DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
THERMAL ENGINEERING • Jh^n-T^ ^JtA^^"^^
^ — . 1 — — ^ - ^

By
PARDEEP KUMAR

(208462)
Under the Guidance of
Dr. K. S. KASANA

Department of Mechanical Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Kurukshetra
June 2008-2010
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that the thesis report entitled "DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT

EXCHANGER", which is being submitted by Mr.Pardeep Kumar as a partial fulfillment for

the award of the degree of Master of Technology in (Thermal Engineering) Mechanical

Engineering of NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Kurukshetra as a record of

bonafide work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance. The results embodied

in the report have been worked out independently.

Prof.K.S Kasana
^>4L (Professor)
MECH. ENGG. DEPARTMENT
NIT, KURUKSHlETRA
 ABSTRACT

In this paper design of shell and tube heat exchanger is discussed. The model rigorously

follow the TEMA (Tubular exchanger manufacture association) standard used to the shell

side and tube side calculation. Mechanical design feature (shell and tube thickness , shell side

bending pressure, tube pitch, tube arrangement ,shell longitudinal stress) are variable

optimized. This equipment is design on the basis of tema standard, these cases are studied

literally one by one thickness of shell can be calculated by using standard equation of heat

exchanger thickness. Shell side bending pressure and axial pressure can be calculated by

using TEMA standard And more elastic value is calculated by using these standard.

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

M.Tech thesis is one of the most important parts of the curriculum for the technical student.

Its basic idea is to strengthen the technical knowledge of the student through a thorough study

on a particular subject and then acknowledged with the latest technologies and recent

developments.! express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my thesis Guide,

Prof.K.S.KASANA the,Mechanical Engineering Department, NIT-Kurukshetra for his

advice and timely guidance.The successful completion of my thesis would not have been

possible without his support, inspiration and help. Finally I thankful to all those who have

directly or indirectly helped to complete my thesis.

Pardeep Kumar (208462)

III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate.

ABSTRACT II

Acknowledements Ill

Table of Contents IV

Nomenclature V

CHAPTERl:Introduction 1-4

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review 5-7

CHAPTER 3 :General requirements 8-3 5

CHAPTER 4: General calculation 36-45

CHAPTER 5: Results and Discussion 46-54

CHAPTER 6: Conclusion 55

CHAPTER 7 :Scope For Future Work 56

CHAPTER 8: Refemces 57-59

CHAPTER 9 : Computer Programn 60-61

 NOMENCLATURE
T= Effective tubesheet thickness, inches (mm)

4A
DL = = Equivalent diameter of the tube center Hmit perimeter, inches (mm).

C = Perimeter of the tube layout measured stepwise in increments of one tube pitch from
center-to- center of the outermost tubes, inches (mm).

do = Outside tube diameter, inches (mm), for integrallyfirmedtubes, the OD of the tube in

the tubesheet shall be used.

Pitch= Tube center-to-center spacing, inches (mm).

S= Code allowable stress in tension

Ft = Design pressure, psi (kPa), tube side (For vacuum design, Pt is negative.)

Ps = Design pressure, psi (kPa), shell side (For vacuum design, Ps is negative.)

D= Outside diameter of thefloatingtubesheet, inches (mm)

4A
Dc = yj Equivalent diameter of the tube center limit perimeter, inches
7t
E= Modulus of Elasticity of tubesheet

do = Tube OD between tubesheets, inches (mm).

YT = Yield strength of the tube material at maximum metal temperature, psi (kPa).

Ar = Differential radial expansion between adjacent tubeshee, inches (mm)

Ml = Total moment acting upon the extension under operating conditions, defined by the

Code as MQ underflangedesign, inch-pounds (mm-kN).

M2 = Total moment acting upon the extension imder bolting-up conditions, defined by the

Code as Mo underflangedesign, inch-pounds (mm-kN).

PBI = Equivalent bolting pressure when tube side pressure is acting, psi (kPa).
PBS = Equivalent bolting pressure when tube side pressure is not acting, psi

Ss = shell longitudinal stress in (mpa)

Ps = shell design pr. In bar

Ft - tube design pr. in bar

Ts = design temp of shell in c

Tp = design temp of tube in c

V
 CHEPTAR-1

INTRODUCTION

Heat exchanger is process equipment designed for the effective transfer of heat energy

between two fluids; a hot fluid and a coolant. The purpose may be either to remove

heat from a fluid or to add heat to a fluid. Notable examples are

(i) boilers (evaporators), superheaters and condensers of a power plant

(ii) automobile radiators and oil coolers of heat engines

(iii) evaporator of an Ice plant and milk-chiller of a pasteurising plant

(iv) condensers and evaporators in refrigeration units

(v) water and air heaters or coolers

The heat transferred in the heat exchanger may be in the form of latent heat

(e.g. in boilers and condensers) or sensible heat (e.g. in heaters and coolers). This

chapter presents the basic principles obnf heat transfer needed to design and to

evaluate the performance of a heat exchanger.

CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Many types of heat exchangers have been developed to meet the widely varying

applications. Based upon their

- operating principle

- arrangement offlowpath

- design and certain constructional features,

the heat exchangers can be classified into the following categories

NATURE OF HEAT EXCHANGE PROCESS
Based upon the nature of heat exchange process, the heat exchangers are classified

into direct contact, regenerators and recuperators

NoncofKienslble •*•
bleed

•p=^
- o o
=s- — • - w a r m water

Stostnt w

' -^— Cold water

Figure: Direct Contact or open heat exchanger

IN DIRECT CONTACT OR OPEN HEAT EXCHANGERS,

(i) boilers, superheaters and condensers; economisers and the air preheaters in

steam power plants

(ii) automobile radiators

(iii) condensers and evaporators in refrigeration imits

(iv) oil heaters for an airplane

(v) heat exchanger inside a gas furnace etc.

The open-type (direct contact) heat exchangers and the recuperators operate

under steady state conditions; and the transfer of heat inside a regenerator takes place

essentially under transient conditions.

RELATIVE DIRECTION OF MOTION OF FLUIDS

According to the direction of flow of fluids, the heat exchangers are classified into

three categories: parallelflow,counterflowand the cross flow.

In the co-current or parallelflowarrangement

In the cross-flow arrangement, the twofluids(hot and cold) are

PHYSICAL STATE OF HEAT EXCHANGING FLUIDS

(CONDENSATION AND EVAPORATION)

(i) Condenser

(ii) Evaporator

The heat exchangers can be further classified on the basis of following design

parameters:

(i) temperature and pressure levels of the fluid

(ii) corrosiveness, toxicity and scale forming tendency of the fluids.

(iii) economic considerations such as cost, ease of manufacture, necessary space

and required life etc. The cost considerations may, however, be subordinate to

weight and size limitation in space and aeronautical limitations. Exchangers of

compact design are employed where weight, space and cost limitations are

severe.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

Figure represents the block diagram of a heat exchanger. The indicated parameters

are:
m= mass flow (kg/s)

c= specific heat (J/kg-deg)

t = fluid temperature (deg C)

At = temperature drop or rise of afluidacross the heat exchanger.

 Subscripts h and c designate the hot and cold fluids respectively; subscripts 1

and 2 conespond to the inlet and outlet conditions of the fluid.

Hot fluid w
"^hCh

Heat exchanger
UAe,m

i i
-1

Cold fluid
*C1 «c2 •^cCc
The

following aspects are considered individually in the design and performance analysis

of a heat exchanger.

(i) The hot fluid gives up heat

(ii) The coolant picks up heat

....(b)

(iii) The structure of the heat exchanger transfers the heat from the hot fluid to the

coolant.

Q =U AO ....(C)

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient between the two fluids, A is the

effective heat transfer area and is the appropriate mean temperature difference across

the heat exchanger structure.

From energy balance, the heat given up by the hot fluid is picked up by the

coolant on being transferred through the heat exchanger.

 CHEPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

• Andre L.H. Costaa,, Eduardo M. Queirozb [l]This paper presents a study about the

design optimization of shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The formulated problem consists

of the minimization of the thermal surface area for a certain service, involving discrete

decision variables. Additional constraints represent geometrical features and velocity

conditions which must be complied in order to reach a more realistic solution for the

process task. The optimization algorithm is based on a search along the tube count table

where the established constraints and the investigated design candidates are employed to

eliminate nonoptimal alternatives, thus reducing the number of rating runs executed.

• F. Vera-Garciaa R. Cabelloc [2],In this paper, a simplified model for the study of shell-

and-tubes heat exchangers (HXs) is proposed. The model aims to agree with the HXs

they are working as condensers or evaporators. Despite its simplicity, the model proves to

be useful to the pre-desigrmient and correct selection of shell-and-tubes HXs working at

full and complex refrigeration systems. The heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop

correlations are specially selected and treated to implement them into the shell-and-tubes.

HXs presented. The model is implemented and tested in the modellization of a general

refi-igeration cycle and the results are compared with data obtained from a specific test.

• H. Shokouhm, M.R. Salimpoura [3]In this work, an experimental investigation was

performed to study the shell and helically coiled tube heat exchangers. Three heat
 exchangers with different coil pitches and curvature ratios were tested for both parallel-

flow and counter-flow configurations. All the required parameters like inlet and outlet

temperatures of tube-side and shell-side fluids, flow rate of fluids, etc. were measured

using appropriate instruments. Overall heat transfer coefficients of the heat exchangers

were calculated using Wilson plots. Heat transfer coefficients of shell and tube sides were

evaluated invoking the calculated overall heat transfer coefficients. The inner Nusselt

numbers were compared to the values existed in open literature. Though the boundary

conditions were different, a reasonable agreement was observed.

