Atoms are the smallest units of matter that still retain the fundamental chemical

properties of an element. Much of the study of chemistry, however, involves looking

at what happens when atoms combine with other atoms to form compounds. A compound
is a distinct group of atoms held together by chemical bonds. Just as the structure
of the atom is held together by the electrostatic attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons surrounding it, the stability
within chemical bonds is also due to electrostatic attractions. To illustrate
further, consider the two major types of chemical bonds: covalent bonds and ionic
bonds. In covalent bonds, two atoms share pairs of electrons, while in ionic bonds,
electrons are fully transferred between two atoms so that ions are formed. Let�s
consider both types of bonds in detail.
Covalent bonds and molecules
A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electron pairs. In a covalent bond,
the stability of the bond comes from the shared electrostatic attraction between
the two positively charged atomic nuclei and the shared, negatively charged
electrons between them.
A single, neutral hydrogen atom is shown on the left; a molecule of hydrogen, H2,
is shown on the right.
A single, neutral hydrogen atom is shown on the left; a molecule of hydrogen, H2,
is shown on the right.
A neutral hydrogen atom, shown left, contains one electron. Two hydrogen atoms can
combine by donating each of their electrons into a single covalent bond, depicted
on the right as the area where the gray clouds around each hydrogen atom overlap.
In the covalent bond, the electron pair is shared between the two hydrogen atoms.
When the covalent bond is formed, we no longer have two separate hydrogen atoms but
instead a single molecule of hydrogen�H_2
2
? start subscript, 2, end subscript. Image credit: Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0
When atoms combine by forming covalent bonds, the resulting collection of atoms is
called a molecule. We can therefore say that a molecule is the simplest unit of a
covalent compound. As we will now see, there are a variety of different ways to
represent and draw molecules.
[A note on definitions]
_2
start subscript, 2, end subscript_2
start subscript, 2, end subscript_3
start subscript, 3, end subscript
Representing molecules: chemical formulas
Chemical formulas, sometimes also called molecular formulas, are the simplest way
of representing molecules. In a chemical formula, we use the elemental symbols from
the periodic table to indicate which elements are present, and we use subscripts to
indicate how many atoms of each element exist within the molecule. For example, a
single molecule of NH_\purpleC{3}
3
? start subscript, start color purpleC, 3, end color purpleC, end subscript,
ammonia, contains one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. By contrast, a single
molecule of N_\blueD{2}
2
? start subscript, start color blueD, 2, end color blueD, end
subscriptH_\redD{4}
4
? start subscript, start color redD, 4, end color redD, end subscript,
hydrazine, contains two nitrogen atoms and four hydrogen atoms.
Concept check: The chemical formula for acetic acid, a common acid found in
vinegar, is C_2
2
? start subscript, 2, end subscriptH_4
4
? start subscript, 4, end subscriptO_2
2
? start subscript, 2, end subscript. How many oxygen atoms are there in three
molecules of acetic acid?
[Show answer.]
_2
start subscript, 2, end subscript_4
start subscript, 4, end subscript_2
start subscript, 2, end subscript3\times \blueD{2}=63, times, start color blueD,
2, end color blueD, equals, 6
As your study of chemistry continues, you will find that sometimes chemists write
molecular formulas in different ways. For example, as we just saw, the chemical
formula for acetic acid is C_2
2
? start subscript, 2, end subscriptH_4
4
? start subscript, 4, end subscriptO_2
2
? start subscript, 2, end subscript; however, we will often see it written as
CH_3
3
? start subscript, 3, end subscriptCOOH. The reason for this second type of
formula is that the order in which the atoms are written helps to show the
structure of the acetic acid molecule�this is sometimes called the condensed
structural formula. As such, we can think of CH_3
3
? start subscript, 3, end subscriptCOOH as being like a cross between a
chemical formula and a structural formula, which we will consider next.
Representing molecules: structural formulas
Chemical formulas only tell us how many atoms of each element are present in a
molecule, but structural formulas also give information about how the atoms are
connected in space. In structural formulas, we actually draw the covalent bonds
connecting atoms. In the last section, we looked at the chemical formula for
ammonia, which is NH_3
3
? start subscript, 3, end subscript. Now, let�s consider its structural
formula:
Two structural formulas for ammonia.
Two structural formulas for ammonia.
