15EI251- ELECTRONICS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
Indirani.S & Vibha.k
Teaching Asst. & Assistant Prof(O.G)
SRM University
vibha.k@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
indirani.s@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
 UNIT 1
Semiconductor Diode
 PN junction diode
• A PN junction is a device formed by joining p-
type with n-type semiconductors and
separated by a thin junction is called a PN
junction diode.
Symbol
 ZENER DIODE
• Zener diode is designed to operate in the
breakdown region.
• It is heavily doped than ordinary diode.
 Operation of zener diode
• Under FB,it operates same as ordinary PN
diode.
• Under RB,breakdown of juncition occurs.
• For heavily doped,breakdown occurs at lower
reverse voltage.
• For lightly doped,breakdown occurs at higher
reverse voltage.
Full wave Bridge Rectifier
Operation of Bridge Rectifier
UNIT-II Transistor & Its Biasing
BJT
N channel Depletion MOSFET
VI Characteristics of MOSFET
 UNIT-III
FET, SCR and UJT
 Field Effect Transistor
• FET is a device in which the flow of current
through the conducting region is controlled by
an electric field .Hence the name Field Effect
Transistor.
• As current conduction is only by majority
carriers , it is said to be a uni polar device.
Types of FET
N-Channel JFET
 MOSFET
• MOSFET Field effect transistor is a uni polar
transistor, which acts as a voltage-controlled
current device.
N channel Enhancement MOSFET
 UNIT-IV
Measurement System
 Measurements

• Measurement of given quantity is essentially

an act or the result comparison between the
quantity and a predefined standard
• Measurement is the process of determining or
finding the size, quantity or degree of
something .
 Significance of measurement
1. To Design of equipment and process
2. To understand Proper operation and maintenance of equipment
1. To estimate the size/amount of things
2. To understand systems, processes and phenomena
3. To monitor devices and industrial processes
4. To control process and systems
5. To verify laws of nature
6. To establish standards
7. To design and build systems
 Methods of Measurements
 Direct:
• the unknown quantity is  Indirect:
directly compared against
standard
• The results is expressed
as a numerical number
and a unit.
• Length, mass and time
• Measurement is
inferred based on known
facts and observations
• Volume: the
amount of space
occupied by an object.
• V = l x bx h
Elements of a Generalized
Measurement System
 Errors in measurement
• Error in the measurement of a physical
quantity is its deviation from actual value.
Error= Actual value-measured value
• Percent error measures the accuracy of a
measurement by the difference between a
measured or experimental value E and a
true or accepted value A.
• The percent error is calculated from the
following equation: Fig: Standard and measured signal of an instrum
Types of Errors
Gross errors
• Caused due to human mistakes in reading, recording and calculating
measurement results.
• For example, due to over sight the temperature 21.5 C may be read
as 31.5 C
• These errors can be avoided by
 Taking great care in reading and recording the data.
 Many readings should me taken for same quantity under
measurement.
 Different readings must be taken by different
experimenters.
Systematic Errors
Instrumental Error:
• These errors occurs due to
a) Inherent short comings in the instrument.
 Inherent because of their mechanical structure.
 Due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments.
 To avoid these types of errors , the instrument must be calibrated frequently.
b) Misuse of instruments
 Errors occurs due to improper handling of the instrument.
 For example, Zero adjustment, poor initial adjustments.
c) Loading effects of instruments
 Committed by improper use of an instrument for measurement
 For example, Voltmeter when connected across a high resistance may give
misleading voltage reading.
 Environmental Errors:
• This error is caused due to environmental parameters like
temperature, pressure, dust, vibration, external magnetic or
electrostatic fields.
• These errors can be avoided by
 Keeping constant temperature.
 Using equipment immune to these effects
 Employing techniques which eliminates the effect of these
disturbances.
Observational Errors:
• Parallax errors arise when pointer and scale not being in
same point.
Random Errors
• Random error is always present in a measurement. It
is caused by inherently unpredictable fluctuations in
the readings of a measurement apparatus or in the
experimenter's interpretation of the instrumental
reading.
 Standards
• A standard of measurement is defined as the physical
representation of the unit of measurement. A unit of
measurement is generally chosen with reference to an arbitrary
material standard or to a natural phenomenon that includes
physical and atomic constants.
• Standards of measurements can be classified according to their
function and type of application as:
 International standards
 Primary standards
 Secondary standards
 Working standards
International standards:
• International standards are devices designed and constructed to
the specifications of an international forum.
• They represent the units of measurements of various physical
quantities to the highest possible accuracy that is attainable by
the use of advanced techniques of production and measurement
technology.
• These standards are maintained by the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Sevres, France.
• These standards are not easily available to an ordinary user of
instruments.
Primary standards:
• Primary standards are devices maintained by standards
organizations / national laboratories in different parts of the
world. These devices represent the fundamental and derived
quantities and are calibrated independently by absolute
measurements. One of the main functions of maintaining
primary standards is to calibrate / check and certify secondary
reference standards.
• Like international standards, these standards also are not easily
available to an ordinary user of instruments for verification /
calibration of working standards.
Secondary standards:
• Secondary standards are basic reference standards employed by
industrial measurement laboratories.
• These are maintained by the concerned laboratory.
• One of the important functions of an industrial laboratory is the
maintenance and periodic calibration of secondary standards against
primary standards of the national standards laboratory /
organization.
• Secondary standards are freely available to the ordinary user of
instruments for checking and calibration of working standards.
Working standards:
• These are high-accuracy devices that are commercially available and
are duly checked and certified against either the primary or
secondary standards.
 UNIT-V
Prima Elements And Signal
Conditioning
 Transducers
• Transducer
 a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding
signal with a different energy form
 Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
 a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
 acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
 a device that generates a signal or stimulus
63
 Classification of transducers
1. On the basis of transduction form used.

