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MWD Mechanics

What is MWD and LWD?

MWD tools and logging systems can be broken into 2 separate categories, LWD & MWD. Usually it is
common that both MWD and LWD are referred to as MWD.

LWD: (logging while drilling) provides formation measurements while drilling.

 LWD measures density, porosity & resistivity within a formation. Acoustic caliper reports (borehole
size & geometry), inclination at the drill bit (NBI), magnetic resonance & formation pressure.

MWD: (measurement while drilling) provides drilling mechanics and directional measurements.

 MWD measures tool location, inclination, azimuth and BHA orientation (tool face). It also reports
other mechanical variables such as, downhole torque, RPM’s, W.O.B. and mud flow volumes. BHA
integrity & hole integrity data involving smoothness of rotation (stick slip, bit bounce, tool
vibrations), downhole temps, torque,.

Today’s MWD engineers play a vital role by providing these measurements and parameters in real
time. In the past most of these measurements were taking after the well had been completed. After which
costly and not as effective wireline runs where made Present day drilling technology has caught up &
todays wireline engineers still log wells but not nearly as much as they used to. MWD tools today are
doing the same job the wireline companies have done in the past at a fraction of the cost and logging the
well while we they drill ahead.

How is this data communicated to the surface while drilling ahead?

This form of communication is called MPT (mud pulse telemetry). MPT is made possible by creating pressure waves
within the drilling mud back up to the surface through the drill pipe. These pulses are received by very sensitive
devices on the rig floor. This data is then passed along to decoding computers that interpret or deconvolute the
data from downhole. This whole process is virtually instantaneous, allowing key decisions to be made as the well is
being drilled.

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Mud pulse telemetry tools use positive pulse, negative pulse or carrier wave (mud siren) schemes to transmit
measured parameters from downhole to surface in realtime to aid in formation evaluation, directional control,
drilling efficiency and drilling safety.

Positive Mud Pulse Telemetry

Positive mud pulse telemetry (MPT) uses a hydraulic poppet valve to momentarily restrict the flow of
mud through an orifice in the tool to generate an increase in pressure in the form of a positive
pulse or pressure wave which travels back to the surface and is detected at the standpipe.

Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry

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Negative MPT uses a controlled valve to vent mud momentarily from the interior of the tool into the annulus. This process
generates a decrease in pressure in the form of a negative pulse or pressure wave which travels back to the surface and is
detected at the standpipe.

Continuous Wave Telemetry

Continuous wave telemetry uses a rotary valve or “mud siren” with a slotted rotor and stator which restricts the mud flow in
such a way as to generate a modulating positive pressure wave which travels to the surface and is

detected at the standpipe.

Downhole information is registered by the MWD sensors and then passed on to the MWD
tool microprocessor. The microprocessor then routes this MWD System information to the surface by activating the
tool transmission system. At the surface, this data is decoded and depth correlated. The data is then transmitted to

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WSL’s, Mud loggers, Geologist & other 3rd party service companies. From there it is then transmitted to various
offsite data centers where support team members & specialist.

Directional Drilling - Survey

Earth’s Magnetic Field

Directional surveying is the method used to obtain the measurements required to calculate and plot the path of a
wellbore in three dimensions. These surveys are obtained by measuring the earth’s magnetic field and gravitational
forces, using magnetometers and accelerometers.

Accelerometers and magnetometers within the BHA, are used to measure the inclination and azimuth of the
wellbores location. Generally, these tools are capable of taking directional surveys in real time. With a series of
surveys: at appropriate intervals (every 30 ft. (i.e., 10m) to every 500 ft.), this location and trajectory of the wellbore
can be calculated.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

At the heart of the planet, exists a solid inner core, two thirds of the size of the Moon and composed primarily of iron. At 5700°C, this iron is as hot as
the Sun’s surface, but the crushing pressure caused by gravity prevents it from becoming liquid. Surrounding this is the outer core, a 2,000 km thick
layer of iron, nickel, and small quantities of other metals. Lower pressure than the inner core means the metal here is fluid. Differences in composition,
temps and pressure causes convection currents there is an enormous magnetic core that creates the magnetic field. With the earth’s rotation playing
its part, a self-sustaining process known as the dynamo effect is created.

