CHAPTER 6  Also known as TREES  Provides protection &

PLANT STUCTURE & FLESHY/ENLARGED  Have a tall & thick trunks prevents excessive
FUNCTION ROOTS & numerous branches transpiration off the plant
 Turnip & sweet potato SHRUBS  Cactus
IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS STORAGE ROOT  Have many stems arising REPRODUCTIVE LEAVES
1. FOOD - plants are  Swollen w/ nutrients & from the ground  Acts for perpetuation
probably most important to water to prepare plants for HERBS  Kataka-taka/kalanchoe
people as food. unfavorable conditions.  Usually have soft & juicy CARNIVOROUS LEAVES
2. RAW MATERIALS -  Carrots, beet & radish stems  For food-getting
plants supply people w/ AERIAL ROOT VINES  Venus fly trap/pitcher plant
many important raw  Roots above the ground  Have stems that cannot
materials.  Absorb moisture from the maintain upright position FLOWERS
3. MEDICINE - useful drugs air  Act as the reproductive part
come from plants.  Orchids, strangler & fig METAMORPHOSED STEM of the plant
4. PLANTS & the CYCLE CLASPING ROOT BULB SEPALS
 Grows from the nodes of  A rounded part of some  Small,green,leaf-like
of NATURE - this process
the soft stem to cling to plants that is under the structure located at the base
gives people oxygen to
other plants ground that grows into a of the flower
breathe, food to eat & heat
to keep them warm.
 Money plant new plant during the  Collectively called
PNEUMATOPHORES growing season. CALYX
 Function for gas exchange  Onion PETALS
ROOTS
 Erial extension from the RHIZOME  Highly colored portions of
 Usually found underground
roots  A thick stem that grows a flower
 Hold the plant in the soil &
take in water & minerals
 Black mangrove, cypress horizontally beneath the  Collectively called
PROP/BRACE ROOT ground w/c stores food. COROLLA
from the soil.
 Provides additional support  Ginger, iris STAMEN
PRIMARY ROOT
 Grows from the lowest part CORM  Male flower part
 First structure to emerge
from spouting seed.
of the stem to the trunk  A short thick stem that  Consists of pollen
 Corn, screw pines grows UPRIGHT beneath sac(anther) & a long
 TAP ROOT SYSTEM -
BUTTRESS ROOTS the ground. supporting filament
develops when the primary
 Wall-like extensions off the  Crocus, Tarolgabi ANTHERS
roots develops rapidly.
base of the trunk w/c STOLON/RUNNER  Where pollen is located
- grow deeps into the soil&
provide support against  A stem that grows PISTIL/CARPEL
become thick & fleshy
physical assault from high horizontally on the surface  Female flower part
 FIBROUS ROOT
winds of the ground & produces  Consists of a stigma, style
SYSTEM - made up of
 Fruits new plants by growing & ovary
numerous roots, may of
STEM & LEAVES roots and buds at the nodes. STIGMA
w/c are nearly equal in
STEM  Bermuda grass, spearmint  Covered in a stick
size.
 Support the leaves of the substance that the pollen
- develops when branching
seed plant & connects the LEAVES grains will adhere to.
secondary roots are larger than
parts of the roots.  Usually bifacially flattened STYLE
primary roots
 Responsible for the occasionally needle or  Raises the stigma away
SECONDARY ROOT
production & supports of scale-like appendages of from the ovary
 New branches of the
leaves & flowers or cones stem OVARY
primary root
 HERBACIOUS STEM  Leaf Primordia is the origin  Protects the value & once
 Found on the herbacious of the leaf but not capable fertilization has taken place
ROOT STRUCTURE &
plants having soft green of photosynthesis it will become the fruit.
FUNCTIONS
juicy stems.  Functions for food OVULE
EPIDERMIS
 Covered by epidermal cells production.  Like the egg in animals&
 One cell thick
 WOODY STEM once fertilization has taken
 Responsible for taking in
 Contain woody tissues & LEAF STRUCTURE place will become seed.
water & minerals from the
are not green in color. PHYLLOTAXY
soil.