• Jian-Fei Zhanga , Ya-Ling Hea [4]In the present study, a 3D numerical simulation of a

whole previous termheat exchangemext term with middle-overlapped helical baffles is

carried out by using commercial codes of GAMBIT 2.3 and FLEUNT 6.3. At first, the

computational model and numerical method of the whole previous termheat

exchangemext term with middle-overlapped helical baffles is presented in detail, and

parallel computation mode is adopted for the simulation of a whole previous termheat

exchangemext term with six cycles of the middle-overlapped helical baffles of 40° helical

angle on a grid system of I3.5-million cells; second, the validation of the computational

model is performed by comparing the total pressure drop and average Nusselt number of

the whole previous termheat exchangemext term with experimental data.

S.G. Ravikumaur*, K.N. Seetharamu [5]in this paper a finite element model to predict

temperature distribution in previous termheat exchangersnext term is reported. The model

can be effectively used to analyse and previous termdesign the heat exchangersnext tenn

with complex flow arrangements for which no regular previous termdesignnext term

procedure is available. Illustrations are provided to explain the application of the method
for the analysis of termshell and tube heat exchangers.next term
m
V.K. Patel- and R.V. Rao [6]in this paper Heat exchanger design involves complex

processes, including selection of geometrical parameters and operating parameters. The

traditional design approach for shell-and-tube heat exchangers involves rating a

large number of different exchanger geometries to identify those that satisfy a given

heat duty and a set of geometric and operational constraints. However, this approach is

time-consuming and does not assure an optimal solution. Hence the present study

explores the use of a non-traditional optimization technique; called particle swarm

optimization (PSO), for design optimization of shell-and-tube heat exchangers'-

economic view point. Minimization of total aimual cost is considered as an objective

function. Three design variables such as shell internal diameter, outer tube

diameter and baffle spacing are considered for optimization. Two tube layouts viz.

triangle and square are also considered for optimization. Four different case studies are

presented to demonstrate the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed algorithm. The

results of optimization using PSO technique are compared with those obtained by using

genetic algorithm (GA).

 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

CHAPTER-3

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

3.1GENERAL

The Mechanical Standards are applicable to shell and tube heat exchangers which do

not exceed any of the following criteria.

(1) inside diameters of 100 inches (2540 mm).

(2) product of nominal diameter, inches (mm) and design pressure, psi (kPa) of 100,000

(17.5x10^)

(3) a design pressure of 3,000 psi (20684 kPa)

The intent of these parameters is to limit the maximum shell wall thickness to

approximately 3 inches (76 mm), and the maximum stud diameter to approximately 4 inches

(102 mm). Criteria contained in these standards may be applied to units which exceed the

above parameters.
3.2DEFINITION OF CLASS "R" EXCHANGERS

The Mechanical Standards for Class "R" heat exchangers specify design and fabrication

of unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for the generally severe requirements of petroleum

and related processing applications.

3.3DEFINITION OF CLASS "Q" EXCHANGERS

The Mechanical Standards for class "C" heat exchangers specify design and fabrication

of unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for the generally moderate requirements of

commercial and general process applications.

3.4DEFINITION OF CLASS "B" EXCHANGERS

The Mechanical Standards for Class "B" heat exchangers specify design and fabrication

of unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for chemical process service.

3.5MATERIALS-DEFINITION OF TERMS

For purposes of these Standards, "carbon steel" shall be construed as any steel or low

alloy falling within the scope of Part UCS of the Code. Metals not included by the foregoing

(except cast iron) shall be considered as "alloys" unless otherwise specifically named. Materials

of construction, including gaskets, should be specified by the purchaser. The manufacturer

assumes no responsibility for deterioration of parts for any reason.

3.6TESTING

(a) STANDARD TEST

The exchanger shall be hydrostatically tested with water. The test pressure shall be held

for at least 30 minutes. The shell side and the tube side are to be tested separately in such a

manner that leaks at the tube joints can be detected from at least one side. When the tube side

design pressure is the higher pressure, the tube bundle shall be tested outside of the shell only

if specified by the purchaser and the construction permits. Welded joints are to be sufficiently

cleaned prior to testing the exchanger to permit proper inspection during the test. The

minimum hydrostatic test pressure at room temperature shall be in accordance with the Code.

(b) PNEUMATIC TEST

When liquid cannot be tolerated as a test medium the exchanger may be given a

pneumatic test in accordance with the Code. It must be recognized that air or gas is hazardous

when used as a pressure testing medium. The pneumatic test pressure at room temperature

shall be in accordance with the Code.

(d) SUPPLEMENTARY AIR TEST

It shall be preceded by the hydrostatic test required.

3.7 CLASSIFICATION BY CONSTRUCTION STHE

Figure 3.01 to Figure 3.08 show details of the construction of the TEMA types of shell-

and-tube heat exchanges. These types are :

10
 3.1.1 Fixed tube sheet

3.1.2 U-tube

3.1.3 Floating head

3.7.1 FIXED TUBE SHEET

Fixed-tube-sheet exchangers (Figure 1.01) are used more often than any other type, and

the frequency of use has been increasing in recent years. The tube sheets are welded to the

shell. Usually these extend beyond the shell and serve as flanges to which the tube-side

headers are bolted. This construction requires that the shell and tube-sheet materials be

weldable to each other. When such welding is not possible, a blind-gasket type of construction

is utilized. The blind gasket is not accessible for maintenance or replacement once the unit has

been constructed. This construction is used for steam surface condensers, which operate under

vacuum.

Transfer
Shell T u, baffell
I /^""^ I stationar>' head
Vent —>® (p ® ® ®(|) ® ® @ ® ® bonnet
Connection / T \ 1 T T [ / T A

Stationar) ^ stationary head

1 lead Nozzle ficngc-ehhanui
Stationary head
tube sheet

Figure 3.01: Heat-exchanger-component fixed tube heat sheet shell and tube heat exchanger.

The tube-side header (or channel) may be welded to the tube sheet. There is no

limitation on the number of tube-side passes. Shell-side passes can be one or more, although

11
shells with more than two shell side passes are rarely used. Tubes can completely fill the heat-

exchanger shell.

Clearance between the outermost tubes and the shell is only the minimum necessary

for fabrication. Between the inside of the shell and the baffles some clearance must be

provided so that baffles can slide into the shell. Fabrication tolerances then require some

additional clearance between the outside of the baffles and the outermost tubes. The edge

distance between the outer tube limit (OTL) and the baffle diameter must be sufficient to

prevent vibration of the tubes from breaking through the baffle holes. The outermost tube

must be contained within the OTL.

Clearances between the inside shell diameter and OTL are 13 mm (1/2 in) for 635-mm-

(25-in-) inside-diameter shells and up, 11 mm for 254- through 610-mm (10- through 24-in)

pipe shells, and slightly less for smaller-diameter pipe shells.

Tubes can be replaced. Tube-side headers, channel covers, gaskets, etc., are accessible

for maintenance and replacement. Neither the shell-side baffle structure nor the blind gasket is

accessible. During tube removal, a tube may break within the shell. When this occurs, it is most

difficult to remove or to replace the tube. The usual procedure is to plug the appropriate holes

in the tube sheets.

Differential expansion between the shell and the tubes can develop because of

differences in length caused by thermal expansion. Various types of expansion joints are used

to eliminate excessive stresses caused by expansion. The need for an expansion joint is a

function of both the amount of differential expansion and the cycling conditions to be expected

during operation.

12
 JL J u J V ^

""LT
{<Li Ftol piofes
~\r
heods pipe sfegsnems

_A. ^ / \ - O
"V~
(d) Formed
-\r (f) t^foMar
0
flued heods

--~-n
AA noo

'—in/—^ ""'puMT'" '**"""*^j?Kr"""

^) Settows type tfi) SeMowS .t3fp« wd?^ («) Wig^ presfure

cmer

Figure 1.02 : Expansion joints

(a) Flat plates. Two concentric flat plates with a bar at the outer edges. The flat plates can

flex to make some allowance for differential expansion. This design is generally used for

vacuum service and gauge pressures below 103 kPa (15 Ibf/in^). All welds are subject to

severe stress during differential expansion.

(b) Flanged-only heads. The flat plates are flanged (or curved). The diameter of these heads

is generally 203 mm (8 in) or more greater than the shell diameter. The welded joint at

13
 the shell Is subject to the stress referred to before, but the joint connecting the heads is

subjected to less stress during expansion because of the curved shape.

(c) Flared shell or pipe segnnents. The shell may be flared to connect with a pipe section, or

a pipe may be halved and quartered to produce a ring.

(d) Formed heads. A pair of dished-only or elliptical or flanged and dished heads can be

used. These are welded together or connected by a ring. This type of joint is similar to

the flanged-only-head type but apparently is subject to less stress.

(e) Flanged and flued heads. A pair of flanged-only heads is provided with concentric

reverse flue holes. These heads are relatively expensive because of the cost of the fluing

operation. The curved shape of the heads reduces the amount of stress at the welds to

the shell and also connecting the heads.