There are many measurements that show the drilling team where the BHA is located3 basic measurements that make up a
survey station: Inclination, Azimuth and True Vertical Depth.

I have inserted and copied the below illustrations from the Halliburton “Directional Surveying Fundamentals “document

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Inclination is the angle measured in degrees, at which the BHA

deviates from a true vertical line.

For instance: An inclination of 0° would be true vertical and an

inclination of 90° would be horizontal .

Azimuth is also
measured in degrees
by the angle of the bha from a known North reference point. This
point can be true north, magnetic north or grid north. And is
measured going clockwise in direction.

The hole direction is expressed from (0° to 360°) or quadrant form

(NE, SE, NW, SW).

True Vertical Depth (TVD) Vertical depth (distance) from the Kelly
bushing to the survey point.

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Latitude is the horizontal distance the wellbore moves from the survey origin in a due north or south direction. A
positive value indicates a northerly displacement, while a
negative value indicates a southerly displacement. Latitude is
used to plot the trajectory of the wellbore on a horizontal
projection.

Departure is the horizontal distance the wellbore moves from

the survey origin in a due east or west direction. A positive
value indicates an easterly displacement, while a negative
value indicates a westerly displacement

Closure referred to as Horizontal displacement, is the

distance in horizontal plane from first survey station (survey origin: Tie in Survey) to the current survey station

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Closure referred to as Horizontal displacement, its the distance in the horizontal plane from first survey station
(survey origin: Tie in Survey) to the current survey station

Vertical Section is the horizontal distance, the wellbore moves

from the Survey Origin (Tie in) in the direction to the Survey
Station in question, along the X axis of the vertical plane,
where the Y axis is the TVD.

Vertical Section Direction is the direction of the Vertical

Section from the north reference, measured clockwise. Factors
affecting the vertical section are:
• Incremental horizontal displacement and its direction as
compared with the direction of the target.
• Change in vertical section between any two points or survey stations.

Dip Angle is the local magnetic field in relationship to horizontal, measured in degrees. All six sensors are used to calculate
dip angle. Variations in dip angle indicate either magnetic interference or movement during the survey sampling period.
Because Dip uses a combination of accelerometer and magnetometer information, it is sensitive to all six values,
and therefore can alert the user to a problem survey.

Benefits of directional surveying:

• Knowing exactly where the bottom hole location is so we can observe reservoir performance.

• Track our planned to actual well path so we can hit our target.

• Steer and orientate the directional drilling assemblies when making corrections to our planned well path.

• So the well being drilled does not intersect with another well.

• Calculate true vertical depth in reference to formations. This is very important when mapping geological
formations.

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• Potential problems with the course being drilled. This will allow the directional driller of potential problems, such
as doglegs.

• Regulatory agencies, such as BSEE require these surveys.

Closure referred to as Horizontal displacement, is the distance in horizontal plane from first survey station (survey
origin: Tie in Survey) to the current survey station

Vertical Section is the horizontal distance, the wellbore moves

from the Survey Origin (Tie in) in the direction to the Survey
Station in question, along the X axis of the vertical plane,
where the Y axis is the TVD.

Vertical Section Direction is the direction of the Vertical

Section from the north reference, measured clockwise. Factors
affecting the vertical section are:
• Incremental horizontal displacement and its direction as
compared with the direction of the target.
• Change in vertical section between any two points or survey stations.

Dogleg is a measure of the total angular change in the wellbore. It is the 3-D angular change calculated using both
inclination and azimuth (hole direction) between two survey stations. All of the inclination change will show up as
dogleg. Azimuth changes at higher inclinations will have a greater effect on dogleg than the same azimuth change
at lower inclinations. Dogleg severity is dogleg calculated over a standard length (100 ft. or 30 m).

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There are two tool face types: magnetic and gravity. The tool face reference is used for orientation purposes and is
also referred to as the reference orientation. This reference is used to orient downhole directional drilling tools,
such as mud motors, jetting assemblies, or whip stocks.

Magnetic Tool face

The magnetic tool face is the direction, in the horizontal plane, the bent sub scribe line is pointing with regard to
the north reference (Grid, Magnetic, or True). Magnetic orientation is used when the inclination of the wellbore is
less than 5°. When the inclination is below this amount, the directional tool cannot accurately determine the high
side of the tool for orientation purposes.