 Matured type of epidermal  Arrangement of leaves of CHAPTER 7
ROOT HAIRS
cells & replace the stem. PROTECTION, SUPPORT &
 Tubular outgrowth of
 Alternate - there is only 1 LOCOMOTION
epidermal cells of the root.
STRUCTURE leaf in a node (gumamela)
 Storage of food &
BUD  Opposite - 2 leaves in a INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
carbohydrates
 Functions for cell division, node(Santan)  Largest organ system
CORTEX
enlargement & maturation  Whorled - 3 leaves in a  Includes skin & its
 Tissue just beneath the
A. Terminal/apical bud node(Adelfa) appendages
epidermis
 Located at the tip  Spiral - each succeeding EPIDERMIS
PARENCHYMA
B. Lateral/axillary bud stem node & attached leaf  Top layer of skin made up
 Cells of the cortex store
 Located along the sides is rotated slightly from the of epithelial cells
plant food, w/c is mainly
from w/c branches may be nodes below & above. FUNCTION
starch.
develop VENATION  For protection,absorption
ENDODERMIS
BUD SCALES(modified  Arrangement of the veins of nutrients & homeostasis
 Innermost of the cortex
leaves) on the lamina STRUCTURE
PERICYCLE
 Vascular cylinder or the
 Enclose the tender growing PARALLEL VENATION  The cells are made up of
point & protect it from a. Parallel-Midrib stratified squamous
central cylinder containing
mechanical injury & b. Perpendicular-Midrib epithelium w/ KERATIN
xylem or phloem.
desiccation NETTED VENATION  Contains tiny openings,
MONOCOT
BUNDLE SCARS a. PINNATE VENATION PORES - where sweat &
 Xylem & phloem are
 Functions to show location b. PALMATE VENATION oils secreted by the skin
arranged in alternating
of the conducting vessels leave the body.
manner forming circle.
w/c carried water & TENDRILS LAYERS OF THE
 Usually fibrous root.
minerals to the leaf to stem.  Provides support EPIDERMIS
DICOT
NODE  Sitsaro,garden pea,squash 1. STRATUM BASALE
 Xylem & phloem are
 Point at w/c leaves or BUD SCALES  Single layer of cells resting
arranged in center
branches are produced  Protects bud from drying on a basement membrane.
 Usually tap root
from the stem up & from mechanical  Cells of this layer divide
INTERNODE injury continuously.
METAMORPHOSED ROOTS
 Spaces between nodes BRACTS 2. STRATUM SPINOSUM
ADVENTITIOUS ROOT
LENTICELS  Provides the attractive  Consists of spiny prickle
 Roots that grows
 To allow the entrance & characteristics for flowers cells that interlock to
anywhere”unexpected”
escape of gases from the  Poinsettia, bougaimvilla support the skin.
 Pepper & Ivy
stem/twig. SPINES 3. STRATUM
TUBER
GRANULOSUM
SIZE
 Middle layer that initiates
keratinization.
JOINTS
 The place where 2 bones
come together
 SYNARTHROSES
(movable)
 The bones are in very close
contact & are separated
only by a thin layer of
fibrous connective tissue.
 The suture in the skull
between skull bones.
 AMPHIARTHROSES
(slightly movable)
 This type of joint is
characterized by bones that
are connected by hyaline
cartilage.(fibro cartilage)
 Ex:the ribs that connect to
the sternum.
 DIARTHROSIS (freely
movable)
 Most of the joints in the
adult human body are
freely movable joints.
TYPES OF DIARTHROSIS
JOINTS
BALL-AND-SOCKET
 Ball-shaped end of one
bone fits into a cup shaped
socket on the other bone
allowing the widest range
of motion including
rotation.
 Shoulder & Hips
CONDYLOID
 Oval shaped condyle fits
into elliptical cavity of
another allowing angular
motion but not rotation.
 Ex: joints between
METACARPALS (bones
in the palm of the hand) &
PHALANGES (fingers) &
between the
METATARSALS(foot
bones excluding heel) &
PHALANGES(toes)
SADDLE
 Occurs when the touching
surfaces of two bones have
both concave and convex
regions w/ the shape of the
2 bones complementing 1
one other & allowing a
wide range of movement.
