Computers in Human Behavior 79 (2018) 105e110

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Computers in Human Behavior

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Full length article

Online gaming, loneliness and friendships among adolescents and

adults with ASD
Martin Sundberg, B.A.
€tvo
Eo nd University, Faculty of Psychology and Education, Izabella Street 46, 1066, Budapest, Hungary
€s Lora

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Adolescents and adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are prone to experience poor friendships
Received 24 June 2016 and loneliness. This group has also shown a particular interest for screen-based media and computer-
Received in revised form games. Online multiplayer games have shown to promote social interaction and friendship building
12 August 2017
among the general population, however, no study has yet investigated these possibilities for persons
Accepted 15 October 2017
Available online 1 November 2017
with ASD. The current study aims to investigate the possible links between online gaming, loneliness and
friendships in a sample of 85 adolescents and adults with ASD and a control group of 71 participants.
Data was gathered through self-reported questionnaires. Results indicated that within the ASD sample,
Keywords:
Autism spectrum disorder
persons who play online games have more friends than those who do not. Motives to play online games
Friendship quality differed between the ASD sample and the control group. Additionally, low to moderate use of online
Loneliness games was linked with less loneliness experienced among participants with ASD. However, friendship
Motives quality and having a best or close friend were not linked with online gaming. The results provide the first
Online multiplayer games findings for connections between online gaming, loneliness and friendships among individuals with ASD.
It also provides evidence for future studies to further investigate the possible casual effects between
online gaming, loneliness and friendship among individuals with ASD.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction et al., 2010), lower interest for friendships (Baron-Cohen &

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder in
which previously used disorders, such as Autistic disorder, Asper-
ger's disorder and Childhood Disintegrative disorder are included
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The disorder is charac-
terized by 1) impairment in social communication and social
interaction, and 2) restricted and repetitive behaviors, interests or
activities. The social impairments in individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorder include deficits such as misreading non-verbal
cues, responding inappropriately in conversations or having diffi-
culties in building and maintaining friendships (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). These impairments can lead people
with ASD to be rejected by peers and experience social isolation
(Orsmond, Shattuck, Cooper, Sterzing, & Anderson, 2013). Studies
have previously shown that individuals with ASD tend to experi-
ence significantly poorer friendship quality (Bauminger & Kasari,
2000; Kasari, Locke, Gulsrud, & Rotheram-Fuller, 2010; Locke, Ish-
ijima, Kasari, & London, 2010) lower friendship quantity (Kasari
E-mail address: martinsundberg_@hotmail.com.
Wheelwright, 2003) and significantly more loneliness (e.g.
Bauminger & Kasari, 2000; Lasgaard, Nielsen, Eriksen, & Goossens,
2009; Locke et al., 2010) compared to typically developed
individuals.
Screen-based media has previously been suggested as a possible
tool for socialization among individuals with ASD (Brownlow &
O'Dell, 2006; Penny Benford, 2009), especially since this group
has shown a specific interest for screen-based technology (e.g.
Mazurek & Engelhardt, 2013; Mazurek, Shattuck, Wagner, &
Cooper, 2012; Orsmond & Kuo, 2011). A recent report (Lenhart,
Smith, Anderson, Duggan, & Perrin, 2015) indicated that the
internet may be a great tool for building new friendships and
maintaining already existing ones for the general population,
mainly through social media and online games. Previous research
has shown that adults with ASD who use social networking sites
(SNS) such as Facebook and MySpace are likely to do it for social
connection and additionally also have more close friends than non-
users (Mazurek, 2013). Plenty of studies have also shown positive
links between online gaming and friendships among the general
population (e.g. Domahidi, Festl, & Quandt; Reer & Kra €mer, 2014;
Schiano, Nardi, Debeauvais, Ducheneaut, & Yee, 2011). However,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.020
0747-5632/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
106 M. Sundberg / Computers in Human Behavior 79 (2018) 105e110
no study has so far investigated if similar connections may also
exist among individuals diagnosed with ASD.
1.1. Previous findings of online games effects on socialization and
friendships
As more and more people gain access to the internet, a signifi-
cant increase has also been seen in the number of people who play
computer and video games online (Spilgames, 2013). In difference
to offline gaming, online games can offer a multiplayer environ-
ment in which interaction among players is encouraged
(Ducheneaut & Moore, 2004).