Gravity Tool face (High side)

Gravity tool face is the angular distance the motor or bent sub scribe line is turned, about the tool axis, relative to
the high side of the hole. If the inclination of the wellbore is above 5°, then the gravity tool face can be used. The
tool face will be referenced to the high side of the survey instrument, no matter what the hole direction of the
survey instrument is at the time.

Different Calculation Methods

There are several methods of computing directional surveys. The survey calculation methods are polynomial
equations to calculate TVD, N/S (Latitude) and, E/W (Departure) displacements for the survey station, based on
Depth, Inclination, and Azimuth. However, of these methods, currently only four are commonly used. These
methods are:

1. Tangential (not commonly used)

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2. Average Angle (used for hand-calculations only)

3. Balanced Tangential (not commonly used)
4. Radius of Curvature
5. Minimum Curvature (most commonly used)

Survey Station

Surveying can be performed while the drilling process is taking place or after drilling has been completed. A typical
survey station is at the end of every drill pipe joint (approximately 30 ft.). A survey station must be free from
drillstring interference unless corrected by the short collar method. A survey station that is too close to a casing
shoe or local magnetic interference should be avoided.

When and How to Survey

Minimum survey interval requirements are as follows:

I. Government and local regulations must be met.

II. Planned vertical wells: inclination only survey at least every 500 ft. with a maximum inclination of 10° (wells
with inclination over 10° will be considered deviated.)
III. Planned deviated wells (inclination planned greater than 10°):

A. Dogleg < 5 deg/100 ft.: survey every 100 ft.

B. Dogleg > 5 deg/100 ft.: survey every 45 ft.

All depth entered in the survey must be the measured depth at the sensor measure point. At each survey point, the
depth measured must be compared to the pipe tally and rig monitoring system for accuracy. The common depth
error sources are:

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 Drill pipe used out of order

 Incorrectly measured drill pipe length
 Depth encoder out of calibration
 Drilling line replaced on the draw-works

Survey QC Limits

Survey QC limits are numbers to check the survey stability. All surveys obtained should be checked to
ensure that the parameters are within the survey QC limits.

Survey QC Limits are:

Survey QC Limits
Gtotal Max range of 0.003 g about a mean on 1.000 g ±
Btotal 0.001
± 300 nT of theoretical Btotal computed by MagUTM
Dip angle ± 0.30 degree of theoretical Dip angle computed by
MagUTM
Gtotal, Btotal and Dip QC limits are the minimum global standard. Follow the local standard if the area or Joint
Operations Rules and Procedures (JORP) require tighter tolerances.

Failure to meet any of the QC limit above disqualifies a survey. This can be caused by a drillstring movement while
sampling the survey, insufficient magnetic spacing, or other magnetic interferences.

Check Shots

A check shot is a survey taken at the same depth on trips into and out of the hole to compare sensor data. It is a
verification of the accuracy of the surveys to ensure that the directional sensors accurately respond by comparing
the survey values at the same depth.

When to Perform a Check Shot

A check shot is required on trip in the hole. It is recommended to perform a check shot on the trip out of the hole
at the same depth to confirm that the directional tool is still operating within specification.

The check shot is not required if a hole section is drilled in one run. However, it is recommended to perform a
check shot on the trip out of hole at the shallowest depth possible.

Motion Effects While Surveying

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The MWD environment is prone to motion-induced errors. This motion is classified in three different types:

I. Sliding
II. Rotation
III. Vibration

Sliding

The change in position during the sample time has minimal effect on all sensors, except for the Gz accelerometer.
In the case of Gz, it is not the change in position. but the acceleration that causes the error in measurement. Bz is
the most stable measurement taken, and Gz is usually of similar quality.

However, this presumes that the change in position is minor, and that no significant changes in inclination or
azimuth are experienced over such small distances.

Rotation

The rotation of the sensor introduces an error in the magnitude and direction of the resulting Goxy and Boxy
vector. Rotating motion will change the direction and magnitude of both gravity and field strength readings while
sensors are taking samples. In addition, the Goxy will have other errors as the rotation induces centripetal forces,
which Gx and Gy will sense, but Bx and By does not.