(f) Toroidal. The toroidal joint has a mathematically predictable smooth stress pattern of

low magnitude, with maximum stresses at sidewalls of the corrugation and minimum

stresses at top and bottom. The foregoing designs were discussed as ring expansion

joints by Kopp and Sayre, Expansion Joints for Heat Exchangers. All are statically

indeterminate but are subjected to analysis by introducing various simplifying

assumptions. Some joints in current industrial use are of lighter wall construction than is

indicated by the method of this paper.

(g) Bellows. Thin-wall bellows joints are produced by various manufacturers. These are

designed for differential expansion and are tested for axial and transverse movement as

well as for cyclical life. Bellows may be of stainless steel, nickel alloys, or copper.

(Aluminum, Monel, phosphor bronze, and titanium bellows have been manufactured.)

Welding nipples of the same composition as the heat-exchanger shell are generally

furnished. The bellows may be hydraulically formed from a single piece of metal or may

consist of welded pieces. External insulation covers of carbon steel are often provided to

protect the light-gauge bellows from damage. The cover also prevents insulation from

interfering with movement of the bellows.

14
(h) Toroidal bellows. For high-pressure service the bellows type of joint has been modified

so that movement is taken up by thin-wall small-diameter bellows of a toroidal shape.

Thickness of parts under high pressure is reduced considerably.

Improper handling during manufacture, transit, installation, or maintenance of the heat

exchanger equipped with the thin-wallbellows type or toroidal type of expansion joint can

damage the joint. In larger units these light-wall joints are particularly susceptible to damage,

and some designers prefer the use of the heavier walls of formed heads.

Chemical-plant exchangers requiring expansion joints most commonly have used the

flanged-and-flued-head type. There is a trend toward more common use of the light- wall-

bellows type.

3.7.2 U-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Figure 3.03 shows U-tube heat exchanger Type CFU. The tube bundle consists of a

stationary tube sheet, U tubes (or hairpin tubes), baffles or support plates, and appropriate tie

rods and spacers. The tube bundle can be removed from the heat exchanger shell. A tube-side

header (stationary head) and a shell with integral shell cover, which is welded to the shell, are

provided. Each tube is free to expand or contract without any limitation being placed upon it by

the other tubes. The U-tube bundle has the advantage of providing minimum clearance

between the outer tube limit and the inside of the shell for any of the removable-tube-bundle

constructions. Clearances are of the same magnitude as for fixed-tube-sheet heat exchangers.

The number of tube holes in a given shell is less than that for a fixed-tube-sheet exchanger of

limitations on bending tubes of a very short radius.

15
 Stationanllcad stationan Shell
, Flange Chemical LI„,),J Mn^yi,. Baffle
Channel " \ 'i'-'^" INOZZIC ^^^^^ rubes Cover
Cover

6 ® 00^(5) d)<b
I
Stationary
Head Chennal

Figure 3.03 : Heat-exchanger-component nomenclature. U-tube heat exchanger. Type CFU.

The U-tube design offers the advantage of reducing the number of joints. In high-

pressure construction this feature becomes of considerable importance in reducing both initial

and maintenance costs. The use of U-tube construction has increased significantly with the

development of hydraulic tube cleaners, which can remove fouling residues from both the

straight and the U-bend portions of the tubes. Rods and conventional mechanical tube cleaners

cannot pass from one end of the U tube to the other. Power-driven tube cleaners, which can

clean both the straight legs of the tubes and the bends, are available.

U-tube can be used for high pressure and high temperature application like kettle

reboiler, evaporator, tank section heaters ,etc.

The tank suction heater, as illustrated in Figure 1.04 contains a U-tube bundle. This

design is often used with outdoor storage tanks for heavy fuel oils, tar, molasses, and similar

fluids whose viscosity must be lowered to permit easy pumping. Unusually the tube-side

heating medium is steam. One end of the heater shell is open, and the liquid being heated

passes across the outside of the tubes. Pumping costs can be reduced without heating the

entire contents of the tank. Bare tube and integral low-fin tubes are provided with baffles.

16
Longitudinal fin-tube heaters are not baffled. Fins are most often used to minimize the fouling

potential in these fluids.

SL

W
t
Figure 3.04 : Heat-exchanger-component nomenclature. U-tube heat exchange. Type CFU.

Kettle-type reboilers, evaporators, etc., are often U-tube exchangers with enlarged shell

sections for vapor-liquid separation (Figure 1.05). The U-tube bundle replaces the floating-heat

bundle of Figure 1.03.

Ucpiidiwsl
Ptxta

UMMbigGMskltt *

Diagram Of Keflto Rabeiar-TEMA K atMO

Figure 3.05: Kettle reboiler

The U-tube exchanger with copper tubes, cast-iron header, and other parts of carbon

steel is used for water and steam services in office buildings, schools, hospitals, hotels, etc.

17
Nonferrous tube sheets and admiralty or 90-10 copper-nickel tubes are the most frequently

used substitute materials. These standard exchangers are available from a number of

manufacturers at costs far below those of custombuilt process-industry equipment.

3.7.3 FLOATING HEAD DESIGNS

in an effort to reduce thermal stresses and provide a means to remove the tube bundle

for cleaning, several floating rear head designs have been established. The simplest is a Internal

floating head (pull- through design) Figure 1.06 design which allows the tube bundle to be

pulled entirely through the shell for service or replacement. In order to accommodate the rear

head bolt circle, tubes must be removed resulting in a less efficient use of shell size. In addition,

the missing tubes result in larger annular spaces and can contribute to reduced flow across the

effective tube surface, resulting in reduced thermal performance.

Some designs include sealing strips installed in the shell to help block the bypass steam.

Another floating head design that partially addresses the above disadvantages is a split- ring

floating head. Here the floating head bonnet is bolted to a split backing ring instead of the tube

sheet. This eliminates the bolt circle diameter and allows a full complement of tubes to fill the

shell. This construction is more expensive than a common puli through design, but is in wide

use in petrochemical applications. For applications with high pressures or temperatures, or

where more positive sealing between the fluids is desired, the pull-through design should be

specified.

Two other types, the outside packed lantern ring and the outside packed stuffing box

designs offer less positive sealing against leakage to the atmosphere than the pull though or

split ring designs, but can be configured for single tube pass duty. More details about the

various types of floating head shell and tube heat exchanger is given the following sections:

(a) Packed-Lantern-Ring Exchanger

(b) Outside-Packed Floating-Head Exchanger

(c) Internal Floating-Head Exchanger

18
3.8 SHELL CONSTRUCTIONS

• The most common shell type is the f shell as it is most suitable for most industrial

process cooling applications. However, for certain applications, other shells offer

distinct advantages. For example, the F shell design provides for a longitudinal flow

plate to be installed inside the tube bundle assembly. This plate causes the shell fluid to

travel down one half of the tube bundle, then down the other half, in effect producing a

counter-current flow pattern which is best for heat transfer. This type of construction

can be specified where a close approach temperature is required and when the flow

rate permits the use of one half of the shell at a time. In heat recovery applications, or

where the application calls for increased thermal length to achieve effective overall heat

transfer, shells can be installed with the flows in series. Up to six shorter shells in series

is common and results in counter-current flow close to performance as if one long shell

in a single pass design were used.

• G and H shell designs are most suitable for phase change applications where the bypass

around the longitudinal plate and counter-current flow is less Important than even flow

distribution. In this type of shell, the longitudinal plate offers better flow distribution in

vapor streams and helps to flush out non-condensable. They are frequently specified for

use in horizontal thermosiphon reboilers and total condensers.

• J Shells are typically specified for phase change duties where significantly reduced shell

side pressure drops are required. They are commonly used in stacked sets with the

single nozzles used as the inlet and outlet. A special type of J-shell is used for flooded

evaporation of shell side fluids. A separate vapor disengagement vessel without tubes is

installed above the main J shell with the vapor outlet at the top of this vessel.

• TEMA K shell, also termed a kettle reboiler, is specified when the shell side stream will

undergo vaporization. The liquid level of a K shell design should just cover the tube

bundle, which fills the smaller diameter end of the shell. This liquid level is controlled by

the liquid flowing over a weir at the far end of the entrance nozzle. The expanded shell

area serves to facilitate vapor disengagement for boiling liquid in the bottom of the

shell. To insure against excessive liquid carry-though with the vapor stream, a separate

19
vessel as described above is specified. Liquid carry-through can also be minimized by

installing a mesh demister at the vapor exit nozzle. U-bundles are typically used with K

shell designs. K shells are expensive for high pressure vaporization due to shell diameter

and the required wall thickness.

The TEMA X shell, or crossflow shell is most commonly used in vapor condensing

applications, though it can also be used effectively in low pressure gas cooling or

heating. It produces a very low shell side pressure drop, and is therefore most suitable

for vacuum service condensing. In order to assure adequate distribution of vapors, X-

shell designs typically feature an area free of tubes along the top of the exchanger. It is

also typical to design X shell condensers with a flow area at the bottom of the tube

bundle to allow free condensate flow to the exit nozzle. Careful attention to the

effective removal of non-condensables is vital to X-shell constructions.

20
3.9 Tube Side Construction

3.9.1 Tube-Side Header:

The tube-side header (or stationary head) contains one or more flow nozzles.

• The bonnet bolts to the shell. It is necessary to remove the bonnet in order to examine

the tube ends. The fixed-tubesheet exchanger has bonnets at both ends of the shell.