2. Primary & secondary transducers

3. Active & passive transducers

4. Analog & Digital transducers

5. Transducers & inverse transducers

64
 (1)Basics of transduction
a) Variation of resistance
 change in resistance due to change in physical quantity.
Example
 Potentiometer,RTD,Strain gauges,Photoconductive cells,Thermistor
b) Variation of inductance
 any of these quantity changes L=f(N,fr,A,L) the inductance changes.
Example
 LVDT,Synchro,Reluctance pickup,Eddy-current pickup,Velocity transducer
a) Variation of capacitance
C =ƐoƐr A/d
Any one of these quantity changes the capacitance also changes
Example
 Variable capacitance pressure gauge,Capacitor microphone, Dielectric gauge

65
 (2)Active and Passive transducers
 Active transducers
 No need of any external power source
Ex:photovolatic,thermoelectric,piezoelectric.

INPUT TRANSDUCER OUTPUT

Passive transducers
 Need of external power source.
Do not generate energy for conversion.
Ex:Variable resistance,Opto electronic,Variable reactance,LVDT.

INPUT TRANSDUCER OUTPUT

POWER
SUPPLY 66
 (3)PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as
electrical device. The mechanical device converts the
physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical
signal. Such mechanical device are called as the
primary transducers, because they deal with the
physical quantity to be measured. The electrical
device then convert this mechanical signal into a
corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device
are known as secondary transducers.
67
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
 Primary transducer
 Bourdon tube
 Pressure Displacement

 Secondary transducer
 LVDT
 Displacement

voltage 68
 (4)Analog & digital transducers
Analog
output continuous function of time
Example
 Thermocouple
 Thermistor
 LVDT
Digital
output in pulses-discrete function of time
 Digital tachometer
 Push button switch
 Television set tuner

69
Digital Encoder translational

70
 (5)Direct and Inverse Transducers
Direct-one form to electrical
Example :microphone [sound-electrical]

Inverse-electrical into non-electrical

Example:loudspeaker[electrical-sound]

71
 Characteristics of transducers
1. Input characteristics
2. Transfer characteristics
3. Output characteristics
1. Input characteristics
 Type of input & operating range physical quantity determined in
advance , upper &lower limits
 Loading effects
Expressed in terms of force , power or energy
2. Transfer characteristics
 Transfer function
S=dqo/dqi
 Error(∑=qo-qi)

72
 Operational Amplifier
• An operational amplifier is a
high-gain electronic voltage
amplifier with a differential
input and a single-ended
output.
Non-inverting
terminal

Output
Inverting terminal
terminal
Fig: Pin diagram of IC 741
Ideal Characteristics of Op-Amp
 Op-Amp Properties
V
(1) Infinite Open Loop gain 1
+
- The gain without feedback Vo
- Equal to differential gain
- Zero common-mode gain
V2 
- Pratically, Gd = 20,000 to 200,000
(2) Infinite Input impedance
i1~0 +
- Input current ii ~0A Vo
- T- in high-grade op-amp i2~0 
- m-A input current in low-grade op-amp
(3) Zero Output Impedance
- act as perfect internal voltage source Rout
- No internal resistance Vo' +