In a deeper hole, the directional sensor can be rotated without drillstring rotation due to the trapped torque or
bucking of the drill pipe. These effects slowly rotate the drillstring counter-clockwise over time even in a stationary
position.

Vibration

Cross-axial vibrations tend to have similar effects to rotation in terms of the visible evidence on the trends. It is less
likely to have any effect on Boxy, unless the vibrations are so intensive that it causes a measureable change in
attitude of the magnetometers with respect to the magnetic field.

Cross-axial vibrations induce scatter on the Goxy trend, and on the Goxy inclination trend. This affects the Gtotal
and normal inclination trends.

Anti-Collision

Anti-Collision is the method of avoiding a collision with an existing wellbore. Collision to producing and/or
injection wells can have serious safety and environmental consequences which need to be avoided at all cost. The
purpose of this chapter is to ensure all Operations personnel have a basic understanding of the principles, as well
as the rules and processes of avoiding a well collision.

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Collision Indicators

The following symptoms may indicate a well collision:

I. Rough, erratic or high torque drilling, especially where drilling is typically smooth
II. Sudden loss of circulation, or other well control event
III. A sudden change in ROP, especially when field conditions are well-known.
IV. Magnetic interference indicated by MWD survey instruments

Ellipse of Uncertainty (EOU)

Ellipse of uncertainty represents the uncertainty of the actual location of the wellbore due to measurement errors.
Factors affecting ellipse of uncertainty are:

 Surface location errors

 Instrument calibration errors
 Instrument misalignment errors
 Borehole misalignment errors
 Depth measurement errors

 Measuring the drill pipe at surface

 Stretch of the drill pipe in the hole due to its weight and others

 Environmental errors


Clearance Factor (CF)

The clearance factor is used to define the separation between two wellbores: the current and the adjacent well. It is
a mathematical concept that presumes that the closest distance between the surfaces of two ellipsoids of
uncertainty can be determined by ordinary calculus. The clearance factor is a dimensionless number that can be
used to determine the probability of a collision between two adjoining wells.

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The clearance factor of 1 represents that two ellipsoids are touching each other. Safe drilling requires the clearance
factor greater than 2. Wells are considered too close when the CF is between 1 and 2. A clearance factor less than 1
denotes the ellipsoid of two wells are on a collision course, indicating extremely high risk of a well collision.

SAG Correction Software

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Sag is the error in inclination measurements caused by the flexing of the BHA when resting in an inclined wellbore.
The BHAs used in directional drilling are designed to be flexible enough to drill round curves. Inevitably, this leads
to deflections in the BHA centerline, which is unlikely to remain parallel to the wellbore. As a result, the inclination
observed may need to be corrected for the misalignment between the MWD sensor and the wellbore centerline.

Generally, Sag will be minimal at low inclinations, due mainly to the gravity. However, the magnitude of sag is likely
to increase as the inclination of BHA approaches 90°.

Magnetic Interferences

 Secular variations
 Crustal variations
 Diurnal variations
 Dynamic variation in magnetic field (Solar storms)
 Other environmental errors

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Other Considerations: Side Force and Interference

PDC bits are more aggressive at lower weights, and the fixed cutter configuration does not
allow for any relief of torque changes when compared to a rolling element on a roller cone bit.
Side force also causes the gauge of a PDC bit to tilt, which causes some of the erratic torque
generation.

Side forces and bit tilt create interference forces. Bit tilt has low interference forces and,
therefore, is better for bit performance. Side force is in essence force to push the bit in the
required direction. If done incorrectly, catastrophic failure of our bits or poor performance can
ensue. Bit designs must be adaptable to this, especially PDC bits. This is why short gauges have
been found to be more effective.

Interference is the distance the bit would displace beyond the wall of the wellbore if not
constrained by the formation. It is directly related to formation characteristics calculated by rock
strength analyses as it relates to bit performance.

Directional

Directional Tendencies

All assemblies have tendencies depending on the inclination, formation, weight utilized on the
bit, fluid type, rpm, etc. Tendencies can be altered depending on the objective. Rotary
assemblies mainly use stabilizer placement to influence tendency. Again, inclination above 14° is
easiest to influence up or down. Roller cone bits have a tendency to walk right, but not always.
This analysis of all factors and experience is where the directional driller earns his reputation.