Multiple studies have indicated that there might be several
possible social gains for online gamers, such as increased feelings of
connectedness to friends (Lenhart et al., 2015), decreased feelings
of loneliness (Martoncik & Loksa, 2016), increased bonding social
capital between players (Trepte, Reinecke, & Juechems, 2012;
Zhong, 2011), and increased bridging social capital between
players (Meng, Williams, & Shen, 2015; Zhong, 2011). Bonding so-
cial capital can be defined as creating and maintaining interper-
sonal connections with individuals within the same group, whereas
bridging social capital refers to creating and maintaining links with
individuals from an outgroup (Putnam, 2001). In a large interna-
tional study with 912 online gamers from 45 different countries,
Cole and Griffiths (2007) found that a 76.2% of the males and 74.7%
of the females had met at least one good friend through an online
game. Additionally, 39.3% of the players indicated that they can
discuss sensitive topics with online gaming friends which they
would not discuss with friends in real life. In a recent study (Lenhart
et al., 2015) teenagers (13e17 years old) were questioned about
their online gaming habits. The results demonstrated that online
gaming occurs both with already existing friends from real life, and
new online friends. Seventy-nine percent of the online gamers
indicated that playing games online with already existing friends
increases their feelings of closeness in the relationships. Addi-
tionally, 52% of the online-gaming teens answered that the games
make them feel closer to new gamers online which they do not
know from before. Domahidi, Festl, and Quandt (2014) found that
even if online-gamers do not have more friends than offline-
gamers and non-gamers, they are more likely to exclusively meet
new friends online. Massive multiplayer online role-playing games
(MMORPGs), such as the online game World Of Warcraft ™ (WOW),
have been reported to enhance real-life interaction as individuals in
this game can meet people who has the same interest, therefore,
they can become friends and they can meet not only online, but in
the real world as well. Moreover, gamers often play MMORPGs with
their real life friends, coworkers, partners, and family member,
therefore, these real life relationships can become stronger as a
result of this joint activity (Schiano et al., 2011). MMORPGs also
function as an environment in which players may experience less
social anxiety and loneliness compared to the real world. Online
environment provides anxious players with a space, in which they
can experience acceptance and high-quality relationships. This
experience satisfies their need to belong; moreover, they may feel
less lonely due to the communication with other players, which in
turn, improves their social well-being (Marton cik & Loksa, 2016).
No studies have so far investigated online games as a tool for
friendship building in an ASD sample. However, a few reports have
explored possible social aspects of gaming among individuals with
ASD. A recent qualitative study with 58 adults diagnosed with ASD
(Mazurek, Engelhardt, & Clark, 2015) indicated that about one out
of five participants played videogames for social connection.
However, some also described their gaming as compulsive and
were concerned about negative social interactions in online games,
the amount of violence in the games and the addictive qualities of
some videogames.
In a minor pilot study (Frank, Pappas, & Tarshis, 2013) the re-
searchers used, together with group-exercises, the online computer
game Minecraft™ as an intervention-tool for social interaction,
communication and cooperation among a group of children with
social impairments (e.g. autism & social anxiety disorder). The
participants' core social problematic behaviors were assessed prior
to and after the intervention with the Eyberg Childhood Behavior
Inventory (ECBI). Results indicated an increase in social skills in
seven out of eight children. The previous literature presented above
indicate that online games can be a channel for socialization and
additionally also function as a mean to develop new friendships
and increase closeness in already existing ones among the general
population. Even though there might be undiscovered connections
between online gaming and friendships among individuals with
ASD, no study has yet further explored these possibilities.
1.2. The present study
The purpose of this study is to provide the first empirical
investigation of online gaming's connection to friendships and
loneliness among teenagers and adults with ASD. This study aims to
1) investigate the possible links between motives for online
gaming, time spent on online gaming, quality and quantity of
friendships and loneliness. 2) Clarify potential differences in mo-
tives for online gaming in teenagers and adults with ASD compared
to a control group. Based on previous studies it is hypothesized that
participants with ASD will have fewer friends (Kasari et al., 2010),
lower quality friendships (Bauminger & Kasari, 2000; Kasari et al.,
2010; Locke et al., 2010), and experience higher levels of loneliness
(e.g. Bauminger & Kasari, 2000; Lasgaard et al., 2009; Locke et al.,
2010) than the control group.
Although differences in loneliness and friendships exist be-
tween people with ASD and those without the diagnosis, the
mechanisms of online gaming and friendships can be similar in
these groups. Plenty of studies have shown positive links between
online gaming and friendships among the general population (e.g.
