Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / j vo l g e o r e s

Water chemistry of lakes related to active and inactive Mexican volcanoes

María Aurora Armienta a,⁎, Gloria Vilaclara b, Servando De la Cruz-Reyna a, Silvia Ramos c, Nora Ceniceros a,
Olivia Cruz a, Alejandra Aguayo a, Flor Arcega-Cabrera d
a
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Geofísica, Mexico 04510 D.F., Mexico
b
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, FES Iztacala, Ap. Postal 314, C.P. 54000, Tlalnepantla, Edo. de Mex., Mexico
c
Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gtz. Chis., Mexico
d
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Posgrado en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Water chemistry of crater lakes, maars and water reservoirs linked to some Mexican volcanoes within and
Accepted 2 June 2008 outside the Mexican Volcanic Belt has been determined for several years and examined regarding
Available online 27 June 2008 environmental and volcanic factors. All the analyzed lakes are relatively small with a maximum depth of
65 m, and are located in regions with different climates, from semi-arid to very humid, with altitudes ranging
Keywords:
from 100 to more than 4000 m a.s.l. Crater lakes in active volcanoes (El Chichón, Popocatépetl) have very low
volcanic lakes
maars
pH, moderate to high temperatures and major ion concentrations varying with the level of volcanic unrest.
volcano monitoring Lakes in sub-arid and temperate-arid regions (like maars in Puebla and Guanajuato states) show high
hydrogeochemistry alkalinity and pH, with bicarbonate/carbonate, chloride, sodium and magnesium as predominant ions. Lakes
Mexico located in humid climates (Central Michoacán and Veracruz state) have low mineralization and near-neutral
pH values. In general, conservative dissolved ions and conductivity appear to be mostly controlled by
precipitation/evaporation and by the ionic concentration of groundwater inputs. Calcium, magnesium,
sulfate concentrations and pH are strongly influenced by volcanic-rock or volcanic gas interactions with
water. The influence of low-level volcanic activity on crater lakes may be obscured by water–rock
interactions, and climatic factors. One of the aims of this paper is to define the relative influence of these
factors searching for a reference frame to recognize the early volcanic precursors in volcano-related lakes.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction volcano, located along the Chile–Argentina border, before the

The chemical composition of crater lakes depends on factors
related to the regional geology, climate, and the level of volcanic
unrest evidenced mostly as magmatic heat and gas input. The first two
factors depend on the lake location and are essentially stable, showing
only seasonal variations or other climate-related changes. In contrast,
the latter may provide an important role as one of the earliest
precursors of increasing volcanic activity.
For example, an increase in sulfate and chloride concentrations
was observed in the crater lake of Soufrière volcano in St Vincent,
West Indies, during the 1972 eruption (Sigurdsson, 1977). Chemical
variations in Kusatsu-Shirane crater lake in Japan took place about one
year before the 1976 eruption (Ossaka et al., 1980). Takano and
Watanuki (1990) observed a decrease in polythionate and an increase
in sulfate concentrations at Yugama crater lake, Japan, before the 1982
eruption. The crater lake of Rincón de la Vieja volcano in Costa Rica,
showed a significant increase in the SO4/Cl, a few months prior to a
phreatic eruption episode in March 2002 (Tassi et al., 2005). Enhanced
magnesium flux was observed in the hydrothermal system of Copahue
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: victoria@geofisica.unam.mx (M.A. Armienta).
magmatic eruptions of July–October 2000 (Varekamp et al., 2001).
Sulfate concentrations and Mg/Cl ratio increased between 1992 and
1994 in the Popocatépetl crater lake in México, preceding an eruption
that occurred on December 21, 1994, after nearly 70 years of
quiescence (Armienta et al., 2000). These changes were clear
precursors of volcanic unrest in lakes.
The earliest precursors, or the precursors of low-level volcanic
activity may however be obscured by water–rock interactions and
climatic changes making the magmatic-induced chemical modifications
difficult to recognize. One of the aims of this paper is to define the relative
influence of these factors seeking a reference frame for the recognition of
early volcanic precursors in the volcano-related lakes of Mexico.
Thousands of volcanic structures are widespread in the Mexican
territory, many related to subduction of the Rivera and Cocos plates under
the North American and Caribbean plates. Most subduction-related
volcanoes are located in the Mexican Volcanic Belt (MVB; Fig. 1), crossing
the country around latitudes 19–20°N. The MVB trends in a roughly E–W
direction, oblique to the trench axis, revealing a complex subduction
geometry. Some of the volcanoes, either active or inactive, within or
outside the MVB, contain lakes. Crater lakes, maars, and water reservoirs
formed by volcanic processes have been sampled along several years for
this study. Most of the lakes are relatively small, with a maximum depth

0377-0273/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.06.019
250 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258

Fig. 1. Important Holocenic volcanoes within the Mexican Volcanic Belt (MVB) and in other volcanic regions: the Tuxtlas Volcanic Field, TVF, and the Chiapas Volcanic Arc, CVA.
Studied lakes are: M7 — Santa María del Oro; M9 — La Alberca; M10 — Rincón de Parangueo; A1 —Zirahuén; A2 — La Luna; A3 — El Sol; C4–C5 — Samples of the crater lake of
Popocatépetl volcano; M8 — Lago Verde at one side of the San Martín volcano; M1–M6 — Alchichica, Atexcac, La Preciosa, Quechulac, Tecuitlapa and Aljojuca in North Oriental basin;
and C1–C3 — Samples of the crater lake at El Chichón volcano.

of 65 m, and are located in different climate zones from semi-arid to very
humid, at elevations from 100 to more than 4000 m a.s.l.
We expect that the identification of the specific hydrogeochemical
parameters most sensitive to active volcanic processes may provide a
better understanding of the magma–lake interactions to improve
hydrogeochemical volcano monitoring.
2. Methods
Samples were obtained from lakes formed by different types of
volcanic activity in various parts of México (Fig. 1). Sampling included
maars (Quechulac, Aljojuca, La Preciosa, Atexcac, Alchichica, Santa
María del Oro, La Alberca, Lago Verde, and Rincón de Parangueo), a
quiescent active volcano (El Sol and La Luna lakes in Nevado de Toluca
volcano), active volcanoes (El Chichón and Popocatepetl), and a lake
formed by the closing of a small basin by a lava flow (Zirahuén). Waters
from the surface and near the bottom at the deepest part were sampled
in most of the lakes, except at Popocatépetl and El Chichón, where the
samples were obtained at the shores. Location, climate, precipitation
and lake origin of the sampled sites are summarized in Table 1.
Our water sampling program at El Chichón began in 1985, three
years after the eruptions of March 28 to April 4, 1982, which included a
Plinian phase (Carey and Sigurdsson, 1986; Yokoyama et al., 1992).
Samples obtained in January, 1983 (Casadevall et al., 1984), January,
1993, and April, 2003, have been selected here as representative of the
post-eruptive crater lake composition.
The Popocatépetl crater lake disappeared shortly before the onset of
eruptive activity in 1994, and the analysis of one sample from Popocatépetl
crater lake, obtained in April, 1992 two years before the initial eruption of
the current episode, is discussed here. La Alberca and Rincón de Parangueo
lakes were sampled once, before they dried out during the dry season. The
causes for the drying are briefly addressed below. Table 2 shows the most
representative field parameters and water type of the sampled lakes.
Temperature and pH were measured in the field by potentiometry.
The pH meter calibration was made with buffer solutions submerged
in the lake in equilibrium with the lake water temperature. Sampling

Table 1
Location, dimensions, climate conditions, and type of the studied lakes. Area, depth, and water temperature data from: Vilaclara et al., 1993, 2005; Alcocer et al., 2000; Armienta et al.,
2000; Serrano et al., 2002; Escolero and Alcocer, 2004; Alcocer et al., 2004b; Rouwet et al., 2004; Caballero et al., 2006. Climate, and precipitation data from: SMN, 2005. Aw =
Tropical, dry winter. Cw = Temperate, dry winter. Ew = Polar, dry winter. Bs = Dry, semi-arid