• The channel has a removable channel cover. The tube ends can be examined by

removing this cover without disturbing the piping connections to the channel nozzles.

The channel can bolt to the shell. The Type C and Type N channels are welded to the

tube sheet. This design is comparable in cost with the bonnet but has the advantages of

permitting access to the tubes without disturbing the piping connections and of

eliminating a gasketed joint.

• Special High-Pressure Closures - The channel barrel and the tube sheet are generally

forged. The removable channel cover is seated in place by hydrostatic pressure, while a

shear ring subjected to shearing stress absorbs the end force. For pressures above 6205

kPa (900 Ibf/in^) these designs are generally more economical than bolted

constructions, which require larger flanges and bolting as pressure increases in order to

contain the end force with bolts in tension. Relatively light-gauge internal pass partitions

are provided to direct the flow of tube-side fluids but are designed only for the

differential pressure across the tube bundle.

3.9.2 Tube-side Passes

Most exchangers have an even number of tube-side passes. The fixed-tube-sheet

exchanger (which has no shell cover) usually has a return cover without any flow nozzles; Types

L and N are also used. All removable-bundle designs (except for the U tube) have a floating-

head cover directing the flow of tube-side fluid at the floating tube sheet.

21
3.9.3 Tubes Type

There are different type of tubes used in heat exchanges. These are

1. Plain tube

a. Straight tube

b. U-tube with a U-bend

c. Coiled tubes

2. Finned tube

3. Duplex or bimetallic tube. These tube are in reality two tube of different materials, one

closely fitted over the other with no gap between them. They are made by drawing the

outer tube onto the inner one or by shrink fitting. These are used where corrosive

nature of the tube side fluid Is such that no one metal or alloy is compatible with fluids.

4. Enhanced surface tube

1. Plain tube

standard heat-exchanger tubing is (1/4, 3/8,1/2, 5/8, 3 / 4 , 1 , 1 1 / 4 , 1 1 / 2 inch in outside

diameter (1 inch= 25.4 mm). Wall thickness is measured in Birmingham wire gauge (BWG) units.

The most commonly used tubes in chemical plants and petroleum refineries are 19- and 25-mm

(3/4- and 1-in) outside diameter. Standard tube lengths are 8, 10, 12, 16, and 20 ft, with 20 ft

now the most common (1 ft= 0.3048 m).

Manufacturing tolerances for steel, stainless-steel, and nickel alloy tubes are such that

the tubing is produced to either average or minimum wall thickness. Seamless carbon steel

tube of minimum wall thickness may vary from 0 to 20 percent above the nominal wall

thickness. Average-wall seamless tubing has an allowable variation of plus or minus 10 percent.

Welded carbon steel tube Is produced to closer tolerances (0 to plus 18 percent on minimum

wall; plus or minus 9 percent on average wall). Tubing of aluminum, copper, and their alloys can

be drawn easily and usually is made to minimum wall specifications.

Common practice Is to specify exchanger surface in terms of total external square feet

of tubing. The effective outside heat-transfer surface is based on the length of tubes measured

22
between the inner faces of tube sheets. In most heat exchangers there is little difference

between the total and the effective surface. Significant differences are usually found in high-

pressure and double-tube-sheet designs.

Tube thickness The tube should be able to stand:

(a) pressure on the inside and out side of the tube

(b) temperature on both the sides

(c) thermal stress due to the differential expansion of the shell and the tube bundle

(d) corrosive nature of both the shell-side and the tube side fluid

The tube thickness is given a function of the tube out side diameter in accordance with

B.W.G.

2. Finned tube

As the name implies, finned tube have fins to the tubular surface. Fins can be

longitudinal, radial or helical and may be on the outside or inside or on both sides of the tube.

The fins are generally used when at least one of the fluid is gas.

23
 (c)

I !

^^u^y
(0

Gas

Airflow

(h) Gas Flow

(i)

Figure 3.06: Examples of extended surfaces on one or both sides, (a) Radial fins, (b) Serrated
radial fins, (c) Studded surface, (d) Joint between tube sheet and low fin tube with three times
bare surface, (e) External axial fins. ( f) Internal axial fins. (9) Finned surface with internal spiral
to promote turbulence, (h) Plate fins on both sides, (i) Tubes and plate fins.

(a) Integrally finned tube, which is available in a variety of alloys and sizes, is being used in

shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The fins are radially extruded from thick-walled tube to

a height of 1.6 mm (1/16 in) spaced at 1.33 mm (19 fins per inch) or to a height of 3.2

mm (1/8 in) spaced at 2.3 mm (11 fins per inch). External surface is approximately 2 1/2

times the outside surface of a bare tube with the same outside diameter. Also available

24
 are 0.93-mm- (0.037- in-) high fins spaced 0.91 mm (28 fins per inch) with an external

surface about 3.5 times the surface of the bare tube. Bare ends of nominal tube

diameter are provided, while the fin height is slightly less than this diameter. The tube

can be inserted into a conventional tube bundle and rolled or welded to the tube sheet

by the same means, used for bare tubes. An integrally finned tube rolled into a tube

sheet with double serrations and flared at the inlet is shown in Fig. . Internally

finned tubes have been manufactured but have limited application.

(b) Longitudinal fins are commonly used in double-pipe exchangers upon the outside of the

inner tube. U-tube and conventional removable tube bundles are also made from such

tubing. The ratio of external to internal surface generally is about 10 or 15:1.

(c) Transverse fins upon tubes are used in low-pressure gas services. The primary

application is in air-cooled heat exchangers (as discussed under that heading), but shell-

and-tube exchangers with these tubes are in service.

3. Bimetallic Tubes

When corrosive requirements or temperature conditions do not permit the use of a

single alloy for the tubes, bimetallic (or duplex) tubes may be used. These can be made from

almost any possible combination of metals. Tube sizes and gauges can be varied. For thin

gauges the wall thickness is generally divided equally between the two components. In heavier

gauges the more expensive component may comprise from a fifth to a third of the total

thickness.

The component materials comply with applicable ASTM specifications, but after

manufacture the outer component may increase in hardness beyond specification limits, and

special care is required during the tube-rolling operation. When the harder material is on the

outside, precautions must be exercised to expand the tube properly. When the inner material is

considerably softer, rolling may not be practical unless ferrules of the soft material are used.

25
 In order to eliminate galvanic action the outer tube material may be stripped from the

tube ends and replaced with ferrules of the inner tube material. When the end of a tube with a

ferrule is expanded or welded to a tube sheet, the tube-side fluid can contact only the inner

tube material, while the outer material is exposed to the shell-side fluid. Bimetallic tubes are

available from a small number of tube mills and are manufactured only on special order and in

large quantities.

4. Enhance Surface

These kind of tubes enhance the heat transfer coefficient. This may be achieved by two

techniques.

(a) The surface is contoured or grooved in a variety of ways forming valley and ridges.

These are applicable in condenser and.

(b) The surface is prepared with special coating to provide a large number of nucleation

sites for use in boiling operations.

3.9.4 Tube arrangement

The tubes in an exchanger are usually arranged in an equilateral triangular, aquare or

rotated square pattern see fig. .

The triangular and rotated square pattern give higher heat transfer rates, but at the

expenses of higher pressure drop than the square pattern. Square or rotated square are used

for hihger fouling fluid, where it is necessary to mechanically clean the outside of the tubes. The

recommend tube pitch is Pt = 1.25do. Where square pattern is used for easer of cleaning, the

recommended minimum clearance between the tubes is 0.25 in (6.4 mm).

26
 Flow
••

Square pitch Rotaed square

Figure 3.07 : Tube patterns

3.9.5 Tube Side passes

The fluid in the tube is usually directed to flow back and forth in a number of passes

through groups of tube arranged in parallel to increase the length of the flow path. The number

of passes is selected to give the required side design velocity. Exchangers are built form one to

up to 16 passes. The tube are arranged into the number of passes required by dividing up the

exchanger headers (channels) with partition plates (pass partition) The arrangement of the pass

partition for 2,4 and 6 are shown in fig. .

27
 Two tube passes

Four tube passes

Six tube passes

Figure 1.08 : Tube arrangement: showing pass-partitions in headers.

3.10. Shell Side Construction

S.lO.lShelJ Sizes

Heat-exchanger shells are generally made from standard- wall steel pipe in sizes up to

305-mm (12-in) diameter; from 9.5-mm (3/8 in) wall pipe in sizes from 356 to 610 mm (14 to 24

in); and from steel plate rolled at discrete intervals in larger sizes. Clearances between the

outer tube limit and the shell are discussed elsewhere in connection with the different types of

construction.

3.10.2Shell-Side Arrangements

1) The one-pass shell is the most commonly used arrangement. Condensers from single

component vapors often have the nozzles moved to the center of the shell for vacuum

28
 and steam services. Solid longitudinal baffle is provided to form a two-pass shell. It may

be insulated to improve thermal efficiency. {See further discussion on baffles).

2) A two-pass shell can improve thermal effectiveness at a cost lower than for two shells in

series.

3) For split flow the longitudinal baffle may be solid or perforated. The latter feature is

used with condensing vapors.

4) double-split-flow design is the longitudinal baffles may be solid or perforated.

