as
analyzed for the average ch value of the whole PVD improved soft introduced by Bergado et al. (1996).
soil layer from 0 m to 12 m. Asaoka plotted in Figure 49 gives the
value of 1 = 0.852. The back-calculated ch values are presented in Cc = 0.016 – 0.32 ± 0.10 (37)
Figure 50 that is in accordance with the results obtained by
Balasubramaniam et al. (1995) and Bergado et al. (2002). 6.5.2 Coefficient of consolidation, ch
As disccussed in previous Sections, it is really difficult to obtain the
field value of ch at NC state. The back-anlyzed results are dependent
on the assumed values ds/dm and kh/ks. Using ds/dm = 2 as commonly
accepted, the relations between ch and Rs from several case histories
were presented. It can be seen that the back-calculated value of ch is
direct proportion with the assumed value of Rs = kh/ks. The values of
ch and ch/cv,oed with ds/dm = 2 and kh/ks = 1, 2, and 5 are given in
Table 7, 8, and 9 .
Figure 48 Measured settlements in TS3 – SBIA Table 8 Back-calculated ch values with kh/ks = 2
Location cv,oed(NC) ch ch/cv,oed(NC)
180 (m2/year) (m2/year)
170 CMIT 0.80 3.52 4.4
NSEW 0.66 2.48 3.8
160
PM3-CM 0.80 4.10 5.1
150 SBIA 0.70 2.53 3.6
Sf
Average 0.74 3.16 4.2
S k (cm)
140