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Horizontal wells are usually described by the curvature rate to horizontal utilized. Figure 7.10
depicts the three curvature categories utilized, the build up rates, and the radius in feet which is
the measurement of footage required to go from vertical to horizontal.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUILD RATES TO REACH 90°

Directional Drilling 22

Figure 7.10

Bottom hole assemblies (BHA’s) are classified as follows:

• Rotating

∗ dropping assembly

∗ building assembly

∗ holding assembly

• Slide assembly

∗ mud motor

• Steerable

∗ mud motor

∗ jetting assembly

It is important to understand elements of the basic three configurations listed below:

• Dropping Assembly (pendulum)

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• Building Assembly (fulcrum)

Building assemblies use a fulcrum to create and control positive side force. The closer the
fulcrum point is to the bit, the higher the side force for a given drill collar size.

The fulcrum uses a stabilizer inserted into the drillstring just above the bit. With the bit rotating
on bottom, enough weight is applied to cause the bottom collars to bow. In holes with five
degrees or more of inclination, the bow is toward the low side of the hole. This bow causes the
bit to push hard against the top of the hole, resulting in a buildup of angle as the drilling
progresses.

• Holding Assembly (packed hole)

Dropping Assembly (pendulum)

Dropping assemblies act as a pendulum to create and control negative side force. Pendulum
Principle: The stabilizer above the bit is removed and an additional drill collar is added, making
the BHA more flexible. The upper stabilizers, properly placed, hold the bottom drill collar away
from the low side of the hole. Gravitational forces act on the bottom collar and bit, causing the
hole to lose or decrease angle.

PENDULUM ASSEMBLY

The fulcrum uses a stabilizer inserted into the drillstring just above the bit. With the bit rotating
on bottom, enough weight is applied to cause the bottom collars to bow. In holes with five
degrees or more of inclination, the bow is toward the low side of the hole. This bow causes the
bit to push hard against the top of the hole, resulting in a build up of angle as the drilling
progresses.

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Rotary Steerable Drilling Systems

Although this module focuses on the fundamental principals of directional drilling using motors
to rotate the bit, an growing part of the directional market is for rotary steerable drilling
systems which are able to drill directionally using drillstring rotation.

“Point-the-Bit”

“Push-the-Bit”

There are two basic Rotary Steerable System configurations: Point-the-Bit” and “Push-the-Bit.” It
should be noted that each type of system requires special drill bit design features to achieve
desired drilling objectives.

Directional Drilling 29

“Push-the-bit” systems achieve steerability by application of a side force to the bit cutting
structure, which pushes the bit in the desired direction. In terms of bit design, a push-the-bit
design typically requires a shorter gage area than PDC bits used on motor applications. The
reduced lateral area affords greater directional responsiveness when a side force is applied by
the steering unit.

Since various “push-the-bit” systems require different degrees of lateral aggressiveness to

achieve the desired wellbore, bit designs can be tailored specifically for applications requiring
less or more lateral aggressiveness according to well objectives.

The Geo-Pilot™ rotary steerable system is the industry’s first commercially available "point-the-
bit" rotary steerable system. The system points the bit by deflecting a driveshaft between two
bearings. The lower bearing acts as a ball joint, allowing the end of the driveshaft to point in the

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opposite direction. The bit is pointed in the desired direction, and only the face of the bit cuts
the formation. Since the tool doesn’t try to push the bit sideways to deviate, as other systems
do, the Geo-Pilot system can utilize Security DBS FullDrift extended-gauge bits, which are self-
centralizing and remain in the true center of the hole, resulting in truly high-quality wellbores.