Lakes Location Elevation Area Maximum Climate Precipitation Water temperature Type of lake
(m a.s.l.) (km2) depth (mm/yr) range
(m) (°C)
Santa Maria 21°22′N 104°34′W 730 3.07 65 Aw 800–1200 22–30 Phreatic explosion maar (Pleistocene)
del Oro
Zirahuén 19°21′N 101°46′W 2100 9.7 40 Cw 800–1200 16–22 Lava-dammed Endorheic Basin (Pleistocene)
La Alberca 20°23′N 101°12′W 1690 0.2 5 Cw 700–750 19–27 Phreatic explosion maar
Rincón 20°25′N 101°15′W 1700 0.7 2 Cw 600–800 19–30 Phreatic explosion maar
Parangueo
El Sol 19°10′N 99°45′W 4200 0.17–0.24 15 Ew 1244 5–12 Pluvial in Holocenic magmatic explosion crater
La Luna 19°10′N 99°45′W 4200 0.02–0.03 10 Ew 1244 6–11 Pluvial in Holocenic magmatic explosion crater
Popocatépetl 19°01′N 98°37′W 5452 0.12 b5 Ew 425 19–65 Mixed waters in active magmatic explosion crater (Lake
Life Span, 1930–1994)
Aljojuca 19°05′N 97°32′W 2340 0.44 45 Cw 600 16–23 Phreatic explosion maar (Pleistocene)
Tecuitlapa 19°08′N 97°33′W 2380 0.26 4.5 Cw 600 16–24 Phreato-magmatic explosion maar (Pleistocene)
Atexcac 19°20′N 97°27′W 2340 0.29 39 Cw 500 16–22 Phreatic explosion maar (Pleistocene)
Quechulac 19°22′N 97°21′W 2350 0.5 40 Cw 500 16–23 Phreatic explosion maar (Pleistocene)
La Preciosa 19°22′N 97°23′W 2330 0.78 45 Cw 500 16–23 Triple Phreatic explosion maar (Pleistocene)
Alchichica 19°22′N 97°24′W 2320 1.8 63 Bs 400 14–22 Phreatic explosion maar (Pleistocene)
Lago Verde 18°36′N 95°20′W 150 0.12 4 Aw 2500 21–28 Phreatic explosion maar (Pleistocene–Holocene)
Chichón 17°24′N 93°12′W 2224 0.15 (April 3.5 Aw 2900 28–56 Mixed waters in active magmatic explosion crater (Lake
2001) Life Span, 1983 up to now)
 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258 251

Table 2
Field parameters and water type of sampled lakes. S = Superficial sample, D = Deep sample. – Not measured

Lake T pH Λ Water type Sampling date

(°C) (μS/cm)
Alchichica S 18.7 8.8 12,940 Cl–Na May 2001
Alchichica D (61 m) 14.5 8.9 12,800
Atexcac S 18.6 8.4 11,700 Cl–Na May 2001
Atexcac D (35 m) 15.2 8.4 11,520
La Preciosa S 17.8 8.6 2200 Bic–Mg May 2001
La Preciosa D (20 m) 14.9 8.6 2190
Quechulac S 18.1 8.7 810 Bic–Mg May 2001
Quechulac D (33 m) 14.7 8.4 820 May 2001
Tecuitlapa S 22.7 8.7 2630 Bic–Na May 2001
Tecuitlapa D (4 m) 18.2 8.7 2620
Aljojuca S 20.8 8.8 1240 Bic–Na May 2001
Aljojuca D (30 m) 15 8.4 1260
Santa María del Oro S 28 8.3 1385 Bic–Cl–Na–Mg November 2002
Santa María del Oro D (50 m) 22 7.7 1443
Lago Verde S 23.5 8.9 200 Bic–Cl–Mixed March 2001
Lago Verde D (3.5 m) 20.9 7.1 206
La Alberca S 21 9.6 11,960 CO3–Cl–Na October, 1999
La Alberca D (4 m) 19.3 9.7 12,460
Rincón Parangueo S 18.1 10.2 165,000 undefined October, 1999
Rincón Parangueo D (5 m) 23.6 10.0 –
Zirahuén S 19.5 7.8 130 Bic–Mixed October, 1999
Zirahuén D (33 m) 16.5 7.0 147
La Luna S 9.9 4.9 22 Mixed–Mixed May 03
La Luna D (7.7 m) 9.6 5.0 22
El Sol S 11.6 6.9 64 Bic–Ca–Mg May 03
El Sol D (12 m) 10.3 7.2 62
Chichón 1983a 56 0.56 83,800 Cl–Ca January 1983
Chichón 1993 30.7 2.29 46,400 Cl–Ca January 1993
Chichón 2003 32 2.44 3710 Sulf–Mixed April 2003
Popocatépetl 1992 – 1.37 123,700 Cl–Sulf–Na–Mg April 1992
Popocatépetl 1994b 65c 1.5 – Sulf–Cl–Mg February 1994
a
Casadevall et al. (1984).
b
Werner et al. (1997).
c
GVN (1994).