Two structural formulas for ammonia, NH_3
3
? start subscript, 3, end subscript. The formula on the left gives only a two-
dimensional approximation of molecular structure, whereas the formula on the right
shows the orientation of atoms in space using dashes going into the plane of the
page and wedges coming out of the plane of the page. The two dots on nitrogen in
the right formula indicate a lone pair of electrons. Image credit: left, Physique
Applique, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; right, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0
From both of these structural formulas, we can see that the central nitrogen atom
is connected to each hydrogen atom by a single covalent bond. Keep in mind,
however, that atoms and molecules, just like everything else in the universe, exist
in three dimensions�they have length and width, as well as depth. In the structural
formula to the left, we are only seeing a two-dimensional approximation of this
molecule. However, in the more detailed structural formula on the right, we have a
dashed line to indicate that the rightmost hydrogen atom is sitting behind the
plane of the screen, while the bold wedge indicates that the center hydrogen is
sitting out in front of the plane of the screen. The two dots above nitrogen
indicate a lone pair of electrons that are not involved in any covalent bond. We
will discuss the significance of these electrons at the end of this section. To
help show this three-dimensional shape even more accurately, we can rely on space-
filling models as well as ball-and-stick models. Let's consider both of these
models for NH_3
3
? start subscript, 3, end subscript:
A space-filling model and a ball-and-stick model of ammonia.
A space-filling model and a ball-and-stick model of ammonia.
A space-filling model, left, and a ball-and-stick model, right, for ammonia, NH_3
3
? start subscript, 3, end subscript. Nitrogen atoms are depicted in blue, and
hydrogen atoms are depicted in white. Image credit: left, Wikipedia; right,
Wikipedia, public domain
The left-hand image shows the space-filling model for ammonia. The nitrogen atom is
depicted as the larger, central blue sphere, and the three hydrogen atoms are
depicted as the smaller white spheres off to the sides, which form a kind of
tripod. The overall shape of the molecule is a pyramid with nitrogen at the vertex
and a triangular base formed by the three hydrogen atoms. As you will learn when
you study molecular shapes and molecular geometry, this type of arrangement is
known as trigonal pyramidal. The main advantage of the space-filling model is that
it gives us a sense of the relative sizes of the different atoms�nitrogen has a
larger atomic radius than hydrogen.
The right-hand image shows us the ball-and-stick model for ammonia. As you might be
able to guess, the balls represent the atoms, and the sticks that connect the balls
represent the covalent bonds between the atoms. The advantage of this type of model
is that we get to see the covalent bonds, which also allows us to more easily see
the geometry of the molecule.
[Why are the hydrogen atoms in ammonia pushed downward into a tripod shape?]
Ions and ion formation
Now that we have an understanding of covalent bonds, we can begin to discuss the
other major type of chemical bond�an ionic bond. Unlike covalent bonds, in which
electron pairs are shared between atoms, an ionic bond is formed when two
oppositely charged ions attract one another. To better illustrate this, we first
need to examine the structure and formation of ions.
Recall that neutral atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons. The result
of this is that the total positive charge of the protons exactly cancels the total
negative charge of the electrons, so that the atom itself has an overall charge, or
net charge, of zero.
However, if an atom gains or loses electrons, the balance between protons and
electrons is upset, and the atom becomes an ion�a species with a net charge. Let�s
first look at what happens when a neutral atom loses an electron:
The oxidation of sodium.
The oxidation of sodium.
A neutral sodium atom, Na, loses one electron to form a cation, Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript. Image credit: Introduction to Chemistry:
General, Organic, and Biological, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
In the diagram above, we see a neutral atom of sodium, Na, losing an electron. The
result is that the sodium ion, Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript, has 11 protons, but only 10 electrons.
Thus, the sodium ion has a net charge of 1+, and it has become a cation�a
positively charged ion.
Next, we�ll look at the formation of an anion�an ion with a net negative charge.
The reduction of chlorine to chloride.
The reduction of chlorine to chloride.
A neutral chlorine atom, Cl, gains an electron to form an anion, Cl ^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript. Image credit: Introduction to
Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
In this diagram, we see the opposite process of what we saw with the sodium atom.
Here, a neutral chlorine atom, Cl, is gaining an electron. The result is that the
newly formed chloride ion, Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript, has 17 protons and 18 electrons.
Because electrons carry a 1- charge, the net charge on the chloride ion from the
extra electron is 1-. It has become an anion, or a negatively charged ion.
Note: When neutral atoms gain electron(s) to form anions, they are typically named
with an -ide suffix. For example, Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript is chloride, Br^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript is bromide, O^{2-}
2-
start superscript, 2, minus, end superscript is oxide, N^{3-}
3-
start superscript, 3, minus, end superscript is nitride, etc.
Ionic bonds
In the last section, we looked separately at how sodium can lose an electron to
form the cation Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript and at how chlorine can gain an electron
to form the anion Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript. In reality, however, this process can
occur all in one step when sodium gives its electron away to chlorine! We can
illustrate this as follows:
Oxidation and reduction of sodium and chlorine.
Oxidation and reduction of sodium and chlorine.
Sodium donates its electron to chlorine to form Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript. Image credit: Boundless Learning, CC
BY-SA 4.0
Here, we can see how an electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine in order to
form the ions Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript. Once these ions are formed, there is a
strong electrostatic attraction between them, which leads to the formation of an
ionic bond. We can see that one of the major distinguishing factors between ionic
bonds and covalent bonds is that in ionic bonds, electrons are completely
transferred, whereas in covalent bonds, electrons are shared.