Domahidi, Festl, & Quandt; Reer & Kr€ amer, 2014; Schiano et al.,
2011), therefore it can be hypothesized that people with ASD who
play online games have more friends, higher quality friendships
and experience lower levels of loneliness than people with ASD
who do not play online games.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
The sample consisted of one hundred and fifty-one Swedish
participants, of which 86 (56.95%) were females. The age of the
participants ranged between 14 and 69 years old (M ¼ 26.68 years,
SD ¼ 10.78). Fourteen participants (8.5%) indicated that they were
under 14 years old and hence were not allowed to participate in the
study. Eighty-five (56.3%) participants indicated that they had been
clinically diagnosed with either ASD or autism. However, no proof
of diagnosis was required from the participants. Seventy-two
(47.7%) participants indicated secondary school as their highest
completed education, forty (26.5%) had completed a university
degree and thirty-nine (25.8%) had primary school as highest
achieved education. Further characteristics of the participants can
be seen in Table 1.
2.2. Procedure
The study was completed through self-reported online
 M. Sundberg / Computers in Human Behavior 79 (2018) 105e110
Table 1
Characteristics of the participants and descriptive statistics of the used scales.
ASD (N ¼ 85)
Gamers
(n ¼ 74)
N of women (%) 28 (37.8%)
Mean age (SD) 28.64 (11.28)
Age range 14e60
MOGQ a 0.89
MOGQ Mean (SD) 79.04 (17.24)
ULS-8 a 0.84
ULS-8 Mean (SD) 20.03 (4.15)
URCS a 0.91
URCS Mean (SD) 63.14 (14.27)
Note. SD ¼ standard deviation.
questionnaires. To recruit participants with an autism or ASD di-
agnose, the study was posted on different Swedish Facebook
groups for people with autism and ASD. An email was also
distributed to persons on an email list of the Autism and Asperger
Association in Skåne. To recruit a control group, the questionnaire
was sent out to students at Malmo € University in Sweden. Addi-
tionally, the study was advertised in different Facebook groups with
members with diverse ages and educational levels.
After the participants had received information about the study
they indicated their age and agree to the informed consent form.
For participants between 14 and 18 years old, both of the parents
had to give permission for their child to participate in the study.
Before starting to fill out the questionnaire all participants had to
indicate themselves if they ever had been diagnosed with Autism or
ASD. The first questions in the questionnaire concerned de-
mographic variables such as age, gender and highest educational
level completed. After this, the participants indicated average
number of hours per day they spend on online gaming. Those who
indicated that they play online games received a question regarding
which games and then filled out the Motives for Online Gaming
Questionnaire (Demetrovics et al., 2011). In the second part of the
study participants filled out the short version of the UCLA Loneli-
ness scale (ULS-8 Hays & DiMatteo, 1987). In the last part, par-
ticipants were first asked “how many friends do you have right now?
(People that you spend time with)” to assess perceived quantity of
friendships. The participants were then asked if they have a close
friend which is not a family member. Perceived quality of the
friendship for those who indicated that they have a close or best
friend was assessed with the Unidimensional Relationship Close-
ness Scale (URCS Dibble, Levine, & Park, 2012). The ethical
permission for the study was given by the Research Ethics Com-
mittee of the Faculty of Education and Psychology at the Eo €tvo
€s
Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary.
2.3. Measures
Motives for Online gaming Questionnaire (MOGQ). This scale,
developed by Demetrovics and colleagues in 2011, aims to measure
different underlying motives for a person to play an online game.
The participants indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert ranging
from 1 ¼ “Almost never/never” to 5 ¼ “Almost always/always”. The
scale consists of totally 27 items which all begin with “I play online
games …”. It includes the following seven motivational subscales;
social (e.g. “because I can get to know new people”), escape (e.g.
“because gaming helps me to forget about my daily hassles”),
competition (e.g. “because I enjoy competing with others”), coping
(e.g. “because gaming helps me to get into a better mood”), skill
development (e.g. “because gaming sharpens my senses”), fantasy
107
Control (N ¼ 66)
Non-gamers Gamers Non-gamers
(n ¼ 11) (n ¼ 47) (n ¼ 19)
8 (72.7%) 19 (40.4%) 13 (68.4%)
30.09 (12.47) 27.15 (8.72) 31.84 (12.39)
15e59 15e48 17e69
▫ 0.94 ▫
▫ 73.72 (21.87) ▫
0.85 0.85 0.78
20.82 (4.64) 16.70 (3.93) 16.37 (2.61)
0.79 0.93 0.91
54.17 (9.00) 66.79 (13.03) 71.00 (10.32)
(e.g. “because I can do things that I am unable to do or I am not
allowed to do in real life), and recreation (e.g. “because it is enter-
taining”). The scale has previously shown good reliability in terms
of internal consistency (Demetrovics et al., 2011).