and preservation were done following the methodology established in
APHA (1995, 2005). Water samples for laboratory analyses were
obtained submerging polyethylene (for shallow water) or an Uwitec
sampler (for deeper samples) in the lake. One liter was used for the
determination of alkalinity, conductivity, Cl−, SiO2, B, and SO2− 4 . A
sufficient quantity of concentrated HNO3 was added to another 500 ml
aliquot of water to lower its pH down to 2–3 for the analyses of
cations. All bottles were refrigerated immediately after sampling.
Chemical analyses were performed by wet methods, following the
procedures described in APHA (1995, 2005) for surface continental waters.
Bicarbonates were measured by acid titration to pH 4.6, using a mixed
indicator of methyl red and bromcresol green. Sulfates were determined
by turbidimetry. Magnesium and calcium concentrations were obtained
by complexometric titration with EDTA. Boron was colorimetrically
measured through its reaction with carminic acid. Chloride was
potentiometrically determined with an ion selective electrode, adding a
5 M solution of NaNO3 as an ionic strength adjuster. Sodium and
potassium were measured by atomic emission spectroscopy. Silica was
colorimetrically determined by the molibdosilicate method. Analytical
quality was checked through ionic balance, most samples balance with
less than 5% error. However, highly diluted or very concentrated samples
showed greater errors due to the lower precision of analytical methods at
such extreme concentrations. One case was Rincón de Parangueo, where
an additional analysis was done on the sediments with a Siemens D500
powder analyzer to determine precipitated minerals.
3. Lake types and geological settings
3.1. Maars
A maar is a low-aspect ratio crater formed by shallow explosive
eruptions caused by the heating and boiling of groundwater when
magma approaches the water table. Maars often fill with water to
form a lake. The geochemical characteristics of some Mexican maars
containing lakes are described next.
3.1.1. Santa María del Oro
Santa María del Oro lake lies within the Tepic-Chapala graben,
southeast of the Nayarit State, at 21°22′N, 104°34′W, and 730 m a.s.l. It
is located at the NW side of the MVB, where it crosses the
physiographic province Sierra Madre Occidental (Raisz, 1964; Siebert
et al., 2003).
Some authors consider it a crater lake (Ferrari et al., 1997), and
others a caldera lake (Nelson and Sánchez, 1986). Our field observa-
tions show that it may be a maar inside a caldera. The caldera
structure has very steep walls, and the maar erupted through older
Miocene rhyolitic ashflows (Siebert et al., 2003). It is an endorheic lake
(closed reservoir without surface outflows), radially fed by short,
temporary flows during the rainy season. The lake is about 2 km in
diameter and the distance between the caldera borders and the lake
varies from about 300 m to 400 m. Like other maars, the lake water
level depends on the groundwater level. The lake has a warm
monomictic thermal regime (the water column mixes during winter
and stratifies the rest of the year). Biological productivity is low except
for a microalgal bloom around the warmest months (April through
August).
The geology comprises andesites (SW of the basin, probably
Oligocene–Miocene), tuffs, rhyolites and breccias (Miocene–Pliocene)
to the N and E, basaltic flows to the east and alluvial deposits to the
east and south (Cárdenas, 1994; Vázquez-Castro, 2004).
3.1.2. La Alberca and Rincón de Parangueo
These lakes are located in the Valle de Santiago basin, west-central
MVB, within the Michoacán–Guanajuato Volcanic Field (MGVF), in the
252 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258
western highlands of Central Mexico at 2075 m above sea level
(Israde-Alcántara, 1999). The MGVF covers a 200 × 250 km wide area of
the Michoacán and Guanajuato states and contains over 1400
volcanoes, most of them monogenetic (Hasenaka, 1994).
Cinder cones are the predominant volcanic forms, but there are
also small shield volcanoes, lava domes, maars and tuff rings (Siebert
et al., 2003). Many of the maars hold lakes with diverse shapes:
circular-elliptic (La Alberca and Cíntora), and approximately triangular
(Rincón de Parangueo and San Nicolás de Parangueo). La Alberca
recently underwent an important drying process. Before 1985 the
depth was around 34 m, while older depth lines suggest a water
column of 50 m. These features indicate a reduction of 0.5 to 2.6 m per
year in the lake level, assuming a constant drying rate. Both lakes were
hypereutrophic, i.e., highly productive, during the October 1999
sampling. In 2003, La Alberca and Rincón de Parangueo dried
completely before the rainy season. This probably resulted from the
operation of many extraction wells located N, E, and W of the basin
(SPP, 1980; Escolero and Alcocer, 2004).
3.1.3. Oriental Basin
The Oriental is a closed basin located at the eastern end of the
Mexican highlands, containing rhyolitic lava domes, tuff cones, tuff
rings, lava flows and scoria cones of late-Pleistocene to Holocene age. It
is bounded by the Cofre de Perote–Orizaba range to the east and Los
Humeros caldera to the north (Ferriz, 1985; Siebert et al., 2003). The
basin was filled by large lakes during the Pleistocene, and some maars
exist at present. The maar lakes are Alchichica, Atexcac, La Preciosa,
Quechulac, Tecuitlapa and Aljojuca, and they may be classified as tuff
rings. All lakes behave as warm monomictic regardless of their depths
and trophic levels, which range from poorly productive or oligotrophic
(Atexcac) to highly productive or hypereutrophic (Tecuitlapa) (Vila-
clara et al., 1993; Alcocer et al., 2000). The local geology comprises
mostly basaltic rocks, although some of the shallower maars also have
rhyolites. The lithology includes sedimentary rock sequences formed
by calcareous clays and flint from the Upper Jurassic–Cretaceous,
approximately 1000 m thick. Lake deposits are made of layers of
blocks, gravels, sand, and silt-clay material. Evidence of post-maar
magmatic activity is only observed at Tecuitlapa (Siebert and Carrasco-
Núñez, 2002; Alcocer et al., 2004a; Carrasco-Núñez et al., 2007).
3.1.4. Lago Verde
Lago Verde is located near the San Martín volcano, at the Tuxtlas
volcanic field. Volcanic activity began in the late Miocene (Nelson and
González-Caver, 1992) and has lasted through the Holocene, with two
historical eruptions of San Martín in 1664 and 1793 (Moziño, 1870;
Caballero et al., 2006). Eruptive products comprise mainly basalts and
basanites. Eocene and Cretaceous rocks outcrop near the Tuxtlas area.
The oldest sediments are tuff-clay and marine sand (Martin-Del Pozzo,
1997). This lake is one of the 40 phreatic-explosion maar-type
structures in the area (currently, only 13 of them hold water). Lago
Verde is a shallow polymictic (the water column is mixed all year long)
and eutrophic lake (Vazquez et al., 2004).
3.2. Crater lakes
3.2.1. El Sol and La Luna
Nevado de Toluca, also known as Xinantécatl (19°06′30″N; 99°45′
30″W), is located about 80 km WSW from Mexico City in the central
MVB. Rising 4680 m a.s.l., this broad andesitic–dacitic complex strato-
volcano is the fourth highest mountain in Mexico. Currently quiescent,
its last eruption occurred about 3300 years BP (Macías et al., 1997;
Arce et al., 2005). Before that, during the last 40,000 years this volcano
has produced at least five dome-destruction and collapse eruptions,
and four major Plinian eruptions (Arce et al., 2005). It has a complex
elongated 2–2.5 km wide crater open to the east. Within this crater a
large dacitic lava dome separates two lakes, El Sol (‘Sun’) and La Luna
(‘Moon’). Both lakes lie in depressions between the central dacitic
dome and the crater walls, at an altitude of 4200 m, and collect water
from precipitation and snowmelt (Bloomfield and Valastro 1974;
Armienta et al., 2000). Despite its high altitude and climatic
conditions, glacial melting has never been important for the lakes
(Vazquez-Selem and Heine, 2004). Both lakes are polymictic,
permanent and shallow, but their depths fluctuate (Alcocer et al.,
2004b). El Sol is bigger and deeper than La Luna (Table 1). Both lakes
can be classed as oligotrophic (Vilaclara et al., 2005).
3.2.2. Popocatépetl
Popocatépetl Volcano is located in the central MVB within a
densely populated region, with over 20 million people vulnerable to
direct hazards associated with a major explosive eruption. Situated
about 70 km southeast of downtown Mexico City, Popocatépetl is one
of the high-risk volcano in the country (De la Cruz-Reyna and Tilling,
2008). This 5454-m-high volcano's geologic past clearly indicates that
it is capable of producing catastrophic eruptions: three Plinian events
have occurred within the past 5000 years BP, well within the period of
human settlement in central Mexico (Siebe et al., 1996; Siebe and
Macías, 2004). The current eruptive episode – beginning in December
1994 after being dormant for nearly six decades – has been
characterized by low-level dome growth and destruction activity,
similar to recent previous episodes (De la Cruz-Reyna et al., 1995).
Popocatépetl is an andesitic–dacitic strato-volcano intruding
through a Mesozoic basement of limestone, evaporites and sandstones
of Cretaceous age (Demant, 1981; Robin and Boudal, 1987; Macías
2007). Popocatépetl volcano has an elliptical summit crater, about
820 × 650 m. The previous eruptive episode occurred between 1919
and 1927. After that eruption, a seasonally fluctuating lake formed,
covering part of the crater bottom (Armienta et al., 2000). Early
reports of the lake described it as a small, clear, greenish, roughly
circular lake, 40 m diameter and up to 10 m deep (SEAN, 1986). The
lake disappeared in 1994, prior to the December 1994 eruption.
3.2.3. El Chichón
El Chichón is an active volcano located in the NW end of the Chiapas
Volcanic Arc (CVA). The basement rocks are Cretaceous evaporites and
limestones, with interbedding of epiclastic early Cenozoic sandstones
and limestones (Canul and Rocha, 1981).
The volcanic structures and deposits are calcalkaline in composi-
tion with a medium to high content of potassium. CVA volcanic rocks
vary from andesite to dacite. Some authors believe this volcanism is
associated with the subduction of the Cocos plate under the North
American plate, but complicated by the geometry of the plate
boundary fault system (Damon and Montesinos, 1978; Mora et al.,
2007).
Stratigraphic studies suggest that El Chichón produced eleven
major eruptions in the last 8000 years (Espíndola et al., 2000). The
most recent eruption occurred 28 March–4 April, 1982, and devastated
an area about 10 km around the volcano. Although no official data
exist, it is estimated that almost 2000 people were killed by
pyroclastic flows. Ashfalls extended over several hundred kilometers
(Yokoyama et al., 1992; Armienta et al., 2000). The magmas erupted by
all of those eruptions have a trachyandesitic composition (Macías,
2007). Three small lakes were first observed on April 25, 1982, on the
crater bottom. In November, 1982, one bigger lake covered an area of
1.4 × 105 m2. The level, shape and chemistry of the lake have been
continuously changing since then.
3.3. A lake formed in a volcanic basin by lava damming
3.3.1. Zirahuén
The Zirahuén basin is located within the MGVF (Fig. 1). The area
surrounding the lake is composed of Plio-Quaternary extrusive
igneous rocks which ascended to the surface through crustal fractures,
 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258 253

