Fundamental of Gas Turbine Engine

UNIT-1 Part
SGI,Samalkha
OpenGasͲTurbineCycle

Fuel

Combustion
chamber Turbine

Shaft

Wnet
Compressor

Combustion
Air products

Fig.1: Schematic for an open gas-turbine cycle.

WorkingPrincipal
Fresh air enters the compressor at ambient temperature where its pressure and
temperature are increased.
The high pressure air enters the combustion chamber where the fuel is burned at constant
pressure.
The high temperature (and pressure) gas enters the turbine where it expands to ambient
pressure and produces work.
Features:
x Gas-turbine is used in aircraft propulsion and electric power generation.
x High thermal efficiencies up to 44%.
x Suitable for combined cycles (with steam power plant)
x High power to weight ratio, high reliability, long life
x Fast start up time, about 2 min, compared to 4 hr for steam-propulsion systems
x High back work ratio (ratio of compressor work to the turbine work), up to 50%,
compared to few percent in steam power plants.

BraytonCycle
Brayton cycle is the ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines in which the working fluid
undergoes a closed loop. That is the combustion and exhaust processes are modeled by
constant-pressure heat addition and rejection, respectively.

Brayton Cycle 1
The Brayton ideal cycle is made up of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 isentropic compression (in compressor)

2-3 const. pressure heat-addition (in combustion chamber)

3-4 isentropic expansion (in turbine)

4-1 const. pressure heat rejection (exhaust)

T
3 P
QH QH 3
2
P= Const.
2 Isentropic
4
QL Isentropic
P = Const. 4
1 s 1 QL
v

Fig. 2: T-s and P-v diagrams for ideal Brayton cycle.

Thermal efficiency for the Brayton cycle is:

K th, Brayton
q out T4  T1  T1 T4 / T1  1
1 1 1
qin T3  T2  T2 T3 / T2  1
 k 1 / k  k 1 / k
T2 § P2 · § P3 · T3
¨¨ ¸¸ ¨¨ ¸¸
T1 © P1 ¹ © P4 ¹ T4
thus
1
K th, Brayton 1  k 1 / k
rP
P2 P3
rP
P1 P4
where rP is called the pressure ration and k = cp /cv is the specific heat ratio.

MaximumPressureRatio
Given that the maximum and minimum temperature can be prescribed for the Brayton
cycle, a change in the pressure ratio can result in a change in the work output from the
cycle.

M. Bahrami ENSC 461 (S 11) Brayton Cycle 2

Factors
s affecting
g thrust:
Ga
as turbine engine operates under va
arying con
ndition th
hat affect the
amount of thrus
st the eng
gine prod
duces. The
ese condiitions affe
ect either the
momenttum of air fuel flows through the
t jet nozzzle.
a) Je
et nozzle velocity
During most no h speed operations, the ex
ormal high xhaust no
ozzle
operate
es in a cho his means that the gases
ocked condition. Th g flow
wing out off the
engine have bee
en accelerrated to the
t speed of sound
d and they cannott be
accelera
ated any further. The valu
ue of V2 in the th
hrust form
mula rem
mains
relatively constan
nt, changiing only the
t temp of the ex s changes the
xhaust gas
speed of sound.. Whereve
er the no
ozzle is not chocke
ed, varied
d atmosph
heric
on will cau
conditio use some changes
c in
n jet nozzle
e velocity.

b) Aiirspeed
W
When a tu
urbojet or turbo fan
n engine operating
o at high power
p and
d the
aircraftt in which it is moun
nted is nott moving the
t value of
o V1 in th
hrust energ
gy is
zero an
nd thrust is
s maximum
m.