Future Directions

Many types of new well path configurations are being utilized. Multilateral designs from one
wellbore are growing in popularity as tools and completion techniques become available.
Development of drill bits equipped with LWD/MWD sensors is advancing, with new sensors
increasing the information available at the surface during drilling. The ability to make “real time”
decisions based on the rapid transmittal of information collected at, or nearer the drill bit, will
lead to new gains in drilling

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Rotary Steerable Technology

Overview and Advantages

The rotary steerable system is a recent technology that allows drilling at faster rates by rotating the entire drill string all
the time. This differs from conventional technology that uses a PDM (positive displacement motor) with a bent housing to
provide a side force to the bit to deflect the well bore in the desired direction. In conventional technology, drilling is done in
sliding and rotary modes. A sliding mode is defined when the entire drill string is not rotating and only the drill bit is
rotating. This takes advantage of the bent housing in the PDM to divert the well bore to a desired direction. As soon as the
well bore direction and build angle are established, drilling enters into a rotary mode where the entire drill string rotates to
hold direction.

The sliding mode is considerably slower than the rotary mode and is associated with

many problems. The emerging RSS technology is highly desirable because it

completely eliminates sliding problems and has several additional advantages

RSS can:

• Increase the rate of penetration of the drill bit to allow faster directional drilling;

• Help optimize drilling parameters such as weight on bit and revolutions per minute

(RPM), which optimizes drilling operation;

• Improve the wellbore quality and provide an in gauge hole with no ledges; it also

reduces wellbore tortuosity

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• Reduce the torque and drag that cause fatigue of the drill string;

• Provide better wellbore cleaning, where the continuous rotation of the drill string

agitates wellbore cuttings in the annulus; this facilitates moving the cutting out of

the hole. If using the conventional PDM, additional wiper trips are needed for the

hole cleaning after drilling is completed. Therefore, RSS eliminates the additional

time required for wiper trips.

• Eliminate the time of the tool face orientation at each tool joint when using the

conventional PDM;

• Eventually decrease the cost per foot of drilling operations.

An RSS can turn the wellbore while rotating by pushing or pointing the bit toward the

desired direction using a shaft drive attached to the bit. Each directional drilling

service company has a unique design to mechanically control the bit direction while

drilling.

RSS Challenges

Recent advances in RSS technology increased the demand for the use of MWD

technology for directional control of the well bore. However, the RSS is installed

directly behind the bit followed by the MWD tool. This leads to an offset of at least 15

meters between the current MWD surveying sensors package and the bit, as shown in

Figure 2.6. The average drill bit length is 300 mm and the average length of an RSS

(Figure 2.6, C) is 8 meters. The flex sub (Figure 2.6, B) and the spiral stabilizer extend

for 6 to 9 meters. The MWD collar (Figure 2.6, A) length is approximately 9 meters.

The surveying sensor package is usually installed on the lower part of the MWD tool

collar.

Under these conditions drilling proceeds blindly for 15 meters, and the directional

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driller has to wait to drill 50 feet to know the location of the wellbore. An average

formation can be drilled at a rate of 10 ft/hr, this counts for 5 hours of drilling blindly.

This leads to a high cost if the wellbore is diverted significantly from the planned

trajectory especially for offshore operations.

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Figure 2.6: MWD Tool Installed behind RSS [www.halliburton.com]

Additionally, MWD tools available in the market cannot provide a continuous

wellbore trajectory while drilling. Furthermore, the MWD tool does not communicate

its measurements to the RSS while drilling. If the RSS does not deviate in the correct

direction, drilling has to stop and different commands have to be down-linked to the

RSS. This is indeed very time consuming and imposes constraints on the use of an

RSS. Thus, the full advantages of the RSS are yet to be realized with the present

implementation. This shortcoming of the current technology has motivated this

research study.

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2.5 Proposed Integrated RSS Technology

The aforementioned challenges of the current technologies available for the

hydrocarbon drilling industry and the potential for significant improvements have

motivated this research study. It aims to develop an integrated solution to enhance

directional drilling by integrating an RSS with MWD direction and inclination sensors

and packaging the two systems into one collar installed less than 1.5 meters behind the

drill bit. This study proposes an advanced direction and inclination sensor package

based on the inertial navigation system (INS).

The strict size limitation inside the RSS collar makes MEMS inertial sensors perfect

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candidates for this application. However, the small size of MEMS inertial sensors

comes with a trade-off of lower measurement accuracy. The achieved accuracy of

MEMS inertial sensors is discussed in later parts of this dissertation. The following

two chapters present qualification testing of the MEMS inertial sensors in harsh shock

and vibration environments and proposes an algorithm to mitigate the effects of severe

shock and vibration on inertial sensors’ measurements.

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