resulting from an ENE–WSW oriented extension, with a dominance of
large polygenetic volcanoes (De Cserna, 1992; Padilla-Sánchez and
Aceves-Quesada, 1990). The Zirahuén lake basin formed during the
Quaternary by a lava flow blockage of the Río de la Palma (Davies et al.,
2004). This lava-dammed endorheic basin covers 260 km2. Basaltic
rocks dominate the geology. The lake has an area of 9.7 km2 and a
volume of 0.216 km3 (Bernal-Brooks and MacCrimmon, 2000). Its
maximum depth is 40 m. It behaves as a warm monomictic lake. It is
mesotrophic based on the microalgal development (Tavera and
Martínez-Almeida, 2005).
4. Chemical characteristics of the lakes
Results of analyses of all lakes are summarized in Tables 2 and 3.
Reported water temperatures ranged from 5 °C at Nevado de Toluca
(Alcocer et al., 2004b) to 65 °C at Popocatépetl, as measured a few
months before the onset of the current eruption in December 1994.
Conductivity values covered a wide span ranging from 22 µS/cm
measured at La Luna lake, to 165,000 µS/cm at Rincón de Parangueo.
The lowest pH (0.56) was measured at El Chichón crater lake in
January, 1983 (Casadevall et al., 1984), a few months after its
formation in November 1982. On the other hand, Rincón de
Parangueo had the highest pH (10.2). Table 2 shows the various
water types according to the relative abundance of main ions. Most
lakes contain bicarbonate–chloride waters; sulfate dominance was
observed only in the crater lakes of active volcanoes. Highest
conductivities correspond to sodium dominance, except for active
crater lakes where sometimes calcium, sodium or magnesium
dominates. The results from Rincón de Parangueo had analytical
interferences (i.e. formation of complexes, indistinct end point in
calcium titration) difficult to overcome with the applied methodol-
ogy due to its very high ionic concentration, alkalinity and chloride
contents. Chemical analyses thus gave only approximate estimates or
chemical trends for that lake; however measured data have been
considered here as an interesting end-member case resulting from
the concentration of a disappearing volcano-related lake in a prog-
ressively dry environment.
4.1. Maars
Strong differences in the chemical composition were observed
among maars. However they share some common characteristics as
shown in the Piper diagram (Fig. 2); chloride, bicarbonates and
carbonates were dominant anions, with bicarbonates as the main
anions in most of the diluted lakes. Unlike crater lakes, no sulfate
dominance was ever observed in any of the maar samples. Sodium was
the dominant cation in most maar samples except in La Preciosa and
Quechulac where magnesium was dominant.
4.2. Crater lakes
Compositions at active volcanoes Popocatépetl and El Chichón
changed with time. For example, El Chichón lake in 1983 and 1993 had
a dominance of chloride, whereas sulfate was dominant in the sample
collected in 2003. Due to their low pH no samples contained
carbonates or bicarbonates. El Chichón lake also showed variations
in the dominant cations among samples collected at various dates.
Sulfate was the dominant anion in the two samples of the
Popocatépetl crater lake collected in 1992 and 1994. Popocatépetl
changed from a dominance of sodium and magnesium in 1992 to
magnesium dominance in 1994. This increase in magnesium con-
centration has been attributed to heating of the andesite lake basin by
fumarolic gases due to the increasing of the volcanic activity in 1994
(Armienta et al., 2000).
In contrast, La Luna and El Sol lakes of Nevado de Toluca volcano
had distinct chemical characteristics respect to El Chichón and
Popocatépetl crater lakes. In addition to a relatively high pH, a low
conductivity, a dominance of bicarbonates in El Sol and the absence of

Table 3
Chemical composition of the studied Mexican lakes. Concentrations in mg/l. Alk = mg/l CaCO3. – Charge balance is omitted since other non-analyzed cations may be significant to the
ionic balance. ⁎⁎⁎ See text

Lake I.D. Alk tot Alk phenol Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ SO2−
4 Cl− B SiO2 CO2−
3 HCO−3 Bal %
Alchichica S M1 2123 746 2349 232 11 431 978 3195 49.3 b0.9 966 966 −4.8
Alchichica D (61 m) 2104 726 2426 233 10 431 1014 3035 45.4 b0.9 833 833 −0.3
Atexcac S M2 1501 563 1812 90 27 547 206 3490 67.5 69.4 534 534 −0.7
Atexcac D (35 m) 1477 568 1770 84 16 546 204 3575 60.5 70.3 545 545 −2.9
La Preciosa S M3 721 188 190 18 14 200 139 330 3 29.7 170 491 −0.1
La Preciosa D (20 m) 711 212 197 17 14 200 134 328 2.9 29.9 170 496 0.6
Quechulac S M4 326 57 78 7 18 61 18 82 1 b0.9 45 309 1.3
Quechulac D (33 m) 323 48 76 7 21 60 17 84 0.5 b0.9 46 306 1.1
Tecuitlapa S M5 1372 395 606 75 14 29 34 97 b0.4 23.7 294 1037 1.8
Tecuitlapa D (4 m) 1367 395 597 75 14 28 32 95 b0.4 24.2 283 1058 1.2
Aljojuca S M6 657 168 174 26 34 67 39 49 0.8 6 195 397 0.8
Aljojuca D (30 m) 657 138 169 26 34 67 38 48 b0.4 6.1 113 596 −1.5
Santa María del Oro S M7 415 55 174 19 22 66 2.5 208 1.7 19.5 66 372 1.3
Santa María del Oro D (50 m) 440 45 177 19 29 67 1 215 1.9 25.5 54 427 0.9
Lago Verde S M8 79 17 13 4 10 12 b1 36 b0.4 21 20 55 −9.4
Lago Verde D (3.5 m) 79 0 13 4 10 12 b1 26 b0.4 19 0 96 −3.8
La Alberca S M9 5825 2427 3102 530 1.7 100 536 2400 13 11.3 2913 1185 −10.9
Rincón de Parangueo S M10 76,000 33,000 4250 5070 n.d. n.d. 76 64,000 414 29 40,000 12,000 ⁎⁎⁎
Zirahuén S A1 55 51 6.5 3.4 7.9 6.6 b1 4 b0.4 b0.9 4.5 58 3.7
Zirahuén D (33 m) 63.4 0 6.5 3.6 68 7.5 3.5 4 b0.4 4 0 77 −4.2
La Luna S A2 5 0 0.9 0.4 2.0 0.6 1.4 1.3 b0.4 0.9 0 2.9 27.3
La Luna D (7.7 m) 4 0 1.0 0.5 2.0 0.6 1.4 1.3 b0.4 0.9 0 2.3 33.0
El Sol S A3 5 0 1.7 0.6 6.4 3.4 3.3 1.6 b0.4 2.0 0 33.5 1.9
El Sol D (12 m) 4 0 1.7 0.6 6.4 2.9 3.1 1.7 b0.4 2.1 0 33.5 −1.0
El Chichón 1983a C1 0 0 607 232 2110 424 3550 24,030 433 257 0 0 1.0
El Chichón 1993 C2 0 0 1325 210 2660 363 293 13,200 188 250 0 0 –
El Chichón 2003 C3 0 0 52 12 49 17 702 87 1.8 123 0 0 –
Popocatépetl 1992 C4 0 0 3438 575 997 1239 17,000 14,500 73 – 0 0 –
Popocatépetl 1994b C5 0 0 1835 329 781 2520 23,360 14,200 54 295 0 0 −0.04
a
Casadevall et al. (1984).
b
Werner et al. (1997).
254 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258

interactions may be considered when analyzing waters from other

lakes in which some magmatic influence may be suspected. Dissolu-
tion of CO2 and interaction with volcanic rocks in a humid
environment was reflected in a dominance of bicarbonates and the
absence of dominant cations at Zirahuén lake.