- Output impedance in series with load Rload
- Reducing output voltage to the load
- Practically, Rout ~ 20-100 
Rload
Vload  Vo
Rload  Rout
75
 Ideal Vs Practical Op-Amp
Ideal Practical
Open Loop gain A  105
Bandwidth BW  10-100Hz
Input Impedance Zin  >1M
Output Impedance Zout 0 10-100 
Output Voltage Vout Depends only on Vd Depends slightly on
= (V+V) average input Vc =
Differential mode (V++V)/2 Common-
signal Mode signal

CMRR  10-100dB

76
 FILTERS
• Need of filters
-eliminate unwanted signals
- to improve Sample/Noise ratio.
Purpose of filters in circuits
-to pass the signals of wanted frequencies
-to reject the signals of unwanted frequencies
77
 TYPES OF FILTERS
• Any physical form
-mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic
The most commonly used types are electrical type. They are
 Passive filters
 Active filters
Passive filters
Filters use only passive circuit elements(R,L,C)
Active filters
PE+Op-amp

78
 Analog Signals
Analog signals – directly measurable quantities
in terms of some other quantity
Examples:
• Thermometer – mercury height rises as
temperature rises
• Car Speedometer – Needle moves farther
right as you accelerate
79
 Digital Signals
Digital Signals – have only two states. For digital
computers, we refer to binary states, 0 and 1.
“1” can be on, “0” can be off.
Examples:
• Light switch can be either on or off
• Door to a room is either open or closed
80
 Examples of A/D Applications
• Microphones - take your voice varying pressure waves in the air
and convert them into varying electrical signals

• Strain Gages - determines the amount of strain (change in

dimensions) when a stress is applied

• Thermocouple – temperature measuring device converts

thermal energy to electric energy

• Voltmeters
• Digital Multimeters 81
 Just what does an
A/D converter DO?
• Converts analog signals into binary words

82
 Analog  Digital Conversion
2-Step Process:

• Quantizing - breaking down analog value is a

set of finite states
• Encoding - assigning a digital word or number
to each state and matching it to the input
signal

83
 Step 1: Quantizing
Output States Discrete Voltage Ranges (V)
Example:
0 0.00-1.25
You have 0-10V signals.
1 1.25-2.50
Separate them into a set
2 2.50-3.75
of discrete states with
3 3.75-5.00
1.25V increments. (How 4 5.00-6.25
did we get 1.25V? See 5 6.25-7.50
next slide…) 6 7.50-8.75
7 8.75-10.0
84
 Quantizing
The number of possible states that the converter can
output is:
N=2n
where n is the number of bits in the AD converter

Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N=23=8.

Analog quantization size:

Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N = (10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V 85
 Encoding
Output Output Binary Equivalent
• Here we assign the States

digital value (binary 0 000

1 001
number) to each state
2 010
for the computer to
3 011
read. 4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

86
 A/D Converter Types

• Converters
– Flash ADC
– Delta-Sigma ADC
– Dual Slope (integrating) ADC
– Successive Approximation ADC
87
 Flash ADC
• Consists of a series of comparators, each one
comparing the input signal to a unique
reference voltage.

• The comparator outputs connect to the inputs

of a priority encoder circuit, which produces a
binary output
88
Flash ADC Circuit

89
 How Flash Works
• As the analog input voltage exceeds the
reference voltage at each comparator, the
comparator outputs will sequentially saturate
to a high state.
• The priority encoder generates a binary
number based on the highest-order active
input, ignoring all other active inputs.
90
 Flash
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simplest in terms of
operational theory • Lower resolution
• Expensive
• Most efficient in terms of • For each additional
speed, very fast output bit, the number of
• limited only in terms of comparators is doubled
comparator and gate
• i.e. for 8 bits, 256
propagation delays
comparators needed

91
 Successive Approximation ADC
• A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is
added to the circuit
• Instead of counting up in binary sequence,
this register counts by trying all values of bits
starting with the MSB and finishing at the LSB.
• The register monitors the comparators output
to see if the binary count is greater or less
than the analog signal input and adjusts the
bits accordingly 92
Successive Approximation ADC Circuit

93
 Successive Approximation
Advantages Disadvantages

• Capable of high speed and • Higher resolution successive

reliable
• Medium accuracy compared
to other ADC types
• Good tradeoff between speed
and cost
approximation ADC’s will be
slower
• Speed limited to ~5Msps

• Capable of outputting the

binary number in serial (one
bit at a time) format.
94