UCLA Loneliness scale (ULS-8). The original UCLA Loneliness
scale was developed by Russell, Peplau & Furgesson in 1978 and
aims to be a short and reliable self-reported measurement of
loneliness. The scale used in this study is a shorter version of the
original UCLA LS, developed by Hays & DiMatteo, 1987. This ques-
tionnaire includes questions such as “I feel left out” and “I lack
companionship” which are indicated on a 4-point Likert scale
ranging from “Never” to “Always”. The scale has previously shown
high internal consistency (e.g. Hays & DiMatteo, 1987; Wu & Yao,
2008).
Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale (URCS). The
URCS was developed by Dibble et al., 2012 and measures closeness
in different kinds of relationships, including friendships. The URCS
consists of twelve questions in total. When filling out the ques-
tionnaire the participant is instructed to think about the closeness
of a certain relationship. In the current study only the participants
who indicated that they have a close friend filled out the URCS, and
were asked to think about this relationship when answering the
questions. The questionnaire included questions such as “my rela-
tionship with my friend is close” and “my friend is a priority in my life”.
The answers were indicated on a 7 point Likert scale ranging from
“strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The scale has previously
shown to be reliable for measuring perceived closeness in specific
friendships (Mazurek, 2013).
2.4. Statistical analysis
The analysis was performed with SPSS version 22 software.
When data were normally distributed, t-tests and one-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) were chosen to analyze the data. For non-
normally distributed data, Mann-Whitney U tests were used. The
tests were carried out separately for the ASD participants group and
the control group. Due to the amount of t-tests carried out in the
study, the Bonferroni correction was conducted to minimize type 1
error. The p-value 0.004 was used for Bonferroni corrected
threshold for significant difference for these comparisons. Chi-
square-tests were performed to investigate possible differences in
having a close or best friend and finding a friend through an online
game between the control group and ASD group. A five factor one-
way ANOVA was used in order to assess the potential in loneliness
based on hours spent on online gaming per day. Lastly, one-way
analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were conducted to determine
significant differences between variables while controlling for po-
tential confounders (i.e. hours spent on online gaming, and number
of friendships).
108 M. Sundberg / Computers in Human Behavior 79 (2018) 105e110
3. Results
Cronbach's alpha was carried out in order to check the internal
consistency of the scales used. All scales in the present study
showed high internal consistency in all groups (see Table 1).
3.1. Online gaming
An independent samples t-test t(137.63) ¼ 3.32, p ¼ 0.001,
revealed that participants diagnosed with ASD (M ¼ 3.19, SD ¼ 1.24)
play significantly more than the control group (M ¼ 2.50,
SD ¼ 1.28). As for the MOGQ, participants with ASD (M ¼ 13.08,
SD ¼ 5.16) showed significantly higher tendencies to play online
games in order to escape the reality than the control group
(M ¼ 10.19, SD ¼ 5.13); t(119) ¼ 3.01, p ¼ 0.003. No significant
differences between the groups were found for the skill develop-
ment (p ¼ 0.052), fantasy (p ¼ 0.008), competition (p ¼ 0.023),
social (p ¼ 0.282), coping (p ¼ 0.059) and recreation (p ¼ 0.056)
subscales.
3.2. Loneliness
When assessing the differences between the groups on the USL-
8, participants with ASD (M ¼ 20.13, SD ¼ 4.20) were found to score
significantly higher than the control group (M ¼ 16.61, SD ¼ 3.58);
t(149) ¼ 5.45, p < 0.001. A one-way ANCOVA (F(1, 148) ¼ 24.73,
p < 0.001, h2p ¼ 0.143) indicated that differences in loneliness be-
tween participants with ASD and the control group remained sig-
nificant when controlling for hours spent on online gaming.
