Field work

Field work is the process of observing and collecting data about

people, cultures, and natural environments. Field work is conducted in
the wild of our everyday surroundings rather than in the semi-controlled
environments of a lab or classroom. This allows researchers to collect
data about the dynamicplaces, people, and species around them. Field
work enables students and researchers to examine the way scientific
theories interact with real life.

Field work is important in both the social and natural sciences. Social
sciences, such as economics or history, focus on people, culture,
and society. Natural sciences, such as biology or chemistry, focus
on physical characteristics of nature and natural environments ‘
Project name :- world skill centre
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Project mape/plan :-
As stated in the definition surveying the objective of measurements is to
show relative positions of various objects on paper. Such
representations on paper is called plan or map. A plan may of be
defined as the graphical representation of the features on, near or
below the surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plane to a
suitable scale.

However, since the surface of the earth is curved and that of the paper
is plane, no part of the earth can be represented on such maps without
distortion. If the area to be represented is small, the distortion is less
and large scale can be used. Such representations are called plans. If
the area to be represented is large, small, scales are to be used and
distortion is large. Representation of larger areas are called maps.
Representation of a particular locality in a municipal area is a plan while
representation of a state/country is a map. There is no exact
demarcation between a plan and map.

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 COMPONENTS OF BUILDING :-
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in
direct contact with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil
safely. Generally, the foundation can be classified into two, namely shallow
foundation and deep foundation.

 Shallow Foundation
 Deep Foundation

Types of Foundation and their Usse

Following are different types of foundations used in construction:

1. Shallow foundation
1. Individual footing or isolated footing
2. Combined footing
3. Strip foundation
4. Raft or mat foundation
2. Deep Foundation
0. Pile foundation
1. Drilled Shafts or caissons

Types of Shallow Foundations

1. Individual Footing or Isolated
Footing
Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation
used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column
and also called as pad foundation.

The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads
from structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on
the column and safe bearing capacity of soil.
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Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences
moments due to eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces.

For example, Consider a column with vertical load of 200 kN and safe bearing
capacity of 100 kN/m2 then the area of the footing required will be 200/100 =
2m2. So, for a square footing, length and width of footing will be 1.414 m x
1.414 m.

2. Combined Footing
Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough
and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated
footings, but their structural design differs.

The shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure is
carried by the columns.

3. Spread footings or Strip footings and

Wall footings
Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing
wall foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from
the building structure over more area and provides better stability.

Fig: Spread Footing

Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and
bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground
surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the
structure over the base area of the structure.

These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow
of water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.

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4. Raft or Mat Foundations
Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the
entire area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and
walls.

Fig: Mat Foundation

The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the
loads from structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to
prevent differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single
mat (or combined footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure.

It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of
spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half
area of the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are
provided.

These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above the
bearing surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may lead to
scour and liquefaction.

Types of Deep Foundation

5. Pile Foundations
Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy
loads from the structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.
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 Fig: Pile Foundation
Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns
to hard soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow foundations
such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to
prevent uplift of structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind
forces.

Read More on Deep Foundations

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the
ground surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata
may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface.

Pile foundation resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end
bearing. Use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of
foundations.

Read More on Pile Foundation

6. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation
Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has
action similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-
situ foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe
resistance and / or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled
shafts or caissons are done using an auger.

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 Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source: Hayward Baker)
Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used
where depth of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m
(25 feet to 300 feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft
clays and loose, water-bearing granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for
soils where caving formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of
boulders, artesian aquifer exist

Brickwork :-
Bricks consist of fired ceramic, clay, or cement materials that are cut into
specific shapes, such as a rectangle, and used for building walls or
furnaces or for paving surfaces. Bricks vary in material makeup, size,
and shape and include products for specific applications, such as
firebricks or refractory bricks, acid bricks for flooring, and bricks for
masonry applications.