Fn
n = Wa (V2 – V1) + Wf (V2) + Aj (P2 – Pam)
g g

When
n the airc
craft is moving
m forrward the velocity V1 of the
e air
g the eng
entering gine incre
eases, butt at highe
er power, the exha
aust nozzlle is
chocked
d and the value V2, do not inc
crease prop
portionally
y.
Therrefore, as airspeed increases
s the net thrust
t dec
creases.
 c) Mass
M Airflo
ow
T
The most significantt variable in the th
hrust equation is mass
m air flow.
f

(Wa/g) Many fac

ctors affec
ct the ma
ass airflow
w, the mo
ost importtant being
g air

tempera
ature, pre
essure, bec
cause thes
se factors determin
ne the den
nsity of the
e air
entering
g the engin
ne & ram effect.

A Density
Air y & the efffect of Te
emperatu
ure & Pres
ssure
Air density
d ha
as a profo
ound effec
ct on the
e thrust produced.
p The
volume of the air
a flowin
ng through
h the engine is relatively
r fixed for any
particular rpm by
y the size and geom
metry of the
e inlet duc
ct system. But since
e the
thrust is determ
mined by mass,
m nott the volu
ume of airr, any inc
creases in
n its
density
y increases
s the mass
s and thus
s the thrus
st.
A the tem
As mperature of the air increases
s its densiity decreas
ses. There
efore
the thru
ust produc
ced by the
e engine de
ecreases.

A the air pressure

As p in
ncreases, its density
y increases
s, causing
g thrust
produce
ed by the engine to increase.
d) Altittude effec
ct
Altitude has
h a doub
ble effect on
o thrust. As the alttitude incrreases, the
e air
become
es colder and
a dense
er, up to the
t beginn
ning of strratosphere
e. This cau
uses
the thru
ust to inc
crease. Bu
ut at the same
s time
e, the incrrease in alltitude cau
uses
decreas
se in press
sure, thus a decreas
se in densiity and corrrespondin
ng decreas
se in
thrust. Since the
e loss of th
hrust caus
sed by dec
creasing pressure
p is
s greater than
t
the incrrease caused by decreasing temperatu
t ure. Thus the
t thrustt decrease
es as
the airc
craft ascen
nds.
At the beginning
g of stra
atosphere at appro
oximately 36,000 feet
tempera bilizes at -56.50C and rema
ature stab ains at th
his tempe
erature up
p to
around 85000 fe
eet. The prressure co
ontinues to
t fall abo
ove the 36
6,000 feet and
ust therefo
the thru ore drops off at a fas
ster rate th
han it doe
es at the lo
ower altitu
udes.
This inc
creased drrop off in thrust
t mak
kes 36,000 feet a ch
hosen altittude for a long
range cruise
c in je
et powered
d aircraft.

e) Ra
am effect
pression of air in an
The comp n inlet duc
ct arising from forw
ward motio
on is
called ram
r pressu
ure or ram
m effect. Because
B off ram effect, increas
sing air sp
peed

also inc
creases th
he pressurre of the air & airfflow into engine
e (Wa). As turrbine

powered
d aircraft begins to move
m forw
ward for tale off, air is
i rammed
d into the inlet
i
duct an
nd mass flow throug
gh the eng
gine increa
ases. The faster
f the aircraft
a moves
the grea
ater the in
ncrease in thrust. Th
his is show
wn in the figure
f Curv
ve A
 But, an increase in forwarrd speed decreases the amo
ount of aiir is
accelera
ated and the
t thrust decreases
s. This is shown
s in the
t figure, Curve B.
The thrus
st increase
e caused by
b the ram
m effect is grater tha
an decreas
se in
thrust caused
c by
y increase in air spe
eed and th
he net incrrease is sh
hown in cu
urve
C. The thrust inc
crease beco
omes grea
ater an air speed increase.
 
The following graphic shows the typical temperature and pressure rise through the gas
flow path.

Engine Temperature and Pressure Flow

ENGINE SECTIONS

Inlet

The air inlet duct must provide clean and unrestricted airflow to the engine. Clean and
undisturbed inlet airflow extends engine life by preventing erosion, corrosion, and
foreign object damage (FOD).