 Ex: thumb
PIVOT
 Rounded or conical
surfaces of one bone fit
into a ring of one or tendon
allowing rotation.
 Ex: joint between the axis
& atlas in the neck
HINGE
 A convex projection on one
bone fits into a concave
depression in another
permitting only flexion &
extension.
 Ex: elbow joints
GLIDING
 Flat or slightly flat surfaces
move against each other
allowing sliding or twisting
w/o any circular
movement.
 Ex: joint between carpals
in the wrist & the tarsals in
the ankle.
SKELETAL SYSTEM OF
ANIMALS
EXOSKELETON
 Hardened body covering
Examples:
 Plastron of turtle
 Scaly scales of pangolin
 Spines & spikes of
starfishes
ENDOSKELETON
Examples:
 Spicules of the sponges
 Test(corona) of sea urchin
 Horny pen of squids
 “cuttlebone” of cuttlefish
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Holds the skeleton parts
together to protect the
body’s vital organs & to
support the movement of
its various parts.
MUSCLE TISSUE
 Responsible for movement
in higher animals’ heat
production & maintenance
of posture.
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
A. STRIATED/VOLUNTARY
MUSCLE (SKELETAL
MUSCLE)
 Has cross-striations (A-I
bands) & caan controlled at
will
 Consists of myofibrils w/c
contains actomycin
 SARCOMERE - the
functional/structural unit of
muscle contraction.
B. SMOOTH/
INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE
(VISCERAL MUSCLE)
 Spindle-shaped cells w/c
are thickened at the middle
but tapered towards the
ends.
C. CARDIAC MUSCLE
 Striated & branched muscle
fibers
 Found exclusively in the
heart(myocardium) & is
involuntary in movement.
CHAPTER 8
HOMEOSTASIS
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 System with complex tubes
of considerable length.
 Also called
ALIMENTARY TRACT
 Group of organs that break
down the food into small
particles or molecules.
PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
ORAL CAVITY
 Where food is mixed with
the saliva secreted by
several sets of salivary
glands.
TEETH
 Where food is broken into
smaller pieces by both
biting and chewing.
TOUNGE
 Manipulates the food
during chewing and forms
it into a mass called
BOLUS.In preparation for
swallowing
 Pushes the bolus through a
cavity called PHARYNX
and into esophagus.
ESOPHAGUS
 Along tube running
through the throat and
connecting to stomach in
the upper portion of the
abdominal cavity.
Peristalsis
 Contraction movement of  Large glandular organ lying
esophagus muscle. just below the stomach.
Sphincter  Secretes different enzymes
 Special ring of muscle and pour these into the
found on the junction small intestines via the
between esophagus and common bile duct.
stomach, w/c when ENZYMES SECRETED BY
contracted closes the PANCREAS
entrance to the stomach. Lipase
STOMACH  Enzyme that digest fats or
 Large muscular sac, w/c splits fats into soluble
functions as a storage glycerol and fatty acids
organ, making Pancreatic Amylase
discontinuous feeding  Acts like salivary amylase,
possible. splitting into starch into a
Rugae double sugar maltose
 Folds of the stomach that TRYPSIN &
increases its surface area. CHYMOTRYPSIN
 Churns the food, mixing it  breaks proteins to amino
w/ gastric juice. acids.
Gastric Juice INTESTINAL GLANDS
 Contains enzymes that  Completes the digestion of
breakdown protein. food .
CHYME 1. Peptidase - peptides
 Soupy mixture that leaves to amino acids
the stomach and passes 2. Sucrase - sucrose to
through the pyloric glucose
sphincter into the small 3. Maltase - maltose to
intestines. glucose & fructose
SMALL INTESTINE
4. Lactase - lactose to
 Where final digestion and
galactose & glucose
absorption takes place.
DIGESTIVE FLOW
 Measures 23ft long (7m
ORAL CAVITY
long, 2.5 cm in dm) in an
↓
adult
ESOPHAGUS
Duodenum
↓
 First section of the small
STOMACH
intestines attached to the
↓
stomach
SMALL INTESTINE
JEJUNUM
↓
 Middle portion of the
LARGE INTESTINE
intestine
↓
ILEUM
RECTUM
 Very long coiled section
↓
lying lower in the
ANUS
abdominal cavity.