Materials
Bricks are manufactured using raw materials such as clay, concrete,
calcium silicate, or shale mixed with a specific amount of water. They
are shaped or extruded and then kiln-dried to hardness. A relatively new
type of brick composed of fly ash, a by-product of burning coal, came on
the scene in 2007. Fly ash bricks are just as strong as traditional clay
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 bricks, but they may contain small amounts of pollutants such as heavy
metals.
Specifications
Bricks vary by the ratio of raw material to water and how they are
formed. For example, the stiff mud process uses 12%-15% water and
extrudes the formed bricks through a die. The soft mud process uses
20%-30% water and forms bricks in molds. The dry press process uses
less water than the previous two, only 10%, and forms the bricks in
molds under high pressure. All types of bricks are dried in furnaces or
kilns to ensure proper characteristics such as durability, hardness, and
weather resistance. The material-to-water ratio, forming process,
temperature, and time in the furnace all depend upon how the finished
bricks will be used.
Applications
 Red bricks are used to build walls in structural masonry or in load bearing
applications.
 Firebricks, or refractory bricks, are made with clays that are mined deeper
down and have fewer impurities. They resist heat and are useful in furnace
applications.
 Acid bricks are used to build industrial flooring, and, therefore, must be
dense and durable. Acid bricks are made using high-quality shale that is
dried at high temperatures for a long period of time to ensure uniform
density.
Constructing walls or paving floors with bricks involves the use of a
mortar to bond the bricks together. Mortar is typically composed of
Portland cement, masonry cement, lime, and other aggregates. The
mixture depends upon how coarse or fine the mortar needs to be for the
application. The bricks are stacked together with a layer of mortar in
between each brick, bonding it to the surrounding bricks. The patterns
used to build walls or other structures or to pave floors varies according
to the application. Some of the common patterns include the Flemish or
Dutch bond, in which shorter bricks called headers are alternated with
longer bricks called stretchers. This type of pattern is often used for load
bearing walls. Other variations of this alternating pattern include the
English bond, Rat-trap bond, Monk bond, and header bond. Patterns for
paving surfaces include Basket bond and Herringbone bond. Some
more complex patterns are selected for aesthetic reasons, while simple
patterns are used for brick surfaces that will be covered with plaster or
stucco.

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 Features
Bricks are an environmentally friendly building material, since they are
manufactured using abundant raw materials, they are durable, long-
lived, and efficient at maintaining a constant temperature, and they are
completely recyclable at the end of their life.
Mostly used material for bonds in brick masonry is cement mortar. Lime mortar
and mud mortar are also used.

Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry

Wall Construction :
The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are:
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond and
4. Flemish bond
Other Types of bonds are:
1. Facing bond
2. Dutch bond
3. English cross bond
4. Brick on edge bond
5. Raking bond
6. Zigzag bond
7. Garden wall bond

1. Stretcher bond
Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the elevation
of figure below. Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when
bricks are laid with only their stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the
courses of bricks below and above.

Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating pattern. But the limitation
of stretcher bond is that it cannot make effective bonding with adjacent bricks
in full width thick brick walls. They are suitably used only for one-half brick
thick walls such as for the construction half brick thick partition wall.
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Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable enough to stand alone in
case of longer span and height. Thus they Then need supporting structure such
as brick masonry columns at regular intervals.

Stretcher bonds are commonly used in the steel or reinforced concrete framed
structures as the outer facing. These are also used as the outer facing of cavity
walls. Other common applications of such walls are the boundary walls,
gardens etc.

Fig-1: Stretcher Bond

2. Header bond
Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm.
Header bond is also known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each
course are placed as headers on the faces of the walls. While Stretcher bond is
used for the construction of walls of half brick thickness whereas header bond
is used for the construction of walls with full brick thickness which measures
18cm. In header bonds, the overlap is kept equal to half width of the brick. To
achieve this, three quarter brick bats are used in alternate courses as quoins.

Fig-2: Header Bond

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 Fig-3: Header Bond Isometric View

3. English Bond
English bond in brick masonry has one course of stretcher only and a course of
header above it, i.e. it has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers.
Headers are laid centered on the stretchers in course below and each alternate
row is vertically aligned.

To break the continuity of vertical joints, quoin closer is used in the beginning
and end of a wall after first header. A quoin close is a brick cut lengthwise into
two halves and used at corners in brick walls.