Consideration of atmospheric conditions such as dust, salt, industrial pollution, foreign

objects (birds, nuts and bolts), and temperature (icing conditions) must be made when
designing the inlet system. Fairings should be installed between the engine air inlet
housing and the inlet duct to ensure minimum airflow losses to the engine at all airflow
conditions.

The inlet duct assembly is usually designed and produced as a separate system rather
than as part of the design and production of the engine.

Compressor

The compressor is responsible for providing the turbine with all the air it needs in an
efficient manner. In addition, it must supply this air at high static pressures. The
example of a large turboprop axial flow compressor will be used. The compressor is

5
assumed to contain fourteen stages of rotor blades and stator vanes. The overall
pressure ratio (pressure at the back of the compressor compared to pressure at the
front of the compressor) is approximately 9.5:1. At 100% (>13,000) RPM, the engine
compresses approximately 433 cubic feet of air per second. At standard day air
conditions, this equals approximately 33 pounds of air per second. The compressor
also raises the temperature of the air by about 550qF as the air is compressed and
moved rearward. The power required to drive a compressor of this size at maximum
rated power is approximately 7000 horsepower.

In an axial flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts the pressure from the
previous stage. A single stage of compression consists of a set of rotor blades
attached to a rotating disk, followed by stator vanes attached to a stationary ring. The
flow area between the compressor blades is slightly divergent. Flow area between
compressor vanes is also divergent, but more so than for the blades.

In general terms, the compressor rotor blades convert mechanical energy into
gaseous energy. This energy conversion greatly increases total pressure (Pt). Most of
the increase is in the form of velocity (Pi), with a small increase in static pressure (Ps)
due to the divergence of the blade flow paths.

The stator vanes slow the air by means of their divergent duct shape, converting 'the
accelerated velocity (Pi) to higher static pressure (Ps). The vanes are positioned at an
angle such that the exiting air is directed into the rotor blades of the next stage at the
most efficient angle. This process is repeated fourteen times as the air flows from the
first stage through the fourteenth stage. Figure 2-4 shows one stage of the

compressor and a graph of the pressure characteristics as the air flows through the
stage.

In addition to the fourteen stages of blades and vanes, the compressor also
incorporates the inlet guide vanes and the outlet guide vanes. These vanes, located
at the inlet and the outlet of the compressor, are neither divergent nor convergent.
The inlet guide vanes direct air to the first stage compressor blades at the "best"
angle. The outlet guide vanes "straighten" the air to provide the combustor with the
proper airflow direction.

6
The efficiency of a compressor is primarily determined by the smoothness of the
airflow. During design, every effort is made to keep the air flowing smoothly through
the compressor to minimize airflow losses due to friction and turbulence. This task is a
difficult one, since the air is forced to flow into ever-higher pressure zones.

Air has the natural tendency to flow toward low-pressure zones. If air were allowed to
flow "backward" into the lower pressure zones, the efficiency of the compressor would
decrease tremendously as the energy used to increase the pressure of the air was
wasted. To prevent this from occurring, seals are incorporated at the base of each
row of vanes to prevent air leakage. In addition, the tip clearances of the rotating
blades are also kept at a minimum by the use of coating on the inner surface of the
compressor case.

All components used in the flow path of the compressor are shaped in the form of
airfoils to maintain the smoothest airflow possible. Just as is the case for the wings of
an airplane, the angle at which the air flows across the airfoils is critical to
performance. The blades and vanes of the compressor are positioned at the optimum
angles to achieve the most efficient airflow at the compressor’s maximum rated speed.

Any deviation from the maximum rated speed changes the characteristics of the
airflow within the compressor. The blades and vanes are no longer positioned at their
optimum angles. Many engines use bleed valves to unload the force of excess air in
the compressor when it operates at less than optimum speed. The example engine
incorporates four bleed valves at each of the fifth and tenth compressor stages. They
are open until 13,000 RPM (~94% maximum) is reached, and allow some of the
compressed air to flow out to the atmosphere. This results in higher air velocities over
the blade and vane airfoils, improving the airfoil angles. The potential for airfoil stalling
is reduced, and compressor acceleration can be accomplished without surge.