3.3. Friendships
When asking how many friends a participant has (people that
you spend time with), a Mann-Whitney U test indicated that the
control group (Mdn ¼ 5) had significantly more friends compared
to the participants with ASD (Mdn ¼ 1), U ¼ 1452, p ¼ <0.001. To
examine differences between the groups in whether participants
had a close or best friend (which is not a part of the family), a chi-
square test of independence was performed. A significant interac-
tion was found (c2 (1) ¼ 9.10, p ¼ 0.003), in which participants
diagnosed with ASD were shown to be less likely to have a close or
best friend (64.7%) than the control group (86.4%). When assessing
quality of the friendships with a close or best friends, a Mann-
Whitney U test showed that participants with ASD (Mdn ¼ 66)
have significantly lower perceived closeness in their friendships
than the control group (Mdn ¼ 69), U ¼ 1182, p ¼ 0.025.
3.4. Online gaming and loneliness
To assess the links between hours of online gaming per day and
experienced loneliness a one-way ANOVA (F(4, 79) ¼ 2.564,
p ¼ 0.033, h2p ¼ 0.140) was performed. A Tukey post-hoc test
revealed that participants with ASD who play online games less
than 1 h a day (M ¼ 15.89, SD ¼ 1.24) experience significantly less
loneliness than those who play 2e3 h a day (M ¼ 20.57 SD ¼ 4.75,
p ¼ 0.049) and 3e5 h a day (M ¼ 21.67 SD ¼ 3.13, p ¼ 0.013), but not
those who never play (p ¼ 0.081), those who play 1e2 h a day
(p ¼ 0.183) or those who play more than 5 h a day (p ¼ 0.128).
A one-way ANCOVA (F(5, 76) ¼ 3.02, p ¼ .015, h2p ¼ 0.166)
indicated that differences in loneliness based on hours spent on
online gaming remained significant when controlling for number of
friendships. When assessing the same links within the control
group, a one-way ANOVA (F(5, 60) ¼ 0.340, p ¼ 0.887, h2p ¼ 0.028)
indicated no significant differences in scores on the ULS-8 based on
hours of online gaming per day.
3.5. Online gaming and friendships
The results from an independent samples t-test t(67) ¼ 3.651,
p ¼ 0.001 indicated that participants with ASD who play online
games (M ¼ 6.46, SD ¼ 9.00) have significantly more friends than
those who do not (M ¼ 1.91, SD ¼ 2.17). When comparing the same
patterns for online-gamers (M ¼ 10.48, SD ¼ 9.10) and non-gamers
(M ¼ 8.38, SD ¼ 4.50) within the control group, no significant
differences were found t(53) ¼ 1.201, p ¼ 0.235).
Almost forty-one percent (40.5%) of the participants with ASD
and 34.8% of the control group indicate that they had met a close
friend through an online game. A chi-square test of independence
revealed no significant differences between the groups (c2
(1) ¼ 0.003, p ¼ 0.955). As for perceived closeness in the friendships
among participants with ASD, a Mann-Whitney U test showed no
significant differences between gamers (Mdn ¼ 68) and non-
gamers (Mdn ¼ 56), U ¼ 76, p ¼ 0.055. The control group did not
show any significant results either in perceived closeness in
friendships between gamers (Mdn ¼ 69) and non-gamers
(Mdn ¼ 56), U ¼ 289, p ¼ 0.290.
4. Discussion
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by 1) impair-
ment in social communication and social interaction, and 2)
restricted and repetitive behaviors, interests or activities.
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Previous studies have
shown that persons with ASD experience more loneliness (e.g.
Bauminger & Kasari, 2000; Lasgaard et al., 2009; Locke et al., 2010)
and poorer friendships (e.g. Kasari et al., 2010; Locke et al., 2010)
than the general population. At the same time individuals with ASD
have shown to have a high interest in screen-based media (e.g.
Mazurek & Engelhardt, 2013; Mazurek, Shattuck, Wagner, &
Cooper, 2012; Orsmond & Kuo, 2011), which can possibly work as a
tool to build new friendships through internet and online games
(Lenhart et al., 2015).
In both the ASD group and the control group the great majority
indicted that they play online games. It was however found that
participants with ASD spend significantly more time on online
gaming than the control group. This is consistent with previous
studies which have shown a higher use of computer- and video-
games among people with ASD (Mazurek & Engelhardt, 2013;
Mazurek & Wenstrup, 2012). When assessing the reasons to play
online games, the participants with ASD were significantly more
likely to play in order to escape reality. However, there were no
significant differences in the other motives between the partici-
pants with and without ASD.