Fig-4: English Bond

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 Fig-4: English Bond – Isometric View

4. Flemish Bond
For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted
in alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness
equal to odd number of half bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the
bond.

Flemish bond, also known as Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers
and stretchers in a single course. The next course of brick is laid such that
header lies in the middle of the stretcher in the course below, i.e. the alternate
headers of each course are centered on the stretcher of course below. Every
alternate course of Flemish bond starts with header at the corner.

The thickness of Flemish bond is minimum one full brick. The disadvantage of
using Flemish bond is that construction of Flemish bond is difficult and
requires greater skill to lay it properly as all vertical mortar joints need to be
aligned vertically for best effects. For the breaking of vertical joints in the
successive courses, closers are inserted in alternate courses next to the quoin
header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd number of half bricks, bats
are used to achieve the bond.

Flemish bonds have better appearance but are weaker than English bonds for
load bearing wall construction. Thus, if the pointing has to be done for brick
masonry walls, then Flemish bond may be used for better aesthetic view. If the
walls have to be plastered, then it is better to use English bond.

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 Fig-5: Flemish Bond

Fig-6: Flemish Bond Front Appearance

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 Flemish bonds are classified as:
o Single Flemish Bond
o Double Flemish Bond
Single Flemish bond is a combination of English bond and Flemish bond. In
this type of construction, the front exposed surface of wall consists of Flemish
bond and the back surface of the wall consists of English bond in each course.
Minimum thickness required for single Flemish bond is one and a half brick
thickness. The main purpose of using single Flemish bond is to provide greater
aesthetic appearance on the front surface with required strength in the
brickwork with English bond.

Double Flemish Bond has the same appearance both in the front and back
elevations, i.e. each course consists of alternate header and stretcher. This type
of bonding is comparatively weaker than English bond.

Walls:-
Wall is a structure defining an exact area and providing safety & shelter.
There are various types of walls used in the construction of buildings
given below.

Types of Walls
 Load Bearing Walls
o Precast Concrete Wall
o Retaining Wall
o Masonry Wall
o Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls
o Engineering Brick Wall
o Stone Wall
 Non-Load Bearing Wall
o Hollow Concrete Block
o Facade Bricks
o Hollow Bricks
o Brick Walls
 Cavity Walls
 Shear Walls
 Partition Walls
 Panel Walls
 Veneered Walls
 Faced Walls
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Brief descriptions of different types of walls are given below.

Load Bearing Walls

Load bearing wall is a structural element. It carries the weight of a
house from the roof and upper floors, all the way to the foundation. It
supports structural members like beams(sturdy pieces of wood or
metal), slab and walls on above floors above. A wall directly above the
beam is called load bearing wall. It is designed to carry the vertical load.
In another way, if a wall doesn’t have any walls, posts or other supports
directly above it, it is more likely to be a load-bearing wall. Load bearing
walls also carry their own weight. This wall is typically over one another
on each floor. Load bearing walls can be used as interior or exterior
wall. This kind of wall will often be perpendicular to floor joists or ridge.
Concrete is an ideal material to support these loads. The beams go
directly into the concrete foundation. Load bearing walls inside the
house tend to run the same direction as the ridge.

Types of Load Bearing Walls:

 Precast Concrete Wall

 Retaining Wall
 Masonry Wall
 Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls
 Engineering Brick Wall
 Stone Wall

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Non-Load Bearing Walls
A wall which doesn’t help the structure to stand up and holds up only
itself is known as a non-load bearing wall. It doesn’t support floor roof
loads above. It is a framed structure. Most of the time, They are interior
walls whose purpose is to divide the structure into rooms. They are built
lighter. One can remove any non-load bearing walls without
endangering the safety of the building. Non-load bearing walls can be
identified by the joists and rafters. They are not responsible for
gravitational support for the property. It is cost effective. This wall is
referred to as “curtain wall”.

Types of Non-Load Bearing Wall:

 Hollow Concrete Block

 Facade Bricks
 Hollow Bricks
 Brick Walls

Cavity Walls
The cavity wall consists of two separate wythes. The wythes are made
of masonry. Those two walls are known as internal leaf and external
leaf. This wall is also known as a hollow wall. They reduce their weights
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on the foundation. They act as good as sound insulation. Cavity wall
gives better thermal insulation than any other solid wall because space
is full of air and reduces heat transmission. They have a heat flow rate
that is 50 percent that of a solid wall. It is economically cheaper than
other solid walls. It is fire resistant. Cavity wall helps to keep out from
noise.