Diffuser

Air leaves the compressor through exit guide vanes, which convert the radial
component of the air flow out of the compressor to straight-line flow. The air then
enters the diffuser section of the engine, which is a very divergent duct. The primary
function of the diffuser structure is aerodynamic. The divergent duct shape converts
most of the air’s velocity (Pi) into static pressure (PS). As a result, the highest static
pressure and lowest velocity in the entire engine is at the point of diffuser discharge
and combustor inlet. Other aerodynamic design considerations that are important in
the diffuser section arise from the need for a short flow path, uniform flow distribution,
and low drag loss.

In addition to critical aerodynamic functions, the diffuser also provides:

x Engine structural support, including engine mounting to the nacelle
x Support for the rear compressor bearings and seals

7
 x Bleed air ports, which provide pressurized air for:
x airframe "customer" requirements (air conditioning, etc.)
x engine inlet anti-icing
x control of acceleration bleed air valves
x Pressure and scavenge oil passages for the rear compressor and front turbine
bearings.
x Mounting for the fuel nozzles.

Combustor

Once the air flows through the diffuser, it enters the combustion section, also called
the combustor. The combustion section has the difficult task of controlling the burning
of large amounts of fuel and air. It must release the heat in a manner that the air is
expanded and accelerated to give a smooth and stable stream of uniformly-heated gas
at all starting and operating conditions. This task must be accomplished with minimum
pressure loss and maximum heat release. In addition, the combustion liners must
position and control the fire to prevent flame contact with any metal parts.

The engine in this example uses a can-annular combustion section. Six combustion
liners (cans) are positioned within an annulus created by inner and outer combustion
cases. Combustion takes place in the forward end or primary zone of the cans.
Primary air (amounting to about one fourth of the total engine’s total airflow) is used to
support the combustion process. The remaining air, referred to as secondary or
dilution air, is admitted into the liners in a controlled manner. The secondary air
controls the flame pattern, cools the liner walls, dilutes the temperature of the core
gasses, and provides mass. This cooling air is critical, as the flame temperature is
above 1930qC (3500'F), which is higher than the metals in the engine can endure. It is
important that the fuel nozzles and combustion liners control the burning and mixing of
fuel and air under all conditions to avoid excess temperatures reaching the turbine or
combustion cases. Maximum combustion section outlet temperature (turbine inlet
temperature) in this engine is about 1070qC (>1950qF).

The rear third of the combustion liners is the transition section. The transition section
has a very convergent duct shape, which begins accelerating the gas stream and
reducing the static pressure in preparation for entrance to the turbine section.

Turbine

This example engine has a four-stage turbine. The turbine converts the gaseous
energy of the air/burned fuel mixture out of the combustor into mechanical energy to
drive the compressor, driven accessories, and, through a reduction gear, the propeller.
The turbine converts gaseous energy into mechanical energy by expanding the hot,
high-pressure gases to a lower temperature and pressure.

Each stage of the turbine consists of a row of stationary vanes followed by a row of
rotating blades. This is the reverse of the order in the compressor. In the compressor,

8
energy is added to the gas by the rotor blades, then converted to static pressure by
the stator vanes. In the turbine, the stator vanes increase gas velocity, and then the
rotor blades extract energy.

The vanes and blades are airfoils that provide for a smooth flow of the gases. As the
airstream enters the turbine section from the combustion section, it is accelerated
through the first stage stator vanes. The stator vanes (also called nozzles) form
convergent ducts that convert the gaseous heat and pressure energy into higher
velocity gas flow (Pi). In addition to accelerating the gas, the vanes "turn" the flow to
direct it into the rotor blades at the optimum angle.

As the mass of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous
energy is converted to mechanical energy. Velocity, temperature, and pressure of the
gas are sacrificed in order to rotate the turbine to generate shaft power. Figure 2-5
represents one stage of the turbine and the characteristics of the gases as it flows
through the stage.