5. Discussion

As expected, ion concentration in volcanic lakes not directly linked

Fig. 2. Piper diagram showing the sampled lakes. M1 — Alchichica, M2 — Atexcac,
M3 — La Preciosa, M4 — Quechulac, M5 — Tecuitlapa, M6 — Aljojuca, M7 — Santa
María del Oro, M8 — Lago Verde, M9 — La Alberca, A1 — Zirahuén, A2 — La Luna,
A3 — El Sol, C1 — El Chichón January 1983, C2 — El Chichón January 1993, C3 — El
Chichón April 2003, C4 — Popocatépetl 1992, C5 — Popocatépetl 1994.
dominant anions at La Luna (and of cations in both), suggests the
absence of volcanic gas influence on the lakes' water. Chemical
composition of these lakes is rather similar to that of Zirahuén lake as
discussed below. Considering these similarities we identify with the
same letter (A) El Sol, La Luna and Zirahuén lakes in Table 3.
4.3. Lakes in volcanic-rock basins
These types of lakes provide a reference for the identification of
specific water–rock interactions as well as climate effects. With the
certainty that no magmatic activity is involved, the results from these
with magmatic activity is mostly derived from dilution/concentration
processes related to rainfall and evaporation. Equally important are the
ionic composition of the groundwater feeding the lakes, particularly in
maars (as in Alchichica, Atexcac, La Preciosa, Quechulac, Santa Maria
del Oro, Lago Verde), and the composition of the country rock. The
former factor in lakes of Central Mexico is strongly controlled by
evaporation. Although evaporation data are unavailable for many
basins, lakes in Central Mexico are commonly located in regions where
precipitation is much lower than evaporation from fall to spring (from
October–November to May–June). Relatively high temperatures also
account for high rates of evaporation even during the rainy season
(from June to September), especially where annual precipitation is
lower than 1000 mm (Table 1). In such cases sodium and magnesium,
in this order, are the main cations and bicarbonates + carbonates/
chlorides are the main anions as a result of concentration and
saturation processes. Lago Verde is an exception, with low conductivity
and alkalinity resulting from dilution (precipitation N2000 mm/yr),
but relatively high in sodium/chloride (compared with Central-Mexico
lakes with Na+ or Cl− concentrations well below 10 mg/l), and basic pH
in the surface. The relatively higher Na+ and Cl− concentrations may be
attributed to the sea spray, and the basic pH to a high biological
productivity in a poorly buffered environment.
Saturation indices, calculated with the WATEQ4F computer-code
(Ball and Norstrom, 2003) are shown in Table 4. Maars are over-
saturated in calcium and magnesium minerals such as dolomite,
calcite, aragonite, magnesite and hydromagnesite, and magnesium
silicates like talc, diopside, chrysotile, tremolite and sepiolite; the
alkalic rare mineral magadiite (NaSi7O13(OH)3 · 3H2O) was also over-
saturated at Atexcac (pH = 8.4) and La Alberca (pH = 9.6). Because of the
problems found in the chemical analyses of cations in Rincón de

Table 4
Minerals saturated and oversaturated in the lake waters. (Note that there was no oversaturation in the most diluted lakes: Zirahuén, and El Sol and La Luna lakes in Nevado de Toluca
volcano). M1 — Alchichica, M2 — Atexcac, M3 — La Preciosa, M4 — Quechulac, M5 — Tecuitlapa, M6 — Aljojuca, M7 — Santa María del Oro, M8 — Lago Verde, M9 — La Alberca, C3 — El
Chichón, 2003, C4 — Popocatépetl, 1992, C5 — Popocatépetl 1994. (a)=amorphous, (c)=crystalline, (d)=disordered

Mineral M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 C3 C4 C5
Aragonite 0.89 0.81 0.66 0.72 1.06 1.31 0.65 0.25 0.59
Artinite 0.48
Calcite 1.05 0.96 0.81 0.87 1.20 1.45 0.79 0.39 0.74
Chalcedony 0.69 0.31 0.15 0.01 0.06 2.10 0.79 0.87 0.92
Chrysotile 5.10 4.55 2.84 3.40 2.50 3.72 12.18
Clinoenstite 0.06 2.92
Cristobalite 0.74 0.36 0.19 0.05 0.10 2.15 0.81 0.89 0.89
Diopside 1.48 1.02 0.60 0.61 0.19 1.41 6.56
Dolomite (d) 3.42 2.93 2.47 1.96 2.53 2.97 1.92 0.65 3.13
Dolomite (c) 4.00 3.51 3.05 2.54 3.09 3.54 2.46 1.21 3.70
Forsterite 1.62
Huntite 5.53 4.25 3.16 1.52 2.52 3.34 1.46 5.26
Hydromagnesite 1.00 1.88
Magadiite 0.94 12.39
Magnesite 2.39 1.99 1.68 1.11 1.32 1.51 1.08 0.24 2.39
Quartz 1.14 0.77 0.58 0.01 0.43 0.50 2.55 1.19 1.28 1.24
Sepiolite (d) 1.85 0.91 8.79
Sepiolite (c) 4.58 3.61 2.01 1.48 1.37 2.43 11.57
Silica gel 0.16 1.57 0.26 0.34 0.41
SiO2 (a) 1.25 −0.03 0.05 0.20
Talc 10.10 8.78 6.8 6.17 6.27 7.52 20
Tremolite 17.91 15.68 12.69 12.15 11.17 15.01 37.91
Gypsum 0.20 0.06
Anhydrite 0.03 0.14
 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258
Parangueo, it was not possible to calculate saturation indices, but we
can rely on the main peaks found in X-Ray diffractograms from the
lake sediments, where we found halite, northupite, gaylussite, trona,
nitrite, eitellite, aragonite, Mg2Cl2CO3 · 7H2O, hydromagnesite, and
montmorillonite. The relevance of evaporation was reflected in the
sodium-bicarbonate dominance, the high conductivities, and the
abovementioned oversaturated minerals at Aljojuca, Tecuitlapa,
Atexcac, Alchichica, La Alberca and Rincón de Parangueo. Magnesium
and bicarbonate presence may result from water–rock interaction and
precipitation/evaporation at Quechulac and La Preciosa. Limestones
outcropping nearby support this argument. Oversaturation of magne-
sium and magnesium silicate minerals probably results from interac-
tion of water with igneous rocks and magnesium minerals such as
dolomite and magnesite. Dominance of magnesium over calcium is
due to the different chemistry of these elements, as calcium easily
precipitates with carbonates at pH ≥ 8.3. Therefore, even though calcite
precipitates at oversaturation, the lake water may remain over-
saturated in dolomite for long periods due to its sluggish precipitation
reaction (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). La Luna, El Sol and Zirahuén did not
show oversaturation of any of the minerals considered in the
WATEQ4F database. It follows that low salinity lakes like La Luna, El
Sol and Zirahuén may obtain their ions from the interaction with
igneous rocks and atmospheric precipitation in a relatively humid
environment.
Sulfates and chlorides at the active volcano crater lakes are
strongly influenced by the volcanic gas input. Additionally, dominance
of magnesium at Popocatépetl was probably produced by heating of
the andesitic lake basin at the crater bottom (Armienta et al., 2000).
A clear influence of water interaction with igneous rocks was
observed in El Chichón and Popocatépetl crater lakes. Quartz was
oversaturated in almost all lakes. El Chichón was only oversaturated in
silica minerals. At Popocatépetl, in addition to the silica minerals,
gypsum and anhydrite were also saturated as a result of the high
sulfate concentration likely produced by magmatic SO2 incorporation.
The lake classification systematics developed by Varekamp et al.
(2000) was applied to the Mexican lakes discussed here to compare
their degree of neutralization, and the influence of volcanic processes
on their water chemistry.
Acid gases, mainly HCl and SO2, dissolve in water and increase the
concentration of sulfate and chloride while lowering pH. Acid water
interacts with rocks neutralizing the acidity and releasing cations.
Lake-waters may dissolve country rocks and debris carried to the
Fig. 3. Measured pH versus sum-of-anions (µeq/g). The oblique lines represent residual
acidity (After Varekamp, 2000). Letters correspond to lakes defined in Fig. 2. Additional
samples are: C6 — El Chichón May, 1985; C7 — El Chichón August, 1985; C8 — El Chichón
September, 1986; C9 —El Chichón May, 1992; C10 — El Chichón March, 1996; C11 — El
Chichón January, 2001; C12 — El Chichón January, 2002; C13 — El Chichón July, 2003;
C14 — El Chichón November, 2003.
255
Fig. 4. pH versus sum-of-cations (μmol/g) (after Varekamp, 2000). Black diamonds
represent samples from El Chichón and Popocatépetl obtained between 1983 and 2006.
Open squares are maar samples. Open triangles are samples from La Luna and El Sol of
Nevado de Toluca. This diagram clearly shows two well defined groups: magmatic-
influenced systems (diamonds), and climate-influenced lakes: predominantly maars
(open squares), and some crater lakes (open triangles).
water by rainstorms and landslides; water–rock interactions are still
more intensive at depth in hydrothermal systems that may be feeding
the volcanic lakes. This process may be reflected in a pH versus sum-
of-anions diagram that also includes isolines corresponding to the
degree of neutralization, i.e., the percentage of H+ consumed
(Varekamp et al., 2000). The application of this diagram to the
sampled lakes is shown in Fig. 3. Not surprisingly, the lowest degree of
neutralization, corresponding to the highest percent of residual
acidity (percentage of H+ left), was obtained for El Chichón and
Popocatépetl crater lakes. Residual acidity was less than 10− 4% in all
maars. The highest neutralization degree, almost 100%, stands for
Rincón de Parangueo and La Alberca. Zirahuén, La Luna and El Sol
showed residual acidity resulting from the dissolution of atmospheric
CO2 in dilute waters.
The release of rock-derived cations is higher at lower pH values; an
increase in the pH should produce a decrease in the concentration of
cations. Fig. 4 shows this general trend for El Chichón and
Popocatépetl crater-lake waters. Variable proportions of hydrothermal
water supply and volcanic gas input may account for the observed
behaviour at those volcanoes. In contrast, the increase of cations was
accompanied also by a raise of pH at other volcanic lakes. This trend
probably results from processes other than acid neutralization by
water–rock interactions. Evaporation exceeding precipitation may
raise the concentration of dissolved ions and oversaturate the
minerals shown in Table 4. Hydrolysis of bicarbonates and carbonates
produced by the interaction with water and limestones may have
increased OH− concentration resulting in the observed pH increase.
Differences among lakes receiving volcanic gas with respect to crater
lakes without volcanic gas dissolution are made evident in Fig. 4.
Fig. 5. CO2 dominated lakes (solid circles), quiescent geothermal lakes (solid squares),
active crater lakes (open squares), and maars (triangles) based on pH versus Cl + SO4
(ppm) compositional ranges (modified from Varekamp et al., 2000).
256 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258