5) The divided flow design mechanically is like the one-pass shell except for the addition of

a nozzle. Divided flow is used to meet low-pressure-drop requirements. The kettle

reboiler when nucleate boiling is to be done on the shell-side, this common design

provides adequate dome space for separation of vapor and liquid above the tube bundle

and surge capacity beyond the weir near the shell cover.

3.11 Baffles and Tube Bundles

S.ll.lThe tube bundle

Tube bundle is the most important part of a tubular heat exchanger. The tubes generally

constitute the most expensive component of the exchanger and are the one most likely to

corrode. Tube sheets, baffles, or support plates, tie rods, and usually spacers complete the

bundle.

3.11.2Baffle

Baffles are used to direct the side and tube side flows so that the fluid velocity is

increased to obtain higher heat transfer rate and reduce fouling deposits. In horizontal units

baffle are used to provide support against sagging and vibration damage. There are different

types of baffles:

1. segmental

2. disc and doughnut

29
 3. orifice

4. rod type

5. nest type

6. longitudinal

7. impingment

1. Segmental Baffles

Segmental Baffles Segmental or cross-flow baffles are standard. Single, double, and

triple segmental baffles are used. Baffle cuts are illustrated in Fig. . The double segmental

baffle reduces crossflow velocity for a given baffle spacing. The triple segmental baffle redilces

both cross-flow and long-flow velocities and has been identified as the window-cut baffle.

30
 000
— .,<-^»>. - C)000000^
-r^ • • " V OOOOOOO OOOOOOO
/ooooooooo\ /ooooooooo\
oooocoooo O O O O O O O O O
: \oococooooi \ooooooooo/
—V- - r f — ooooooc OOOOOOO
vOOOCOOOy
1
.oc n
X)0(y
„_^
- 7 ^ -^- , OOOOOOO , )00000(
> /oocoooooo\ OOOOOOO
ooooooooo
-^=^ =-=
vooooooooo/ OOOOOOO
1 - V- OOOOOOO
—^«_^ )00000(
1 J30Q.

- • "• ^ 1
—f—-"^— )0(
> )000(
=-- (OOOOO)
X"" )000(
)0(

ooo
<}000000^
ooooooo
V^ /000000000\
ooooooooo
^~^ looooooooo/
OOOOOOO
sPOOOOOO
X)OQ.

Figure 3.09 : Types of baffle used in shell and tube heat exchanger, (a) Segmental, (b)

Segmental and strip, (c) Disc and doughnut, (d) Oriffice.

Minimum baffle spacing is generally one-fifth of the shell diameter and not less than

50.8 mm (2 in). Maximum baffle spacing is limited by the requirement to provide adequate

support for the tubes. The maximum unsupported tube span in inches equals 74c/°^^ (where d

is the outside tube diameter in inches). The unsupported tube span is reduced by about 12

percent for aluminum, copper, and their alloys.

31
 Baffles are provided for heat-transfer purposes. When shell-side baffles are not required

for heat-transfer purposes, as may be the case in condensers or reboilers, tube supports are

installed.

Maximum baffle cut is limited to about 45 percent for single segmental baffles so that

every pair of baffles will support each tube. Tube bundles are generally provided with baffles

cut so that at least one row of tubes passes through all the baffles or support plates. These

tubes hold the entire bundle together. In pipe-shell exchangers with a horizontal baffle cut and

a horizontal pass rib for directing tube side flow in the channel, the maximum baffle cut, which

permits a minimum of one row of tubes to pass through all baffles, is approximately 33 percent

in small shells and 40 percent in larger pipe shells.

Maximum shell-side heat-transfer rates in forced convection are apparently obtained by

cross-flow of the fluid at right angles to the tubes. In order to maximize this type of flow some

heat exchangers are built with segmental-cut baffles and with no tubes in the window (or the

baffle cutout). Maximum baffle spacing may thus equal maximum unsupported-tube span,

while conventional baffle spacing is limited to one-half of this span.

The maximum baffle spacing for no tubes in the window of single segmental baffles is

unlimited when intermediate supports are provided. These are cut on both sides of the baffle

and therefore do not affect the flow of the shell-side fluid. Each support engages all the tubes;

the supports are spaced to provide adequate support for the

tubes.

2. Rod Baffles

Rod or bar baffles have either rods or bars extending through the lanes between rows of

tubes. A baffle set can consist of a baffle with

rods in all the vertical lahes and another baffle with rods in all the horizontal lanes between the

tubes. The shell-side flow is uniform and parallel to the tubes. Stagnant areas do not exist.

32
 One device uses four baffles in a baffle set. Only half of either the vertical or the

horizontal tube lanes in a baffle have rods. The new design apparently provides a maximum

shell-side heat-transfer coefficient for a given pressure drop.

Figure 3.10: Rod baffles

3. Impingement Baffle

The tube bundle is customarily protected against impingement by the incoming fluid at

the shell inlet nozzle when the shell-side fluid is at a high velocity, is condensing, or Is a two

phase fluid. Minimum entrance area about the nozzle is generally equal to the inlet nozzle area.

Exit nozzles also require adequate area between the tubes and the nozzles. A full bundle

without any provision for shell inlet nozzle area can increase the velocity of the inlet fluid by as

much as 300 percent with a consequent loss in pressure.

Impingement baffles are generally made of rectangular plate, although circular plates

are more desirable. Rods and other devices are sometimes used to protect the tubes from

impingement. In order to maintain a maximum tube count the impingement plate is often

placed in a conical nozzle opening or in a dome cap above the shell.

impingement baffles or flow-distribution devices are recommended for axial tube- side

nozzles when entrance velocity is high.

33
 (a)

'L

Figures.11 Impingement baffless; (a) Flat plate (b) curved plate (c) expanded or flared nozzle (d)

jacket type.

4. Longitudinal Flow Baffles

In fixed-tube-sheet construction with multipass shells, the baffle is usually welded to the shell

and positive assurance against bypassing results. Removable tube bundles have a sealing device

between the shell and the longitudinal baffle. Flexible light-gauge sealing strips and various packing

devices have been used. Removable U-tube bundles with four tube-side passes and two shell-side

passes can be installed in shells with the longitudinal baffle welded in place.

In split-flow shells the longitudinal baffle may be installed without a positive seal at the edges if

design conditions are not seriously affected by a limited amount of bypassing.

Fouling in petroleum-refinery service has necessitated rough treatment of tube bundles during

cleaning operations. Many refineries avoid the use of longitudinal baffles, since the sealing devices are

subject to damage during cleaning and maintenance operations.

3.11.3Vapor Distribution

Relatively large shell inlet nozzles, which may be used in condensers under low pressure

or vacuum, require provision for uniform vapor distribution.

34
3.11.4Tube-Bundle Bypassing

Shell-side heat-transfer rates are maximized when bypassing of the tube bundle is at a

minimum. The most significant bypass stream is generally between the outer tube limit and the

inside of the shell. The clearance between tubes and shell is at a minimum for fixed-tube-sheet

construction and is greatest for straight-tube removable bundles. Arrangements to reduce

tube-bundle bypassing include:

1) Dummy tubes. These tubes do not pass through the tube sheets and can be located

close to the inside of the shell.

2) Tie rods with spacers. These hold the baffles in place but can be located to prevent

bypassing.

3) Sealing strips. These longitudinal strips either extend from baffle to baffle or may be

inserted in slots cut into the baffles.

4) Dummy tubes or tie rods with spacers may be located within the pass partition lanes

(and between the baffle cuts) in order to ensure maximum bundle penetration by the

shell-side fluid.

When tubes are omitted from the tube layout to provide entrance area about an

impingement plate, the need for sealing strips or other devices to cause proper bundle

penetration by the shell-side fluid is increased.

3.11.5Tie Rods and Spacers

Tie rods are used to hold the baffles in place with spacers, which are pieces of tubing or

pipe placed on the rods to locate the baffles. Occasionally baffles are welded to the tie rods,

and spacers are eliminated. Properly located tie rods and spacers serve both to hold the bundle

together and to reduce bypassing of the tubes.

In very large fixed-tube-sheet units, in which concentricity of shells decreases, baffles

are occasionally welded to the shell to eliminate bypassing between the baffle and the shell.

35
 Metal baffles are standard. Occasionally plastic baffles are used either to reduce

corrosion or in vibratory service, in which metal baffles may cut the tubes.

baffle

rE

Rods

Spacer
A
Tube plate

Figure _3.12 : Baffle spacers and tie rods.

3.11.6Tubesheets

Tubesheets are usually made from a round flat piece of metal with holes drilled for the

tube ends in a precise location and pattern relative to one another. Tube sheet materials range

as tube materials. Tubes are attached to the tube sheet by pneumatic or hydraulic pressure or

by roller expansion. Tube holes can be drilled and reamed and can be machined with one or

more grooves. This greatly increases the strength of the tube joint.