The efficiency of the turbine is determined by how well it extracts mechanical energy
from the hot, high-velocity gasses. Since air flows from a high-pressure zone to a low-
pressure zone, this task is accomplished fairly easily. The use of properly positioned
airfoils allows a smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades and vanes of
the turbine.

All the air must flow across the airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency in the turbine. In
order to ensure this, seals are used at the base of the vanes to minimize gas flow
around the vanes instead of through the intended gas path. In addition, the first three
stages of the turbine blades have tip shrouds to minimize gas flow around the blade
tips.

Exhaust

After the gas has passed through the turbine, it is discharged through the exhaust.
Though most of the gaseous energy is converted to mechanical energy by the turbine,
a significant amount of power remains in the exhaust gas. This gas energy is
accelerated through the convergent duct shape of the exhaust to make it more useful

9
as jet thrust - the principle of equal and opposite reaction means that the force of the
exhausted air drives the airplane forward.

EFFECTS OF TURBINE TEMPERATURE

The materials used in the turbine section of the engine limit the maximum temperature
at which a gas turbine engine can operate. The first metal the hot gases from the
combustion section strike is the turbine inlet. The temperature of the gas stream is
carefully monitored to ensure that overtemperature does not occur.

Sample Engine Pressure, Temperature, and Velocity

Compromises are made in turbine design to achieve the optimum balance of power,
efficiency, cost, engine life, and other factors. As an example, our sample engine can
operate at a higher turbine inlet temperature than previous models due to improved
materials and design. The higher temperature allows for increased power and
improved efficiency while adding higher cost for the direct cooling of the first turbine
stage airfoils and other components.

10
EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS

The performance of the gas turbine engine is dependent on the mass of air entering
the engine. At a constant speed, the compressor pumps a constant volume of air into
the engine with no regard for air mass or density. If the density of the air decreases,
the same volume of air will contain less mass, so less power is produced. If air density
increases, power output also increases as the air mass flow increases for the same
volume of air.

Atmospheric conditions affect the performance of the engine since the density of the
air will be different under different conditions. On a cold day, the air density is high, so
the mass of the air entering the compressor is increased. As a result, higher
horsepower is produced. In contrast, on a hot day, or at high altitude, air density is
decreased, resulting in a decrease of output shaft power.

COMPRESSOR STALL/SURGE

Background information

Compressor stall or surge is not peculiar to any one particular brand or type of engine.
It may occur on any turbine engine if conditions are right. Stall has been encountered
on two-stage or turbo-supercharged piston engines, so there is no need to look upon
stall as some mysterious product of gas turbine engines.

Any number of mechanical defects, such as bad spark plugs, lean carburetion, poor
timing, or sticking valves, can result in reciprocating engines backfiring. Similarly, for
gas turbine engines, maintenance or flight conditions can influence the compressor
stall or surge appreciably. The condition and operation of the bleed valve and fuel
system components are of vital importance in maintaining surge-free operation.

Why are engines at risk of surge? As engines are designed to meet demands for
higher power or lower specific fuel consumption, the engines must accommodate:

x Increased mass airflow.

x Increased pressure (compression) ratio.
x Increased maximum allowable turbine inlet and outlet temperatures.
x Improved efficiency of the compressor and turbine sections.

Quick engine starts and rapid accelerations are also desirable. To provide higher
power with low specific fuel consumption and acceptable starting and acceleration
characteristics, it is necessary to operate as close to the surge region as possible.

11
 Types of Gas Turbine Engine
Gas powered turbine engines have come a long way since 1903. That was the first year a gas turbine
produced enough power to keep itself running. The design was accomplished by Norwegian inventor
Aegidus Elling, and it produced 11 horsepower, which was a massive feat at the time.
These days, gas turbine engines come in all shapes and sizes, and most of them produce a LOT more than
11 horsepower. Check out these 4 main types of turbine engines, as well as the pros and cons of each.
1) Turbojet Engine
Turbojet engines were the first type of gas turbine engine invented. And even though they look
completely different than the reciprocating engine in your car or plane, they operate using the same
theory: intake, compression, power, exhaust.