Compositional changes distinguishing among CO2-influenced lakes, Table 5

quiescent, and active crater lakes, may be revealed in the pH versus Cl + Varimax normalized factor analysis. Extraction: principal components. Boldfaced
loadings are N 0.700
SO4 diagram developed by Varekamp et al. (2000). However, those
authors did not consider maars in their diagram. In such a diagram Variable Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
maars would be located along with the lakes of active or quiescent Conductivity 0.81 −0.41 0.31
volcanoes due to their high anion concentration; hence the zone of the pH 0.18 0.87 −0.35
Alk Phenol 0.98 0.13 −0.08
graph corresponding to those maar lakes should be separated. Based on
Alk Methyl 0.98 0.15 −0.08
the atmospheric CO2 dissolution in water, we propose to add a hori- HCO3 0.97 0.18 −0.09
zontal line around pH 5 to 6 to separate maars from lakes in active CO3 0.98 0.13 −0.08
volcanoes. This pH value may change according to the atmospheric Na 0.70 0.02 0.48
pressure and temperature. The proposed modification is shown in Fig. 5 K 1.00 0.07 0.02
Cl 0.92 −0.33 0.13
for Mexican crater lakes. The horizontal line separating active and SiO2 − 0.03 −0.85 0.40
quiescent lakes from maars has been drawn based on the lowest pH Ca 0.01 −0.93 0.04
measured at Nevado de Toluca. Two distinct periods can be observed for Mg 0.01 −0.28 0.93
El Chichón in this figure: one from 1983 to July 2001 and another from SO4 − 0.01 −0.29 0.94
Expl.Var 6.85 2.89 2.40
September 2001 to the present. In the first period, most of El Chichón
Prp.Totl 0.53 0.22 0.18
lake water samples corresponded to magmatic-influenced active vol-
canism, and in the second to a quiescent volcano. However, some
exceptional samples collected in August,1985, November,1991, and May,
1995, fall within the zone of the plot corresponding to quiescent Lakes may become subsaline (Atexcac, M2; Alchichica, M1;
volcanoes. Processes other than a loss of magmatic influence producing La Alberca, M9), by a combination of different causes: input of high-
the observed exceptions are beyond the scope of this paper and will be conductivity groundwater, a precipitation/evaporation ratio b1, or a
discussed elsewhere. The Popocatépetl lake water samples of 1992 and water level decrease from groundwater extraction. Rincón de
1994, and El Chichón 1983 sample, show extreme Cl+ SO4 and pH values, Parangueo may be considered as an end point of such a lake evolution.
clearly reflecting the volcanic gas influence in the chemistry of water. Multivariate statistical analysis was used to obtain an additional
Fig. 5 also emphasizes the influence of atmospheric CO2 dissolution in identification of the chemical parameters reflecting the abovemen-
poorly mineralized waters in La Luna, El Sol, and Zirahuén lakes. tioned processes affecting the lake water chemistry, and the lake-
Fig. 6 shows the distribution of lakes based on conductivity, pH, types. Factor analysis was used and a varimax normalized rotation was
and Cl + SO4 concentrations (mg/l). Samples from Popocatépetl and El applied to increase the significance of the analysis. Results presented
Chichón active volcanoes group in a region clearly separated from in Table 5 show that 95% of the variability of the observed phenomena
samples of the other lakes. may be explained by three factors. The first one includes conductivity,
Based on the distribution found for non-active volcanic lakes in Fig. 6, alkalinity, sodium, potassium and chloride, and may be attributed to
we propose a model of lake evolution clearly visualized in the conductivity, dilution/concentration processes and groundwater input or extraction
pH, Cl+SO4 plot, indicated by the direction of the arrow. This evaporation- that modifies the ionic content. The second factor entails pH
related evolution goes from the most diluted one (La Luna, A2), to those negatively related with silica and calcium, and may account for a
containing freshwaters with varying degrees of ionic concentration: El Sol pH-based dissolution/precipitation of silicates and calcium minerals.
(A3), Zirahuén (A1), Santa María del Oro (M7), Lago Verde (M8), Quechulac The third factor includes magnesium and sulphate, and may reflect
(M4), La Preciosa (M3), Aljojuca (M6) and Tecuitlapa (M5). interactions of the water with andesites and SO2 dissolution. This
grouping coincides with the geochemical interpretations and intro-
duces conductivity as an additional parameter reflecting climatic and
groundwater influence. It also highlights magnesium and sulfate as
the chemical species most related to volcanic activity.