Shear Walls
It is a framed wall. It is designed to resist lateral forces. This lateral force
comes from exterior walls, floor, and roofs to ground foundation. The
usage of the shear wall is important, especially in large and high-rise
buildings. It is Typically constructed from materials like concrete or
masonry. It has an excellent structural system to resist earthquake. It
provides stiffness in the direction. The construction and implementation
are easy in shear walls. It is located symmetrically to reduce ill effects of
a twist. Shear wall doesn’t exhibit any stability problem.

Partition Walls
It is used in separating spaces from buildings. It can be solid,
constructed from brick or stone. It is a framed construction. The partition
wall is secured to the floor, ceiling, and walls. It is enough strong to
carry its own load. It resists impact. It is stable and strong to support
wall fixtures. Partition wall works like a sound barrier and it is fire
resistant.

Panel Walls
It is a non-bearing wall between columns or pillars that are supported.
The panel is installed with both nails and adhesive. The paneling design
choices include rustic, boards, frame. Paneling can be from hardwoods
or inexpensive pine. One should paint the space before installing panel
walls.

Veneered Walls
With a veneered wall, we are holding up the material. It can be made of
brick or stone. The most famous veneered wall is made of brick. The
wall is only one wythe thick. It became the norm when building codes
began to require insulation in the interior walls. It is light weighted. The
construction takes less time to complete in veneered walls.
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Faced Walls
It is a wall which masonry facing and backing are so bonded as to exert
common action under load. It creates a streamlined look. The faced wall
is easy to install.

Doors and windows :-

The function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts
of the building and to deny the access whenever necessary. Number of
doors should be minimum possible. The size of the door should be of
such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object
likely to use the doors.

In case of the residental buildings, the size of the door should not be
less than 0.9 m × 2.0 m. Larger doors may be provided at main
entrance to the building to enhance the aesthetic view. Minimum sized
doors are used for bath rooms and water closets. The size
recommended is 0.75 m × 1.9 m. As a
thumb rule height of door should be 1 m more than its width.

Windows are provided to give light and ventilation. They are located at
a height of 0.75 m to 0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid
regions, the window area should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area.
It is preferable to have at least two openings in two different walls.
Another thumb rule used to determine the size of the window opening
is for every 30 m3 inside volume there should be at least 1 m2 window
opening.

Types of Doors
Various types of doors are in use which may be classified on the basis
of arrangement of shutters, method of constructions, principles of
working operations and materials used. Commonly used doors are
briefly explained below:

1. Battened and Ledged Doors: Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and
20 mm thick wooden boards. Their length is that of door opening. The
battens are connected by horizontal planks, known as ledges of size 100
to 200 mm wide and 30 mm thick. Usually three ledges are used one at
top, one at bottom and the third one at mid-height. This is the simplest

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form of door and the cheapest also. Battens are secured by tongued
and grooved joint.

Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors: If doors are wide apart from using
battens and ledges diagonal members, known as braces, are provided
to strengthen the door. Figure 8.22 shows a typical battened, ledged
and braced door.

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3. Framed and Panelled Doors: This type of door consists of vertical
members, called styles and horizontal members called rails. The styles and rails
are suitably grooved to receive panels. The panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet,
glasses etc. The panels may be flat or of raised type to get good appearance.
These are very commonly used doors. They may be of single shutter or of
double shutter. Figure 8.23 show few types of panelled doors. If glass panels
are used they may be called as glazed doors.

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 Flush Doors: The shutters of these
doors are made of plywood or block boards. They are of uniform thickness.
These shutters are available with different attractive vineer finishes. The time
consumed in making such doors at site is quite less. These doors are suitable for
interior portion of a building. Nowadays flush doors are commonly used in
residential and office buildings. Figure 8.24 shows typical flush door.