How Does A Turbojet Work?

Turbojets work by passing air through 5 main sections of the engine:
Step 1 - Air Intake
The air intake is essentially a tube in front of the engine. The air intake may look simple, but it's
incredibly important - the intake's job is to smoothly direct air into the compressor blades. At low speeds,
it needs to minimize the loss of airflow into the engine, and at supersonic speeds, it needs to slow the
airflow below Mach 1 (the air flowing into a turbojet needs to be subsonic, regardless of how fast the
airplane is flying).

Step 2 - Compressor
The compressor is driven by the turbine in the rear of the engine, and its job is to compress the incoming
air, significantly increasing the air's pressure. The compressor is a series of 'fans', each with smaller and
smaller blades. As air passes through each compressor stage, it gets compressed more.
Step 3 - Combustion Chamber
Next up is the combustion chamber, where the magic really starts happening. The high pressure air is
combined with fuel and ignited. As the fuel/air mixture burns, it continues through the engine toward the
turbine. Turbojets run very lean, with approximately 50 parts air to every 1 part of fuel (most
reciprocating engines run anywhere from 6-to-1 to 18-to-1). One of the main reasons turbines run this
lean is that extra airflow is needed to keep a turbojet cool.

Step 4 - Turbine
The turbine is another series of 'fans', which work like a windmill, absorbing energy from the high speed
air passing through it. The turbine blades are connected to and turn a shaft, which is also connected to the
compressor blades at the front of the engine. The turbjet's 'circle of life' is almost complete.

Step 5 - Exhaust

The high speed burned fuel/air mixture exits the engine through an exhaust nozzle. As the high speed air
exits the rear of the engine, it produces thrust, and pushes the airplane (or whatever it's attached to)
forward.
Turbojet takeaway:
 Pros:
 Relatively simple design
 Capable of very high speeds
 Takes up little space
Cons:
 High fuel consumption
 Loud
 Poor performance at slow speeds

2) Turboprop Engine
The next three types of turbine engines are all forms of the turbojet engine, and we'll start with the
turboprop. The turboprop is a turbojet engine connected to a propeller through a gearing system.
How Does A Turboprop Work?
Step 1 - The turbojet spins a shaft, which is connected to a gearbox .
Step 2 - A gears box slows down the spinning, and the slowest moving gear connects to the propeller
Step 3 - The propeller rotates through the air, producing thrust just like your Cessna 172
Turboprop takeaway:
 Pros:
 Very fuel efficient
 Most efficient at mid-range speed between 250-400 knots
 Most efficient at mid-range altitudes of 18,000-30,000 feet
Cons:
 Limited forward airspeed
 Gearing systems are heavy and can break down

3) Turbofan Engine
Each Boeing 777-300ER engine can produce over 115,000 pounds of thrust
Turbofans combine the best of both worlds between turbojets and turboprops. And, you'll probably see
these engines when you head out to the airport for your next airline flight.
How Does A Turbofan Work?
Turbofans work by attaching a ducted fan to the front of a turbojet engine. The fan creates additional
thrust, helps cool the engine, and lowers the noise output of the engine.
Step 1 - Inlet air is divided into two separate streams. One stream flows around the engine (bypass air),
while the other passes through the engine core.
Step 2 - Bypass air passes around the engine and is accelerated by a duct fan, producing additional thrust.
Step 3 - Air flows through the turbojet engine, continuing the production of thrust.
Turbofan takeaway:
 Pros:
 Fuel efficient
 Quieter than turbojets
 They look awesome
Cons:
 Heavier than turbojets
 Larger frontal area than turbojets
 Inefficient at very high altitudes