0.4mm ^
Tlibs Sheet
^=5^
I ^

Tube.
T
3 mm

Tube Sheet
grooves
tr
s
Figure _3.13 : Tube Sheet Joint

The tubesheet is in contact with both fluids and so must have corrosion resistance

allowances and have metalurgical and electrochemical properties appropriate for the fluids and

36
velocities. Low carbon steel tube sheets can include a layer of a higher alloy metal bonded to

the surface to provide more effective corrosion resistance without the expense of using the

solid alloy. The tube hole pattern or pitch varies the distance from one tube to the other and

angle of the tubes relative to each other and to the direction of flow. This allows the

manipulation of fluid velocities and pressure drop, and provides the maximum amount of

turbulance and tube surface contact for effective heat transfer. Where the tube and tube sheet

materials are joinable, weldable metals, the tube joint can be further strengthened by applying

a seal weld or strength weld to the joint. A strength weld has a tube slightly reccessed inside

the tube hole or slightly extended beyond the tube sheet. The weld adds metal to the resulting

lip. A seal weld is specified to help prevent the shell and tube liquids from intermixing. In this

treatment, the tube is flush with the tube sheet surface. The weld does not add metal, but

rather fuses the two materials. In cases where it is critical to avoid fluid intermixing, a double

tube sheet can be provided. In this design, the outer tube sheet is outside the shell circuit,

virtually eliminating the chance of fluid intermixing. The inner tube sheet is vented to

atmosphere so any fluid leak is easily detected.

Mechanisms of attaching tubes to tube sheet

• Rolled Tube Joints Expanded tube-to-tube-sheet joints are standard. Properly rolled

joints have uniform tightness to minimize tube fractures, stress corrosion, tube-sheet

ligament pushover and enlargement, and dishing of the tube sheet. Tubes are expanded

into the tube sheet for a length of two tube diameters, or 50 mm (2 in), or tube-sheet

thickness minus 3 mm (1/8 in). Generally tubes are rolled for the last of these

alternatives. The expanded portion should never extend beyond the shell-side face of

the tube sheet, since removing such a tube is extremely difficult. Methods and tools for

tube removal and tube rolling were discussed by John, 1959.

Tube ends may be projecting, flush, flared, or beaded (listed in order of usage). The flare

or bell-mouth tube end is usually restricted to water service in condensers and serves to

reduce erosion near the tube inlet.

37
For moderate general process requirements at gauge pressures less than 2058 kPa (300

Ibf/in^) and less than IITC (350°F), tube-sheet holes without grooves are standard. For

all other services with expanded tubes at least two grooves in each tube hole are

common. The number of grooves is sometimes changed to one or three in proportion to

tube-sheet thickness.

Expanding the tube into the grooved tube holes provides a stronger joint but results in

greater difficulties during tube removal

Welded Tube Joints When suitable materials of construction are used, the tube ends

may be welded to the tube sheets. Welded joints may be seal-welded for additional

tightness beyond that of tube rolling or may be strength-welded. Strength- welded

joints have been found satisfactory in very severe services. Welded joints may or may

not be rolled before or after welding

Tube-end rolling before welding may leave lubricant from the tube expander in the tube

hole. Fouling during normal operation followed by maintenance operations will leave

various impurities in and near the tube ends. Satisfactory welds are rarely possible

under such conditions, since tube-end welding requires extreme cleanliness in the area

to be welded.

Tube expansion after welding has been found useful for low and moderate pressures.

In high-pressure service tube rolling has not been able to prevent leakage after weld

failure.

Double-Tube-Sheet Joints This design prevents the passage of either fluid into the other

because of leakage at the tube-to-tubesheet joints, which are generally the weakest

points in heat exchangers. Any leakage at these joints admits the fluid to the gap

between the tube sheets. Mechanical design, fabrication, and maintenance of double-

tube-sheet designs require special consideration .

38
 CHAPTER-4

GENERAL CALCULATION FOR HEAT EXCHANGER

4.1 THICKNESS OF SHELL

T: = Ps R yE-O : Ps (4.01)

(see APPENDIX-A for all equations)

4.2 THICKNESS OF DISH END

Id - Pi Dd : i E-0.: Ps ....(4.02)

4.3 THICKNESS OF DISH END

[ o = T i l l - d o ^ RJ (4.03)

4.4 THICKNESS OF U-TUBE BEND

7 = [,: .^1 . D\ l-dc r:tcn![P;Sl- (4.04)

39
4.5 EFFECTIVE DESIGN PRESSURE - BENDING

The effective design pressure to be used with the formula shown is given by :

\25{D'-Dl){D-D^)
P^P,+P. (4.05)

4.6 EFFECTIVE DESIGN PRESSURE - SHEAR

The effective design pressure to be used with the formula is given by:

c_
? = ?.+? .(4.06)

4.7CONNECTED DOUBLE TUBESHEETS

The tubesheets are connected in a manner which distributes axial load between tubesheets

by means of an interconnecting cylinder. The effect of the differential radial growth between

tubesheets is a major factor in tube stresses and spacing between tubesheets. It is assumed the

interconnecting cylinder and tubes are rigid enough to mutually transfer all mechanical and

thermal axial loads between the tubesheets.

4.8 MINIMUM SPACING BETWEEN TUBESHEETS

The minimum spacing (g), inches (mm), between tubesheets required to avoid overstress

of tubes resulting from differential thermal growth of individual tubesheets is given by:

40
 IdnArEj
?= -2 ^ (4.07)
• / •

4.9 SEPARATE DOUBLE TUBESHEETS

The tubesheets are connected only by the interconnecting tubes. The effect of differential

radial growth between tubesheets is a major factor in tube stresses and spacing between

tubesheets. It is assumed that no loads are transferred between the tubesheet.

4.10 EQUIVALENT BOLTING PRESSURE

When fixed tubesheets are extended for bolting to heads with ring type gaskets, the

extension and that portion of the tubesheets inside the shell may differ in thickness. The

extension shall be designed in accordance. The effect of the moment acting upon the tubesheet

extension shall be accounted for in subsequent paragraphs in terms of equivalent tube side and

shell side bolting pressures which are defined as:

"^~F^ -(4-08)

D 6.2 M,

41
4.11 SHELL AND TUBE LONGITUDINAL STRESSES - FIXED

TUBESHEET EXCHANGERS

Shell and tube longitudinal stresses, which depend upon the equivalent and effective

pressures determined, shall be calculated for fixed tubesheet exchangers with or without shell

expansion joints.

4.12 SHELL LONGITUDINAL STRESS

The effective longitudinal shell stress is given by:

S^^CJAZLK (4.10)

4.13 TUBE HOLE GROOVING

Tube holes for expanded joints for tubes 5/8' (15.9mm) OD and larger shall be machined

with at least two grooves, for additional longitudinal load resistance, each approximately 1/8

(.2mm) wide by 1/64 (0.4mm) deep. When integrally clad or applied tubesheets facings are used,

all grooves should be in the base material. Strength welded tubes do not require grooves.

Tubesheets with thicknesses less than 1" (25.4mm) may be provided with one groove. When

utilizing hydraulic expansion, grooves shall be 1/4" (6.4mm) wide.

4.14 TUBE HOLE GROOVING

For design pressures over 300 psi (2068 kPa) and/or temperatures in excess of 350°F

(1770 C), the, tube holes for expanded loints for tubes 5/8" (15.9 mm) OD and larger shall be

machined with at least two grooves, for additional longitudinal load resistance, each

42
approximately 1/8" (3mm) wide by 1/64" (0.4 mm) deep. When integrally clad or applied

tubesheet facings are used, all grooves should be in the base material. Strength welded tubes do

not require grooves. Tubesheets with thicknesses less than 1" (25.4mm) may be provided

with one groove. When utilizing hydraulic expansion, grooves shall be 1/4"

(6.4mm) wide.

4.15 LENGTH OF EXPANSION

Tubes shall be expanded into the tubesheet for a length no less than 2' (50.8 mm) or the

tubesheet thickness minus 1/8' (3.2 mm), whichever is smaller. In no case shall the expanded

portion extend beyond the shell side face of the tubesheet. When specified by the purchaser,

tubes may be expanded for the full thickness of the tubesheet.

4.16 LENGTH OF EXPANSION

Tubes shall be expanded into the tubesheet for a length no less than two tube diameters,

2" (50.8 mm),, or the tubesheet thickness minus 1/8" (3.2 mm), whichever is smaller. In no case

shall the expanded portion extend beyond the shell side face of the tubesheet. When specified by

the purchaser, tubes may be expanded for the full thickness of the tubesheet.

4.17CONTOUR OF THE EXPANDED TUBE

The expanding procedure shall be such as to provide substantially uniform expansion

throughout the expanded portion of the tube, without a sharp transition to the unexpanded

portion.

43
4.18 TUBE PROJECTION

Tubes shall be flush with or extend by no more than one half of a tube diameter beyond

the face of each tubesheet, except that tubes shall be flush with the top tubesheet in vertical

exchangers to facilitate drainage .

4.19 SEAL WELDED JOINTS

When welded tube joints are used for additional leak tightness only, and tube loads are

carried by the expanded joint, he tube joints shall be subject to the rules.

4.20 STRENGTH WELDED JOINTS

When welded tube joints are used to carry the longitudinal tube loads, consideration may

be given to modification of the requirements.

4.21 EXPLOSIVE BONDED TUBE-TO-TUBESHEET JOINTS

Explosive bonding and/or explosive expanding may be used to attach tubes to the

tubesheets where appropriate. Consideration should be given to modifying the relevant

parameters (e.g. tube-to-tubesheet hole clearances and ligament widths) to obtain an effective

joint.

4.22 TUBESHEETPASSPARTITION GROOVES

Tubesheets shall be provided with approximately 3/16 (4.8 mm) deep grooves for pass

partition gaskets.

44
4.23 TUBESHEET PASS PARTITION GROOVES

For design pressures over 300 psi (2068 kPa), tubesheets shall be provided with pass partition

grooves approximately 3/16 (4.8 mm) deep, or other suitable means for retaining the gaskets in

place.