[Why is the electron transferred from sodium to chlorine, and not the other way
around?]
Note: As you learn more about bonding, you will see that in actuality, the
difference between covalent and ionic bonds is not black and white and that the two
types of bonds are actually more like the two ends of a common spectrum. We can
think of a pure ionic bond as having a perfectly unequal sharing of electrons,
whereas a pure covalent bond has a perfectly equal sharing of electrons. In
reality, however, most chemical bonds lie somewhere in between these two cases.
Drawing ionic bonds
We will now consider the different ways we can draw or depict ionic bonds. We will
continue looking at the most commonly known ionic compound�sodium chloride, which
is best known as table salt. A single ionic bond in sodium chloride can be shown as
follows:
A sodium chloride ionic bond.
A sodium chloride ionic bond.
A structural drawing showing an ionic bond between a sodium cation, Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript, and a chloride anion, Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript. Note that there is no single line
connecting the two ions because that would indicate shared electrons in a covalent
bond. Here, electrons have been transferred completely, and the bond is purely
ionic. Image credit: Wikispaces, CC BY-SA 3.0
The positively charged sodium cation and the negatively charged chloride anion like
to position themselves next to each other due to their mutual electrostatic
attraction. Because no electrons are shared, we don�t depict an ionic bond with a
line as we do for covalent bonds. We simply recognize that the attraction is there
due to the opposite charge signs on the ions.
The above diagram, however, is just a model. In nature, sodium chloride does not
exist as a single sodium cation bonded with a single chloride anion. As we
mentioned earlier, sodium chloride is table salt�and if we were able to use a
super-powered microscope that could examine table salt at the atomic level, we
would see something like the following structure:
A diagram of the crystal lattice structure for sodium chloride.
A diagram of the crystal lattice structure for sodium chloride.
If we were to examine a crystal of sodium chloride at the atomic level, we would
see sodium ions and chloride ions evenly positioned next to one another in space.
The orderly, stable structure is due to the strong ionic bonds between Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl ^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript. Image credit: Introduction to
Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
We can see from this diagram that the Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript ions naturally position themselves next
to one another in space due to the shared electrostatic attractions between them.
The ions are then held in place by their very strong ionic bonds. The above
structure is known as a crystal lattice, and sodium chloride�like most ionic
compounds�is a crystalline solid. You will learn more about this in future lessons
on the different types of solids.
Covalent vs. ionic compounds: molecules vs. formula units
Now that we�ve discussed the basics of both covalent and ionic bonding, we need to
draw a few necessary distinctions. We know that a group of atoms joined by only
covalent bonds is known as a molecule. It should be noted, however, that the word
molecule should only be used in reference to covalent compounds. In an ionic
compound, such as sodium chloride, there is no such thing as a single molecule of
sodium chloride since, in reality, sodium chloride is actually made up of multiple
sodium and chloride ions joined together in a large crystal lattice�as we saw in
the previous diagram. As such, we refer to one piece of NaCl not as a molecule but
as a formula unit. Keep in mind that single formula units, unlike single molecules,
largely do not exist in nature�we simply rely on formula units for ease of
reference and convenience.
Concept check: Which type of compounds are composed of molecules�ionic or covalent?
[Show answer.]
Conclusion
All chemical bonding is due to electrostatic attraction. When atoms combine through
chemical bonding, they form compounds�unique structures composed of two or more
atoms. The basic composition of a compound can be indicated using a chemical
formula. A chemical formula uses symbols from the periodic table to indicate the
types of elements present in a particular compound while using subscripts to
represent the number of each type of element present.
Compounds can be covalent or ionic. In covalent compounds, atoms form covalent
bonds that consist of electron pairs shared between two adjacent atomic nuclei. An
example of a covalent compound is ammonia. The chemical formula of ammonia is NH_3
3
? start subscript, 3, end subscript, which tells us that in a single molecule
of ammonia, there is one nitrogen atom, and three hydrogen atoms. The structure of
a covalent compound can be depicted through space-filling models as well as ball-
and-stick models.
In ionic compounds, electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
so that a cation�positively charged ion�and an anion�negatively charged ion�form.
The strong electrostatic attraction between adjacent cations and anions is known as
an ionic bond. The most common example of an ionic compound is sodium chloride
NaCl, better known as table salt. Unlike covalent compounds, there is no such thing
as a molecule of an ionic compound. This is because in nature NaCl does not exist
in individual units, but in crystal lattice structures that are composed of
multiple Na^+
+
start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl^-
-
start superscript, minus, end superscript ions alternating in space. The chemical
formula NaCl specifies one formula unit of this compound.
[Attributions and references]