Louvered Doors: Whenever privacy as well as ventilation is required such

doors can be used. Louvers are the glass, wooden or A.C. sheet strips fixed in
the frame of shutter such that they prevent vision but permit free passage of air.
The doors may be fully or partially louvered. Such doors are commonly used
for public bathrooms and latrines. [Fig. 25]

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Revolving Doors: It consist of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating
shutters are attached. The central pivot is supported on ball bearing at the
bottom and has a bush bearing at the top. The shutters may be partly or fully
madeup of glass. A circular space of entrance is provided within which
shutters rotate. As shutters rotate they give entrance on one side and exit on
other side. These doors are preferred in public buildings like stores, banks,
hotels, theatres where continuous use of doors is necessary. They are very
much required in entrance to air conditioned public buildings. Figure 8.26
shows a typical revolving door.

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Swing Doors: Swing door has its shutter attached to the frame by means of
double action springs. Hence shutter can move both inward and outward. They
may be single shuttered or double shuttered. Such doors are preferred in offices
and banks. Since these doors can open on both sides it is desirable to provide
glass panels or peep holes to enable user to see the persons from other side.
[Fig. 8.27]

Sliding Doors: In this type of doors, shutter slides on the sides. For this
purpose runners and guide rails are provided. Sliding shutters may be one, two
or even three. Such doors are used in banks, offices etc. The arrangement of
such shutters in plan is shown in Fig. 8.28

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Collapsible Doors: Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals.
They are placed with 12 to 20 mm gap. Steel flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5
mm thick are hinged to them

as shown in Fig. 8.29. The rollers are provided at their top as well as at
bottom so that shutter can be pulled or pushed side ways with slight
force. There may be single or double shutters. Usually these doors are
used for additional safety. They are commonly used for front
doors, bank locker rooms, school and college entrance doors.
Rolling Shutters: Figure 8.30 show a typical rolling shutter door. It
consists of a frame, a drum and a shutter made of thin steel plates. The
width of the door may vary from 2 to 3 m. The shutter moves on steel
guides provided on sides and can easily roll up. For this
counterbalancing is made with helical springs on the drum. The shutter
can be easily pulled down. This type of doors are commonly used as

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additional doors to shops, offices, banks, factory, buildings from the
point of safety.
Types of Windows
Various windows used may be classified on the basis of materials used,
types of shutters, types of openings of shutters and the position of
windows.

Timber, steel and aluminium are commonly used to make window

frames. Timber may get termite attacks, steel may rust but aluminium
do not have any such defects. However they are costly.
Shutters of windows may be panelled, glazed or louvered. Louvered
windows are generally used for bathrooms and toilets where vision is
not to be allowed but ventilation is required. Lower parts panelled and
upper parts glazed windows are commonly used. Instead of panelled
one may think of using translucent glasses. Figure 8.31 show a louvered
windows.

Window shutters may be fixed, centrally pivoted, sliding type or double

hung. Figure 8.32 shows a typical double hung window.

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Depending upon the position of windows, they may be classified as:
(a) Casement windows
(b) Bay windows
(c) Corner windows

(d) Clear storey windows

(e) Gable windows
(f) Sky light windows
(g) Dormer windows
(h) Ventilators

Casement windows are common type of windows, provided in the outer

walls. They are provided over 50 to 75 mm sill concrete at a height of
750 to 900 mm from floor level.
Bay windows are provided on the projected portion of walls.
Corner windows are provided in the corner of a room. They need heavy
lintels. Corner post of window should be strong enough to take load due
to deflection of lintel and impact load from the shutters.
Clear storey windows are provided when the height of the room is much
more than adjacent room/varandah. It is provided between the gap of
low height room and the top of room with greater height.
Gable windows are provided in the gable portion of the building. They
are required in the stair cases or in the halls with gable walls.
Sky light windows are provided on a sloping roof. It projects above the
top sloping surface. The common rafters are to be trimmed suitably.
Dormer windows are vertical windows on the sloping roof.
Ventilators are provided close to roof level or over the door frames.
They help in pushing out exhaust air. They may be provided with two
split and separated glasses or with hung shutters.
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 STAIR / RAMP / LIFT :-
STAIR :- A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor of a building to
another, typically inside the building. The room or enclosure of the building, in
which the stair is located is known as staircase. The opening or space occupied
by the stair is known as a stairway.