4.24 CLAD AND FACED TUBESHEETS

The nominal cladding thickness at the tube side face of a tubesheet shall not be less than 5/16

(7.8 mm) when tubes are expanded only, and 1/8 (3.2 mm) when tubes are welded to the

tubesheet. The nominal cladding thickness on the shell side face shall not be less than 3/8 (9.5

mm). Clad surfaces, other than in the area into which tubes are expanded, shall have at least 1/8

(3.2 mm) nominal thickness of cladding.

4.25 CLAD AND FACED TUBESHEETS

The nominal cladding thickness at the tube side face of a tubesheet shall not be less than 3/16"

(4.8 mm) when tubes are expanded only, and 1/8" (3.2 mm) when tubes are welded to the

tubesheet. The nominal cladding thickness on .the shell side face shall not be less than 3/8' (9.5

/mm). Clad surfaces, other than in the area into which tubes are expanded, shall have at least 1/8"

(3.2 mm) nominal thickness of cladding.

4.26 PASS PARTITION WELD SIZE

The pass partition plate shall be attached with fillet welds on each side with a minimum leg of

3/41. Other types of attachments are allowed but shall be of equivalent strength.

45
4.27SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS

Special consideration must be given to reinforcement or thickness requirements for internal

partitions subjected to pulsating fluids, extreme differential pressures and/or temperatures, undue

restraints or detrimental deflections under specified operating conditions or unusual start-up or

maintenance conditions specified by the purchaser.

Consideration may also be given to special design configurations and/or methods of analysis

which may justify reduction of pass partition plate thickness requirements. Also, consideration

should be given to potential bypass of tubeside fluid where the pass partition might pull away

from the gasket due to deflection.

4.28 POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT

Fabricated channels and bonnets shall be postweld heat treated when required by the Code.

2.29CHANNEL COVER PASS PARTITION GROOVES

Channel covers shall be provided with approximately 3/16" (4.8 mm) deep grooves for pass

partitions. In clad or applied facings, all surfaces exposed to the fluid, including gasket seating

surfaces, shall have at least 1/8" (3.2 mm) nominal thickness of cladding.

4.30 CHANNEL COVER PASS PARTITION GROOVES

For design pressures over 300 psi (2068 kPa), channel covers shall be provided with

approximately 3/16" (4.8 mm) deep grooves for pass partitions, or other suitable means for

holding the gasket in place. In clad or applied facings, all surfaces exposed to fluid, including

gasket seating surfaces, shall have at least 1/8 (3.2mm) nominal thickness of cladding.

46
4.31 NOZZLES

4.31.1 NOZZLE CONSTRUCTION

Nozzle construction shall be in accordance with Code requirements. Shell nozzles shall

not protrude beyond the inside contour of the shell if they interfere with bundle insertion or

removal. Shell or channel nozzles which protrude beyond the inside contour of the main cylinder

wall must be self venting or draining by notching at their intersection with the high or low point

of the cylinder. If separate vent and drain connections are used, they shall be flush with th inside

contour of the shell or channel wall. Bolt holes shall straddle natural center lines.

4.31.2 NOZZLE INSTALLATION

Radial nozzles shall be considered as standard. Other types of nozzles may be used.

4.32 PIPE TAP CONNECTIONS

All pipe tap connections shall be a minimum of 3000 psi standard couplings or equivalent. Each

connection shall be fitted with a bar stock plug of the same material as the connection. Alternate

plug materials may be used when galling is anticipated, except cast iron plugs shall not be used.

4.33 VENT AND DRAIN CONNECTIONS

All high and low points on shell and tube sides of an exchanger not otherwise vented or drained

by nozzles shall be provided with 3/4 minimum NPS connections for vent and drain.

47
4.34 PRESSURE GAGE CONNECTIONS

All flanged nozzles 2" NPS or larger shall be provided with one connection of 3/4" minimum

NPS for a pressure gage unless special considerations allow it to be omitted.

4.35 PRESSURE GAGE CONNECTIONS

All flanged nozzles 2" NPS or larger shall be provided with one connection of 1 /2" minimum

NPS for a pressure gage unless special considerations allow it to be omitted.

4.36 SPLIT FLANGE DESIGN

Circumstances of fabrication, installation, or maintenance may preclude the use of the normal

integral or loose full ring nozzle flanges. Under these conditions, double split ring flanges may

be used in accordance with the Code.

4.37 NOZZLES LOADINGS

Heat exchangers are not intended to serve as anchor points for piping; therefore, for purposes bf

design, nozzle loads are assumed to be negligible, unless the purchaser specifically details such

loads in his inquiry as indicated. The analysis and any modifications in the design or construction

of the exchanger to cope with these loads shall be to the purchaser's account.

4.38END FLANGES AND BOLTING

Flanges and bolting for external joints shall be in accordance with Code design rules, subject to

the limitations set forth in the following paragraphs.

48
4.39 MINIMUM BOLTSIZE

The minimum permissible bolt diameter is 3/4" (M20). Sizes 1' and smaller shall be Coarse

Thread Series, and larger sizes shall be 8-Pitch Thread Series.

4.40 MINIMUM BOLT SIZE

The minimum recommended bolt diameter is 1/2 (M14). If bolting smaller than 1/2' (M14) is

used, precautions shall be taken to avoid overstressing the bolting.

4.41 MINIMUM BOLT SIZE

The minimum permissible bolt diameter shall be 5/8'

4.42 BOLT ORIENTATION

Bolts shall be evenly spaced and normally shall straddle both natural centerlines of the

exchanger. For horizontal imits, the natural centerlines shall be considered to be the horizontal

and vertical centerlines of the exchanger. In special cases, the bolt count may be changed from a

multiple of four.

49
 CHEPTER-5
Result and Discussion

Input data

1. Design Pr. shell side = 39.156 bar

2. Design Pr. Tube side = 82 bar

3. Design Temp, shell side =205 6

4. Design Temp, tube side - 240 c

5. No. of pass per shell

6. No. of tubes 607

7. Length of tube 7000 mm

8. Corrosion allowance = 3 mm

9. Internal dia. 700 mm

10. Material = Carbon steel

11. Type = U-tubebend

50
 12. Max. allowable stress = 138 Mpa

13. Weld joint efficiency =1

14. Dish end dia. =684 mm

15. Tube arrangement = 30c triangular

Out put Data

• Minimum Thickness of shell

Ts = Ps-R ST-C 6'PJ

R -Id/2

R = 700/2

=^350 mm
51
Ps =39.15 bar

= 39.15*100000 pa

= 39.15* 100000/1000000 Mpa

= 3.915 Mpa

Ts = 5,915'35G i J3*l-0.6-3.915

Ts •= ICC 5 r.\m

^ req ^s ' CA

= 10.05+3

= 13.05 mm

M i n i m u m T h i c k n e s s of Dish end

fd ^ p5-Dd. :-s-£-c.:*ps

52
Dds= Dd +2* C.A

= 684+ 2*3

- 684+ 6

- 690mm

Td = 3 9iE'o-;C :-138'i-C.2*3.9i5

I't* = 8.24 mm

T,eq=Td+C.A

= 8.24+3

= 11.24 mm

Minimum Thickness of U-tube bend

53
 To - n i l - rio -t'Rl

' i =1.651 mm

do = 15.875 mm

R== 7.2 mm

To = i 6 5 i : i - IS c-••5 4-7 2}

To=2.561 mm

• Minimum Thickness of fixed tube sheet

- = ; r < :3
- -l?«i -D
n\.:-dc pitch_P/Sl'

D,=4A/C

=4*490000/2800

=700 mm

f^o = 15.875 mm

Pitch=1.25*''«

= 1.25*15.875

= 19.84 mm

54
 [0.031*700' i-i5.3''5 19-84X3.915 138]'

T = 3.02 mm

Effective design pressure -shear

P = Pr-?s[D2Dc2 Del]

— .:>\. '..it

i 0
30
i.:'OC :o

, N

Ps = 39,15 oar

=39.15*100000/1000000

= 3.915^^:T^

55
 P = 8 - 3 . 9 1 5 7 0 C : - 6 9 C : 6902]

=8.1157;TT7^

P =81.15bar

• Effective design pressure -bending

? = P t - Ps;i,:5;D2-Dc2 . D-Dc; 'D'CZ)

G= 1.4*d

= 1.4*10

= 14 mm

P = 8 - 3 9 1 S ' 1 :5;70C:-69C2H7C0-69C)/700"142]

P=12.95n:ni2

P =129.5 bar

56
Shell longitudinal stress

Ss = Cs(dsts r P s 4-ts

Cs = 1

ds = I. d - ts

= 700+13.05

= 713.05 mm

Ps = 3 Mpa

Si = 1. "lJ.Cf-U.C5 -3 4'13.05

Ss= i 0 7 . : ^ M pa

Minimum spacing between connected tube sheet

g = Vac •^r • ET C.:7-YT

A - a l i s Hi IT

= 0.5134*240-.0302*204

= 117.055

57
 £ 1 = i S 3 Mpa

VT = iOO Mpa

g = V 1 5 . 8 7 5 • 1 1 7 0 5 5 • 188 0.27100

= 113.7 mm

Minimum Thickness of shell 13.05 mm

Minimum Thickness of Dish end 11.24 mm

Minimum Thickness of U -tube bend 2.561 mm

Minimum Thickness of fixed tube sheet 3.02 mm

81.15 bar
Effective design pressure -shear

129.5 bar
Effective design pressure -bending

107.27 .Mpa
Shell longitudinal stress

58
 Miminum spacing between connected 113.7 mm
tube sheet

Discussion on Result -:
Minimum Thickness of shell-: At design shell pr. thickness of shell is determined 10.05 but the
required thickness can be calculated by adding corrosion allowances and the thickness is
13.05mm.