4.1. Loneliness, friendships and online gaming
As hypothesized based on previous research (e.g. Bauminger &
Kasari, 2000; Lasgaard et al., 2009; Locke et al., 2010), partici-
pants with ASD showed significantly higher levels of perceived
loneliness than the control group. The connections between online
gaming and loneliness in the ASD group revealed that participants
who play online games less than 1 h a day experienced less lone-
liness than most of the other groups. Their perceived loneliness
score was significantly lower than those who play 2e3 h a day and
3e5 h a day but not those who never play and participants playing
more than 5 h a day. A possible reason for this, even if not explored
yet by previous research, could be that participants who manage to
keep their online gaming at a low or moderate level can benefit
both from real life friendships but also participate in social in-
teractions online. On the other hand, those who play more than 5 h
a day might have limited real life interaction but are able to build
 M. Sundberg / Computers in Human Behavior 79 (2018) 105e110
closer friendships online due to larger amount of time spent
interacting with other players. However, studies are needed in or-
der to investigate these possibilities and also to clarify the non-
significant differences between non-players and moderate players.
As for friendships, the hypotheses that individuals with ASD
have less friends and experience lower perceived closeness in
friendships were both supported. These results are in line with
previous literature (Bauminger & Kasari, 2000; Locke et al., 2010).
Additionally, participants with ASD were also less likely to have a
close or best friend.
One of the major findings of the present study was that in-
dividuals with ASD who play online games have significantly more
friends than those who do not play. No links between online
gaming and number of friends were found in the control group.
Having a close or best friend was not connected to whether a
person play online games or not in any of the groups. It has pre-
viously been shown by Mazureks in 2013, that participants with
ASD who use social networking sites (SNS) are significantly more
likely to have a close friend than those who do not use SNS. The
results in the present study suggest that the connections between
close friendships and SNS might be somewhat different compared
to the links between friendships and online gaming among in-
dividuals with ASD. A possible reason for this could be that SNS is
mainly used for social connection (Mazurek, 2013), while online
games can be used for other purposes as well. Future studies should
further explore the different patterns of friendship building and
socialization through online games among individuals with ASD.
Lastly, 40.5% of the online-gamers with ASD indicated that they
had met a close friend through an online game. This can be seen as a
major part, especially since only 64.7% of the participants with ASD
in the current sample, and even less previous in previous research
(59.26%; Mazurek, 2013), have indicated that they have a close or
best friend.
4.2. Limitations
There are several limitations with the present study that have to
be noted. Firstly, no casual relationships can be drawn for the re-
sults in the study. Due to the cross-sectional nature of the study, it
cannot be determined whether more friendships leads to online
gaming or if online gaming can lead to more friendships. Future
studies should aim to further investigate these possibilities. Sec-
ondly, proof of diagnosis of ASD or other psychiatric syndromes
were not given by any medical professional but rather indicated by
the participants. Similarly, participants without any ASD diagnose
may have indicated that they have indeed been diagnosed with
Autism or ASD. Moreover, it is possible that non-diagnosed ASD
participants could be found in the control group. Thirdly, the results
might not be generalized to a broader group of teenagers and adults
diagnosed with ASD. The participants in this study were recruited
via email and Facebook groups. It is possible that individuals who
are using SNS and are well-known with the Internet and computers
also are more likely to play online games and participate in so-
cialization online than those who do not use the Internet and SNS.
Moreover, the sample size was rather small in some groups (ASD
non-gamers and Control non-gamers) which also limits the
generalizability of the results. Fourthly, the relatively low number
of non-gaming ASD participants is a limitation for some of the
statistical analyses. Fifthly, the participants in the control group
were mainly recruited from an email-list of a Swedish university.
This group might not be representative for the general population.
Lastly, the lack of control in the ASD diagnosis can make the validity
of the results dubious.
109
4.3. Conclusions and future directions
The present study is the first to investigate and provide scientific
evidence for relationships between online gaming, loneliness and
friendships among individuals diagnosed with ASD. The results
indicate that online games may be a platform where individuals
with ASD can build new friendships and sustain existing ones. The
study also suggests that persons with ASD who spend moderate
amount of time playing online games may experience decreased
feelings of loneliness. However, no casual inferences can be drawn
from the study due to the cross-sectional nature.
For clinical implications, the study's results suggest a possible
implementation of online games as a social skills training tool
among individuals with ASD. However, due to the above mentioned
limitations of the study, results must be taken with caution and
further research is needed to explore these possibilities.
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