VILLI
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 Finger-like projections in
 Consists of 2 kidneys,
the inner wall of the small
2 ureters, urinary bladder &
intestine that increases
urethra
absorptive surface area.
 Essential in the
LARGE INTESTINE
removal of wastes from the body
 Also known as COLON
 Reabsorbs much of the
PARTS OF THE
water used in the digestive
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
process and excretes
1. KIDNEYS
certain salts, such as those
 bean-shaped organs
of calcium and iron.
found just above the waistline
Caecum
Renal Fascia
 This is a small and
 The thin fibrous layer, w/c
functionally unimportant
anchors the kidney to the
for human.
surrounding structures to
Appendix
maintain the normal
 Finger-like process found
position of the organ.
at the tip of the caecum
Feces
THE WORK OF THE
 Undigested food excreted
KIDNEY
into the colon and
Three Processes:
eliminated from the body.
1. FILTRATION
RECTUM
 The blood plasma is
 Last portion of the large
filtered through the walls of
intestines that function as a
the GLOMERULUS and
storage chamber for the
collects in the
feces until defecation.
BOWMAN’S CAPSULE.
ANUS
 This process forms a fluid,
 Opening for the elimination
the NEPHRIC
of feces.
FILTRATE, w/c contains
all the ions and small
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
molecules present in the
LIVER
blood plasma.
 Largest gland in the body
2. TUBULAR
 Aids in chemical digestion
REABSORPTION
by producing bile.
 Process by w/c solutes and
GALL BLADDER
water are removed from the
 A small organ found on the
tubular fluid and
surface of the liver w/c
transported into the blood.
stores bile.
3. TUBULAR SECRETION
PANCREAS
 The nephric tubules secrete
additional quantities of
metabolic wastes into the
NEPHRIC NITRATE.
URINE
 The fluid as it reaches the
collecting tubule contain a
number of amber colored
liquid w/ metabolic waste.
2. URETERS
 These are two tubes w/c
function to convey urine
from the kidneys to the
bladder.
3. URINARY BLADDER
 This sac lies posterior to
the pubis.
 Serves as the reservoir for
urine, gradually fills and
becomes distended.
Peritoneum
 Covering of the superior
surface of the bladder.
4. URETHRA
 Where urine is expelled.
OTHER EXCRETORY
ORGAN
1. SKIN
 Excretes wastes, secretes
fluid & make possible
growth and repair of hair
cells.
2. LARGE INTESTINE
 12-24 hrs are required for
the waste products of
digestions to pass through
the colon & rectum.
3. LUNGS
 Excreting CO2
4. LIVER
 Produces bile w/c is
concentrated by the
removal of water and salts.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Responsible for the
breathing where in gases
exchanged are carried by
the blood for use in
biological processes,
especially the production of
energy to support life.
PARTS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. EXTERNAL
NARES/NOSTRILS
 Passage of air
2. TRACHEA/WINDPIPE
 Lies adjacent to the
esophagus w/ rings of
cartilage embedded in its
walls, w/c hold it open.
Larynx/Voice Box/Adam’s
Apple
 Contains the vocal cords,
w/c vibrate as air passes
over them thereby
producing sound.
3. BRONCHI
 Cartiliganious parts that
branches into bronchioles
walls:
 Inner epithelium
 Outer layer of connective
tissues
 Middle layer of
cartiliganious rings &
smooth muscle fiber
4. LUNGS
 Covered by a thin sheet of
smooth epithelium called
PLEURA.
RESPIRATION
 Exchange of gases bet. a
cell & its environment
BREATHING
 Mechanical processes of
taking air in & out the
lungs.
INSPIRATION/
INHALATION
 Taking air into the lungs
EXPIRATION/
EXHALATION
 Taking air out from the
lungs.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 Process by w/c cells get
energy from the oxidation
of glucose.
INTERNAL RESPIRATION
 Exchange of oxygen &
carbon dioxide bet. blood
and body cells.
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
 Exchange of gases bet. the
lungs of air.