Minimum Thickness of dish end-: At design shell pr. thickness of Dish end is determined 8.24
mm the required thickness can be calculated by adding corrosion allowance and the thickness is
11.24mm.

Minimum Thickness of U -tube bend-: thickness of U-tube bend can be calculated at the given
thickness of tube

Minimum Thickness of fixed tube sheet-: thickness of fixed tube sheet can be calculated at
shell pr and allowable stress. This may be 3.02 mm

Effective design pr. Bending-: bending pr calculated at design shell and tube pr this may be
129.5 bar

59
Effective design pressure -shear-: this pr. Also calculated at design shell and tube pr this may
be 81.15 bar

Shell longitudinal stress-: shell longitudinal stress can be calculated at shell thickness and shell
dia.this may be 107.27 Mpa

Miminum spacing between connected tube sheet-: minimum spacing between tube sheet can
be calculated at elasticity and young modules of elasticity this may be 113.7 mm

60
 CHEPTER-6
CONCLUSION

In Designing of shell and tube heat exchanger following conclusion has been made on given
resuh

Minimum thickness of shell at given design pr. Shell not be lower than 10.05mm if this
limit is exceed design of shell and tube fail.

Minimum thickness of dish end at given design pr. Shell not be lower than 8.24 mm if
this limit exceed design not suitable

• Minimum thickness of U-tube bend at given thickness of tube is not lower than 2.561 mm
if this limit is exceed its give the failure of u-bend thickness

• Minimum thickness of fixed tube sheet at given design pr. And allowable stress is
3.02mm if this limit is exceed the thickness its gives the failure of tube sheet

Effective design pressure -shear at given design pr not exceed the calculated value if this
value exceed its effect of the shell material.

• Effective design pressure - bending at given design pr not exceed the 129.5 mpa if this
value is exceed bending of tube shall be fail.

• Shell longitudinal stress at given design pr not exceed the 107.27Mpa if this value is
exceed its effect the shell material and gives the failure of it.

61
 • Minimum spacing between connected tube sheet is 117 mm if this limit exceed its give
the failure of tube sheet.
This is the conclusion regarding the shell and tube heat exchanger result and its give the better
result in designing of heat exchanger.

62
 CHEPTER-7
FUTURE SCOPE

On the basis of this result the future scope of shell and tube heat exchanger is in conveying line

because its gives the better heat transfer rate and can also be used in the pharmacy line to work in

highest hygienic conditions. This also work on crystalline and raying .

63
 CHEPTER-8
REFERENCES

1. Andre L.H. Costaa,, Eduardo M. Queirozb Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume 28,
Issues 14-15, October 2008, Pages 1798-1805

2 F. Vera-Garciaa R. Cabelloc Thermal and Fluid Engineering Department, Universidad

Politecnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Murcia, Spain

3 H. Shokouhm, M.R. Salimpoura aDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of

Engineering University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

4 Jian-Fei Zhanga , Ya-Ling Hea aState Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power
Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, Xi'an 710049, China

5 S.G. Ravikumaur*, K.N. Seetharamu ***Asst. Professor, Fluid Mechanics Lab., IIT
Madras, India

6 V.K. Patel- and R. V. Rao^ Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat-
395 007, Gujarat, India

7 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels Code, Section VIII, Pressure Vessels, Division 1,
Unfired Pressure Vessels, Parts UG-125 to 136, Pressure Relief Devices.

8 Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association

9 API STD 661, Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service

10 API STD 660, Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service.

64
1 Hesselgreaves, J.E., 2002. An approach to fouling allowances in the design of compact
heatexchangers. Applied Therm. Eng., 22.

12 Holman, J.P., 1997. Heat Transfer. 8th Edn.,McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

13 . Zealsing, P., 2004. Heat exchanger design for good process performance, Chemical
product finder

14 . Robert, H.P. and D.W. Green, 1997. Perry'sChemical Engineering Hand Book, 7th
Edn., McGraw-Hill Company, New York

15 . Rohsenow, W.M., J.P. Hartnett and E.N. Ganic,1985. Hand Book of Heat transfer
Applications,2nd Edn., McGraw-Hill Company, New York.

16 . Donald, Q.K., 2000. Process Heat Transfer, TataMc Graw Hill Edition.

17 . Warren, L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriott,Unit Operations of Chemical

Engineering, 5thEdn., Mc Graw Hill International Edition.

18 . Babu, B.V., 2004. Process Plant Simulation,Oxford University Press.

65
19 . Kothandaraman, C.P. and S. Subramanyan, 2000.Heat and Mass Transfer Data Book,
Tata McGrawHill Edition.

20 . William, L.L., 1990. Process Modeling, SimulationAnd Control for Chemical

Engineers, 2nd Edi.,McGraw Hill International Edition.

21 . Rudra, P., Getting Started with MATLAB(Version6.0,7.0), Oxford University Press.

22 . Aghareed, M.T., M.A. El-Rifai, Y.A. El-Tawil andR.M. Abdel-Monen, 1991. A New
Dynamic Modelfor Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers. Energy

23 R. Selbas_, O. Kizilkan, M. Reppich, A new design approach for shell-and-tube

heat exchangers using genetic algorithms from economic point of view, Chem.
Eng. Process. 45 (2006) 268-275.

24 P.D. Chauduri, U.M. Diwekar, J.S. Logsdon, An automated approach for the
optimal design of heat exchangers, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 36 (9) (1997) 3685-
3693.

25 Y. Oz9elik, Exergetic optimization of shell and tube heat exchangers using a

genetic based algorithm, Appl. Therm. Eng. 27 (2007) 1849-1856.

26 . Ozkol, G. Komurgoz, Determination of the optimum geometry of the heat

exchanger body via a genetic algorithm, Numer. Heat Transfer A 48 (2005)
283-296.

27 R. Hilbert, G. Janiga, R. Baron, D. Thevenin, Multi-objective shape optimization

of a heat exchanger using parallel genetic algorithms. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
49 (2006)2567-2577.

28 G.N. Xie, B. Sunden, Q.W. Wang, Optimization of compact heat exchangers by a

genetic algorithm, Appl. Therm. Eng. 28 (2008) 895-906.

29 A.C. Caputo, P.M. Pelagagge, P. Salini, Heat exchanger design based on

economic optimisation, Appl. Therm. Eng. 28 (2008) 1151-1159.

66
 30 J.M. Ponce-Ortega, M. Sema-Gonzalez, A. Jimenez-Gutierrez, Use of genetic
algorithms for the optimal design of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Appl.
Therm. Eng. 29 (2009) 203-209.

CHEPTAR-9
PROGRAMME

#include<stdio .h>

#include<iostream.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<math.h>

void main()

float tl ,dO,tO,r,alphal ,alpha2,templ ,temp2,rl ,g,y,e;

clrscrO;

cout«"\n\n\n ********** Xo calculte original tube thickness ********** \n\n\n";

cout«"\nenter minmum wall thickness :";

cin»tl;

cout«"\nenter outside tube diameter : ";

cin»dO;

cout«"\nenter mean radius of band :";

67
 cin»r;

t0=tl*(l+d0/(4*r));

cout«"\n original tube thickness is :";

cout«tO;

cout«"\n\n\n********** JQ calculate minimum spacing between tubesheets

cout«"\nenter cofficient ofthermal expansion of tubes at mean metal temp. :";

cin»alphal;

cout«"\nenter cofficient ofthermal expansion of inter connecting element at mean temp,

for tubes :";

cin»alpha2;

cout«"\nenter difference in temp, from ambient conditions to mean metal temp for tubes

cin»templ;

cout«"\nenter difference in temp, from ambient conditions to mean metal temp for inter-
connecting element:";

cin»temp2;

rl=(alpha2*temp2-alphal *templ);

if(rl<0)

rl=-l*rl;

cout«"\nenter tube OD between tubesheets : ";

cin»dO;

cout«"\nenter modulus of elasticity :";

cin»e;

cout«"\nenter yield strength of the tube :";

cin»y;

68
 g=sqrt((d0*rl*e)/(0.27*y));

cout«"\nMinimum spacing between tube sheets is :"

cout«g;

getchO;

APPENDIX -A

Ts =• Pi-R S'K o-Ps This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard RCB 6.11
Td - Ps'Dri rS'E-C :*Ps This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard section RCB 6.13
!o ^ Tl;l - do;4'R] This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard section RCB 6.18
T ~ [0 0 3l*D':n-dc pitch][P,S]" This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard section RCB 7.133
P = Pr-Ps[D2Dc2 Dc2] This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard section RCB 7.1412
P= PT- Psfi.:5;D2-Dr? D-DC. 'D*G2] This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard section RCB 7.1312
Ss = Cs(ds t s r P s 4-ts This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard RCB 7.181
g = V'dc-A- • fT CI'^-VT This equation is taken from design hand book
Tema standard section RCB 7.155

69