6. Conclusions

Non-reactive dissolved ions (mainly Na+, K+ and Cl−) and conductivity

Fig. 6. Diagram of pH vs. log conductivity vs. log (SO4= + Cl−). Lake samples from active
volcanoes (C1 to C14) are clearly differentiated from other lakes. TDS (Werner et al.,
1997) was used as an approximate value of conductivity for sample C5. The arrow
indicates the proposed lake evolution of lake waters in inactive volcanoes: from highly
diluted lakes (A1, A2, A3), to freshwater lakes with various concentration degrees (M3,
M4, M5, M6, M7, M8) to subsaline maars (M1, M2, M9), and finally to an end-member
(M10) produced by high evaporation/precipitation ratios.
appear to be largely controlled by external dilution-and-concentration
processes. The external processes may be in turn linked to phreatic level
variations caused by groundwater entry and meteorological conditions.
On the other hand, volcanic-rock or volcanic gas interactions with water
have the strongest influence on magnesium, calcium, sulfates and pH in
volcanoes showing magmatic influence.
The chemical composition of crater lakes may be determined by
the volcanic gas input, either before of after eruptions. Such is the case
of El Chichón in 1983 (post-eruptive), and Popocatépetl in 1992 and
1994 (pre-eruptive). This influence may change with time. For
example, the relative influence of magmatic and meteorological
factors on El Chichón crater lake has varied irregularly after 1983.
Some maar waters may fall within the active volcanic zones in the
Varekamp et al. diagram; the zone in the high pH — (SO4 + Cl) region
accounts for this particular condition. A modification of this diagram,
adding a horizontal line at the pH corresponding to atmospheric CO2
dissolution in equilibrium with water permits distinguishing this type
of lakes from others with magmatic influence.
The identification of external (mostly meteorological) and internal
factors that influence the chemistry of volcanic crater lakes may be
 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258
strengthened when geochemical interpretations are combined with
statistical tools such as factor analysis.
A conductivity, pH, Cl + SO4 plot provides a useful tool to visualize
the relative influence of magmatic, meteorological and water–rock
factors. It illustrates the evolution of the lakes composition by factors
other than magmatic activity, such as rock weathering, climate and
anthropogenic influence.
Acknowledgements
We thank Leticia Baños, from Instituto de Investigaciones en
Materiales, UNAM, for XRD analyses. We are indebted to J. Varekamp
and two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions
that greatly improved this manuscript.
References
Alcocer, J., Lugo, A., Escobar, E., Sanchez, M.R., Vilaclara, G., 2000. Water column
stratification and its implications in the tropical warm monomictic lake Alchichica,
Puebla, Mexico. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 27, 3166–3169.
Alcocer, J.D., Escolero, F.O.A., Martín, S.L.E., 2004a. Problemática del agua de la Cuenca
de Oriental, estados de Puebla, Veracruz y Tlaxcala. In: Jiménez, B., Marín, L.E. (Eds.),
El Agua en México Vista desde la Academia. Academia Mexicana de Ciencias,
México, D.F., pp. 57–77.
Alcocer, J., Oseguera, L.A., Escobar, E., Peralta, L., Lugo, A., 2004b. Phytoplankton biomass
and water chemistry in two high mountain, tropical lakes in Central Mexico. Arctic,
Antarctic, Alpine Research 36, 341–345.
APHA (American Public Health Association) AWWA (American Water Works Associa-
tion), WPCF (Water Pollution Control Federation), 1995. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. American Public Health Association,
Washington, D.C.
APHA (American Public Health Association) AWWA (American Water Works Associa-
tion), WPCF (Water Pollution Control Federation), 2005. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. American Public Health Association,
Maryland.
Arce, J.L., Cervantes, K.E., Macías, J.L., Mora, J.C., 2005. The 12.1 ka Middle Toluca Pumice:
a dacitic Plinian–subplinian eruption of Nevado de Toluca in Central Mexico.
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 147, 125–143.
Armienta, M.A., De la Cruz-Reyna, S., Macías, J.L., 2000. Chemical characteristics of the
crater lakes of Popocatépetl, El Chichon, and Nevado de Toluca volcanoes, Mexico.
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 97, 105–125.
Ball, J.W., Norstrom, D.K., 2003. User's manual for WATEQ4F, with revised thermo-
dynamic data base and test cases for calculating speciation of major,trace, and
redox elements in natural waters. US Geol. Surv. Open-File Rep.
Bernal-Brooks, F.W., MacCrimmon, H.R., 2000. Lake Zirahuen (Mexico): an assessment of
the morphometry change based on evidence of water level fluctuations and
sediments inputs. Aquatic ecosystems of Mexico: status and scope. In: Munawar, M.,
Lawrence, G.S., Munawar, I.F., Malley, D.F. (Eds.), EcovisionWorld Monograph Series.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 61–76.
Bloomfield, K., Valastro, S., 1974. Late Pleistocene eruptive history of Nevado de Toluca
volcano, Central Mexico. Bull. Volcanol. 85, 901–906.
Caballero, M., Vázquez, G., Lozano-García, S., Rodríguez, A., Sosa-Nájera, S., Ruiz-
Fernández, A.C., Ortega, B., 2006. Present limnological conditions and recent
(ca. 340 yr) paleolimnology of a tropical lake in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, Eastern
Mexico. JOPL 35, 83–97.
Canul, R., Rocha, V.S., 1981. Informe Geológico de la Zona geotérmica de “El Chichonal”,
Chiapas, México. Comisión Federal de Electricidad. Rep. 32–81 (unpublished).
Cárdenas, J., 1994. Monografía geológica-minera del estado de Nayarit. Consejo de
Recursos Minerales, Subsecretaría de Minas e Industrias, México, D.F. 171 pp.
Carrasco-Núñez, G., Ort, M.H., Romero, C., 2007. Evolution and hydrological conditions
of a maar volcano, (Atexcac crater, Eastern Mexico). J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 159,
179–197.
Casadevall, T.J., De la Cruz-Reyna, S., Rose Jr., W.I., Bagley, S., Finnegan, D.L., Zoller, W.H.,
1984. Crater Lake and post-eruption hydrothermal activity, El Chichón Volcano,
México. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 23, 169–191.
Carey, S., Sigurdsson, H.,1986. The 1982 eruptions of El Chichon Volcano, Mexico: observations
and numerical modeling of tephra-fall distribution. Bull. Volcanol. 48, 127–141.
Damon, P., Montesinos, E., 1978. Late Cenozoic volcanism and metallogenesis over an
active Benioff Zone in Chiapas, Mexico. Ariz. Geol. Soc. Div. 11, 155–168.
Davies, S.J., Metcalfe, S.E., MacKenzie, A.B., Newton, A.J., Endfield, G.H., Farmer, J.G.,
2004. Environmental changes in the Zirahuén Basin, Michoacán, Mexico, during the
last 1000 years. JOPL 31, 77–98.
De Cserna, Z., 1992. Carta Tectónica IV.2.1. (In Garcia de Fuentes, ed) Atlas Nacional de
México Vol. II. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, México D.F.
De la Cruz-Reyna, S., Quezada, J.L., Peña, C., Zepeda, O., Sánchez, T., 1995. Historia de la
actividad del Popocatépetl (1354–1995). Volcán Popocatépetl, Estudios Realizados
Durante la Crisis de 1994–1995. CENAPRED-UNAM, México, D.F., pp. 3–22.
De la Cruz-Reyna, S., Tilling, R.I., 2008. Scientific and public responses to the ongoing
volcanic crisis at Popocatépetl volcano, Mexico: importance of an effective hazards-
warning system. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 170, 121-134.
257
Demant, A., 1981. L'axe néo-volcanique trans-mexican. Etude volcanologique et
pétrographie. Signification géodynamique. Thèse de Doctorat, Univ. Clermont-
Ferrand II.
Escolero, F.O.A., Alcocer, D.J., 2004. Desecación de los lagos cráter del Valle de Santiago,
Guanajuato. In: Jiménez, B., Marín, L.E. (Eds.), El Agua en México Vista desde la