CONDITIONS &
DISORDERS
EMPHYSEMA
 Walls of the alveoli lose
their elasticity & stay filled
w/ air during exhalation
ASTHMA
 A condition marked by the
spasms in the bronchi of
the lungs, causing
difficulty in breathing.
SORE THROAT
 Condition marked by pain
in the throat caused by
inflammation due to a cold
or other virus.
COMMON COLDS
 Viral infectious disease of
the upper respiratory tract
that primarily affect the
nose.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Consist of a closed network
of vessels that transports
materials to & from the
cells of the body.
MATERIALS:
 Oxygen
 Carbon dioxide
 Nutrients
 Water
 Metabolic wastes
 Hormones
PARTS OF THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
HEART
 Hollow muscular organ
located below the
sternum(breast bone) lying
in the thoraic cavity.
Pericardium
 Double-walled sac
surrounding the heart
Atria
 Upper chambers of the
heart receives the blood
into the heart
Ventricles
 Lower chambers of the
heart that pumps out blood
out of the heart.
BLOOD
 Transport materials to &
from diff parts.
Red blood cells
 Carry oxygen to all parts of
the body & pick up CO2
from body cells for
removal.
White blood cells
 Help to fight disease by
producing neurophils,
monocytes & lympocytes.
Platelets
 Functions in blood clotting
with the use of the protein
FIBRINOGEN.
BLOOD VESSELS
 A small tube that carries
blood to different parts of a
person or animal’s body.
Arteries
 Carry the blood away from
the heart.
Veins
 Carry the blood towards
the heart.
Capillaries
 Thin-walled blood vessels
across w/c materials are
exchanged bet blood &
body tissues.
MECHANISMS
PULMONARY CIRCUIT
 Carries blood from the
lungs to the heart.
SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT
 Oxygenated blood from the
heart will be carried to the
rest of the body & back to
the heart.
HEART RATE
 Number of times the heart
beat every minute.
Diastole
 Relaxation of the heart
muscles w/c allows the
blood to flow into the
chamber.
Systole
 Contraction of ventricles
that pumps blood to the
body.
MONITORING DEVICES
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH
 Detects the current of
electrical signals from the
heart
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
 Produces a graph of the
electrical activity of the
heart.
CONDITIONS & DISORDER
ANEMIA
 A personsblood does not
transport enough oxygen
SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA
 Characterized by a red
blood cells that are sickle-
shaped preventing oxygen
from reaching muscles &
other tissues.
VARICOSE VEIN
 Weakened vein valves
ARTERIOSCLERIOSIS
 A person’s arteries become
narrow due to fatty acids
inside vessel walls.
HYPERTENSION
 Condition whereby the
force of blood pumping
through the blood vessels is
too high.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
 Body’s defense system
against attack by harmful
organisms & substances in
the environment.
PATHOGEN
 Organisms that causes
infectious diseases
TRANSMISSION OF
DISEASES:
 Direct contact
 Indirect contact
 Contaminated food or
water
 Bites of infected insects
NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSES
1. SKIN & MUCUS
SKIN
 Acts as the body first line
of defense by blocking
pathogens from entering
the body.
MUCUS
 Produced by respiratory
organs trap coats &
bacteria.
2. INFLAMMATORY
RESPONSE
 Blood vessels expand into
the site of injured cells &
more plasma leaks into the
inter cellular fluid
HISTAMINE
 Chemicals released by
injured cells
PYROGENS
 Chemical substances
released by macrophages
that stimulate the
hypothalamus to raise the
body temperature
3. INTERFERON &
NATURAL KILLER CELLS
INTERFERON
 A group of signaling
proteins made & released
by host cells in response to
the presence of several
pathogens, such as viruses,
bacteria, parasites & also
tumor cells.
NATURAL KILLER CELLS
 A lymphocyte able to bind
to certain tumor cells &
virus-infected cells w/o the
stimulation of antigens, &
kill them by the insertion of
granules containing
perforin.
IMMUNE RESPONSES
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
 Immunity against
pathogens in the body
fluids, blood & lymph
ANTI-BODY
 Disease-fighting protein
produced in response to a
specific pathogen.
CELL-MEDIATE
IMMUNITY
 Destruction of infected
body cells
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
 Body resistance to
previously encountered
pathogens.