Types of Stairs – Classification of stairs:

Stairs can be broadly classified into three types:

1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs
3. Continuous stairs

1. Straight stairs
Generally for small houses, available width is very retractable. So, this type of
straight stairs are used in such conditions which runs straight between two
floors. This stair may consists of either one single flight or more than one flight
with a landing.

2. Turning stairs
Turning stairs are sub classified as:

1. Quarter turn stairs

2. Half turn stairs ( dog legged stairs)

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3. Three – quarter turn stairs
4. Bifurcated stairs

3. Quarter turn stairs

A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction either to the right or
to the left but where the turn being affected either by introducing a quarter
space landing or by providing winders. In these type of stairs the flight of stair
turns 90 degrees art landing as it rises to connect two different levels. So it is
also called as L-stair. Again these quarter turn stairs are two types.

3.1. Newel quarter turn stairs

These type of stairs have clearly visible newel posts at the beginning of flight as
well as at the end. At the quarter turn, there may either be quarter space landing
or there may be winders.

3.2. Geometrical quarter turn stairs

In geometrical stairs, the stringer as well as the handrail is continuous without
any newel post at the landing area.

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4. Half turn stairs
In case of half turn stairs its direction reversed, or changed for 180o. Such stairs
are quite common. Again these are three types.
4.1. Dog-legged stairs
Because of its appearance in sectional elevation this name is given. It comes
under the category of newel stairs in which newel posts are provided at the
beginning and end of each flight.

4.2. Open newel half turn stair

In this type of open newel half turn stairs, stair has a space or well between the
outer strings. This is the only aspect in which it differs from the doglegged
stair.

4.3. Geometrical half turn stairs

In case of geometrical half turn stairs the stringers and the hand rails are
continuous, without any intervening newel post. These stairs may contains
either with half space landing or without landing.

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5. Three quarter turn stairs
The direction of stairs changed three times with its upper flight crossing the
bottom one in the case of three quarter turn stairs. These stairs are may either be
newel or open newel type. This type stairs are generally used when the vertical
distance between two floors is more and as well as length of the stair room is
limited.

6. Bifurcated stairs
Bifurcated stairs are commonly used in public building at their entrance hall.
This has a wider flight at the bottom, which bifurcates into two narrower
flights, one turning to the left and other to the right, at landing.it may be either
of newel type with a newel post or of geometrical type with continuous stringer
and hand rails.

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 7. Continuous stairs
This type of stairs neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post.
They are geometric in shape. These are may be of following types.

o Circular stairs
o Spiral stairs
o Helical stairs
Circular stairs or spiral stairs are usually made either of R.C.C or metal, and is
placed at a location where there are space limitations. Sometimes these are also
used as emergency stairs, and are provided at the back side of a building. These
are not comfortable because of all the steps are winders and provides
discomfort.

A helical stair looks very fine but its structural design and construction is very
complicated. It is made of R.C.C in which a large portion of steel is required to
resist bending, shear and torsion.

RAMP :- Ramps are sloped pathways used both inside and outside
buildings used to provide access between vertical levels. ... The rise
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may be set at a unit of one, so that, for example, a slope of 1:20 means
that as each dimensional unit of height rises or falls, the dimensional
unit of length runs out by 20 units.

LIFT :- An elevator or lift is a transport device used to move

goods or people vertically, from one floor to another”.

In modern days lift consists of a cab, mounted on a platform within an

enclosed space called a shaft. Hydraulic lift use the principles of
hydraulics pressurize on an above ground or in-ground piston to raise
and lower the weight. Roped Hydraulics use a combination of both
ropes & hydraulic power to raise & lower.

Purpose Of Elevators:

A lift or elevator is designed to move people or things between a multi-

storey building’s floors. It also provides us help to carry our heavy goods
to our desired storey.

Elevators Capacity:

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Elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally
passenger elevators are available in capacities from 1,000 to 6,000 lbs
with 500 lb (230 kg) increments. Generally passenger elevators in
buildings eight floors or less are hydraulic or electric.

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