Academia. Academia Mexicana de Ciencias, México, D.F., pp. 99–115.
Espíndola, J.M., Macías, J.L., Sheridan, M.F., Tilling, R.I., 2000. Eruptive history of El
Chichon volcano (Chiapas, Mexico) and its impact on human activity. Bull. Volcanol.
62, 90–104.
Ferrari, L., Nelson, S., Rosas, J., Aguirre, G., Venegas, S., 1997. Tectonics and volcanism of
the western Mexican Volcanic Belt. In: Aguirre, G., Aranda, J., Carrasco, G., Ferrari, L.
(Eds.), Magmatism and Tectonics in the Central and Northwestern Mexico, a
Selection of the 1997 IAVCEI General Assembly Excursion. UNAM, Inst. Geología,
México, D.F., pp. 85–129. Excursion 12.
Ferriz, H., 1985. Zoneamiento composicional y mineralógico en los productos eruptivos
del centro volcánico de Los Humeros, Puebla, Mexico. Geofis. Int. 24, 97–157.
Freeze, R.A., Cherry, J.A., 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, N.J.
GVN, 1994. Popocatépetl (México) Seismicity, SO2 flux measurements, and crater
observations reported. Bull. Glob. Volcanism Netw., Smithsonian Inst. 19, 4–6.
Hasenaka, T., 1994. Size, distribution, and magma output rate for shield volcanoes of the
Michoacán–Guanajuato volcanic field, Central Mexico. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.
63, 13–31.
Israde-Alcántara, I., 1999. Los lagos volcánicos y tectónicos de Michoacán. In: Corona-
Chávez, P., Israde-Alcántara, I. (Eds.), Carta Geológica de Michoacán, escala
1:250000. UMSNH, Morelia, pp. 46–74.
Macías, J.L., 2007. Geology and eruptive history of some active volcanoes of México.
Geol. Soc. Am., Special Paper 422, 183–232.
Macías, J.L., García-Palomo, A., Arce, J.L., Siebe, C., Espíndola, J.M., Komorowski, J.C.,
Scott, K.M., 1997. Late Pleistocene–Holocene cataclysmic eruptions at Nevado de
Toluca and Jocotitlán volcanoes, Central Mexico. In: Link, K.P., Kowallis, B.J. (Eds.),
Proterozoic to Recent Stratigraphy, Tectonics, and Volcanology, Utah, Nevada,
Southern Idaho and Central Mexico, vol. 42. Bringham Young University, Geology
Studies, pp. 493–528. part I.
Martin-Del Pozzo, A.L., 1997. Geología. In: González-Soriano, E., Dirzo, R., Vogt, R.C.
(Eds.), Historia Natural de Los Tuxtlas. UNAM, México, D.F., pp. 25–31.
Mora, J.C., Jaimes-Viera, M.C., Garduño-Monroy, V.H., Layer, P.W., Pompa-Mera, V.,
Godinez, M.L., 2007. Geology and geochemistry characteristics of the Chiapanecan
Volcanic Arc (Central Area), Chiapas Mexico. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 162, 43–72.
Moziño, J., 1870. La erupción del volcán de San Martín Tuxtla (Veracruz), ocurrida en el
año de 1793. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Estad. Rep. Mexico 2, 62–70.
Nelson, S., Sánchez, G., 1986. TMVB Field Guide. UNAM, Inst. Geología and Geological
Association of Canada. Volcanology Division.
Nelson, S.A., González-Caver, E., 1992. Geology and K–Ar dating of the Tuxtla Volcanic
Field, Veracruz, Mexico. Bull. Volcanol. 55, 85–96.
Ossaka, J., Ozawa, T., Nombra, T., Ossaka, T., Hirabayashi, J., Takaesu, A., Hayashi, T., 1980.
Variation of chemical composition in volcanic gases and waters at Kusatsu-Shirane
Volcano and its activity in 1976. Bull. Volcanol. 43, 207–216.
Padilla-Sánchez, R., Aceves-Quesada, F., 1990. Carta Geológica IV.1.1. Atlas Nacional de
México, Vol. II. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, México, D.F.
Raisz, E., 1964. Landforms of Mexico. Office of Naval Research. Cambridge, MA.
Robin, C., Boudal, C., 1987. A gigantic Bezymianny-type event at the beginning of
modern Volcan Popocatépetl. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 31, 115–130.
Rouwet, D., Taran, Y.A., Varley, N.R., 2004. Dynamics and mass balance of El Chichón
crater lake, Mexico. Geofis. Int. 43, 427–434.
SEAN, 1986. Popocatépetl (México): increased fumarolic activity in summit crater.
Smithson. Inst. (SEAN) Bull. 11 (1), 10–11.
Serrano, D., Filonov, A., Tereshchenko, I., 2002. Dynamics response to valley breeze
circulation in Santa María del Oro, a volcanic lake in Mexico. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29,
27–1, 27-4.
Siebe, C., Abrams, M., Macías, J.L., Obenholzner, J., 1996. Repeated volcanic disasters in
Prehispanic time at Popocatépetl, Central Mexico: past key to the future? Geology
24, 399–402.
Siebe, C., Macías, J.L., 2004. Volcanic hazards in the Mexico City metropolitan area from
eruptions at Popocatépetl, Nevado de Toluca, and Jocotitlán stratovolcanoes and
monogenetic scoria cones in the Sierra de Chichinautzin Volcanic Field. Fieldtrip
Books, 1. Geol. Soc. Am. 77 pp.
Siebert, L., Carrasco-Núñez, G., 2002. Late Pleistocene to precolumbian behind-the-arc
mafic volcanism in the eastern Mexican Volcanic Belt; implications for future
hazards. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 115, 179–205.
Siebert, L., Calvin, Ch., Kimberly, P., Luhr, J.F., Kysar, G., 2003. Volcanoes of México. The
Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program, US Department of Energy,
CDRom.
Sigurdsson, H., 1977. Chemistry of the crater lake during the 1971–72 Soufriére eruption.
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 2, 165–186.
SMN, 2005. Servicio Metereológico Nacional, México, D.F., http//www.smn.gob.mx.
SPP, 1980. Carta estatal hidrológica subterránea. Hoja Guanajuato, 1:500 000.
Takano, B., Watanuki, K., 1990. Monitoring of volcanic eruptions at Yugama crater lake
by aqueous sulfur oxyanions. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 40, 71–87.
Tassi, F., Vaselli, O., Capaccioni, B., Giolito, C., Duarte, E., Fernandez, E., Minissale, A.,
Magro, G., 2005. The hydrothermal–volcanic system of Rincón de la Vieja volcano
(Costa Rica): A combined (inorganic and organic) geochemical approach to
understanding the origin of the fluid discharges and its possible application to
volcanic surveillance. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 148, 315–333.
Tavera, R., Martínez-Almeida, V., 2005. Atelomixis as a possible driving force in the
phytoplankton composition of Zirahuén, a warm-monomictic tropical lake.
Hydrobiologia 533, 199–208.
258 M.A. Armienta et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 249–258
Varekamp, J.C., Pasternack, G.B., Rowe Jr, G.L., 2000. Volcanic lake systematics II.
Chemical constraints. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 97, 161–179.
Varekamp, J.C., Ouimette, A.P., Herman, S.W., Bermúdez, A., Delpino, D., 2001.
Hydrothermal element fluxes from Copahue, Argentina: a “beehive”volcano in
turmoil. Geology 29, 1059–1062.
Vázquez-Castro, G., 2004. Caracterización de los sedimentos del Holoceno tardío del
lago SMO, Nayarit, utilizando métodos de magnetismo ambiental. Tesis de Maestría,
Posgrado en Ciencias de la Tierra, UNAM. 153 pp.
Vazquez-Selem, L., Heine, K., 2004. Late Quaternary glaciation in Mexico. In: Ehlers, J.,
Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary Glaciations—Extent and Chronology, Part III.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 233–242.
Vilaclara, G., Chávez, M., Lugo, A., González, H., Gaytán, M., 1993. Comparative
description of crater-lakes basic chemistry in Puebla State, Mexico. Ver. Internat
Limnol. 25, 435–440.
Vilaclara, G., Cuna, E., Zeeb, B., 2005. Subfossil chrysophyte cyst morphotypes from two
tropical, high-mountain lakes in Nevado de Toluca volcano, Central Mexico. Nova
Hedwigia Beih. 128, 309–335.
Werner, C., Janik, C.J., Goff, F., Counce, D., Johnson, L., Siebe, C., Delgado, H., Williams, S.N.,
Fischer, T.P., 1997. Geochemistry of summit fumarole vapors and flanking thermal/
mineral waters at Popocatépetl volcano, Mexico. Report LA-13289-MS, Los Alamos
National Laboratory, USA.
Yokoyama, I., De La Cruz-Reyna, S., Espíndola, J.M., 1992. Energy Partition in the 1982
Eruption of El Chichon Volcano, Chiapas, México. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 97,
161–179.