4) Turboshaft Engine
Bell 206 helicopter with turboshaft engine
Turboshaft engines are primarily used on helicopters. The biggest difference between turboshafts and
turbojets is that turboshaft engines use the majority of their power to turn a turbine, rather than produce
thrust out the back of the engine.
How Does A Turboshaft Work?
Turboshafts are essentially a turbojet engine with a large shaft connect to the back of it. And since most of
these engines are used on helicopters, that shaft is connected to the rotor blade transmission.
Step 1 - The engine operates like a turbojet, for the most part.
Step 2 - The power shaft attached to the turbine powers the transmission.
Step 3- The transmission transfers rotation from the shaft to the rotor blade
Step 4 - The helicopter, through mostly unknown and magical means, is able to fly through the sky
Turboshaft takeaway:
 Pros:
 Much higher power-to-weight ratio than piston engines
 Typically smaller than piston engines
Cons:
 Loud
 Gear systems connected to the shaft can be complex and break down
Putting It All Together
Gas turbine engines have come a long way in the past 100 years. And while turbojets, turboprops,
turbofans and turboshafts all have their differences, they way they produce power is essentially the same:
intake, compression, power, and exhaust.
 UNIT-1 Part (P-I)

THRUST AUGMENTATION

INTRODUCTION – THRUST AUGMENTATION

Power increases over and above the normal maximum power level Some early VERTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) aircraft used
can be provided in various ways, depending on the engine type and booster engines for vertical lift only, mounted vertically in the
technology level. fuselage or wing tip pods.
Power boosting is used mainly for take-off, and in the case of Other methods
military jet fighters, used during combat to increase speed and RATO (Rocket Assisted Take-Off) or JATO (Jet Assisted Take-Off)
survivability. has been used to get a heavy aircraft off a short runway, such as a
The exception is Concorde, this was the only passenger jet in service transport aircraft, and on jet fighter aircraft to allow faster take-offs
to use reheat, for take-off and transition (acceleration) to supersonic and therefore a shorter reaction to an protected airspace threat.
flight. Reheat was not required to maintain supersonic speeds, the Another method is Steam Catapults used on carrier operations.
engine had enough ‘dry’ power to maintain the higher speeds.
The different forms of power boosting are listed below.
Piston Engines
Refer to section Y PISTON ENGINES
Jet Engines
In this section we will concentrate on the power boosting systems
for jet engines.
Extra engines where sometimes fitted to help with take off power
such as the Hawker Siddely 121 Trident; a passenger jet with three
tail mounted engines, and an additional small booster engine also
mounted in the tail.
Piston engines:-

Supercharging or turbo charging Forced air aspiration

Higher Octane fuels More power per bang

Gas turbines engines:-

Booster engines HS121 Trident and early V/STOL a/c

Water injection + more fuel Methanol

Water injection

Afterburning Mainly military but also Concorde

Other methods

Rocket boosters RATO – Rocket Assisted Take-Off Single use only

Thrust Augmentation
2
WATER METHONAL INJECTION
The system shown below is the system fitted to the Rolls-Royce In aircraft operational procedures, the only difference between a
Dart series turbo-prop engines. ‘wet’ take-off (i.e. with water-methanol) and a ‘dry’ take-off is the
operation of the water-methanol tank pump; if this is not switched
Water injection produces a greater expansion in the combustion
on during pre-take-off checks then a dry take-off will happen.
chamber and therefore more power.
The water is heated to super heated steam and cools the turbine
section. There are two levels of wet take-off: - Power Restoring, and Power
Boosting.
The cooled turbine means that extra fuel can be added to further
increase power, the extra fuel being METHANOL, a combustible 1. Power Restoring – makes up the losses to engine power due
alcohol based fluid. The fluid is contained in an nacelle mounted to deteriation i.e. wear and tear.
tank sized to allow at least two take-offs. 2. Power Boosting – does the above and adds a further
The use of this system is restricted in terms of the engine ‘life’ as increase of power.
combustion takes place outside of the inner combustion (flame) tube
The level of power increase depends on the Mark of the engine and
and therefore can accelerate the deteriation rate of the engine is achieved by control unit mechanical differences and unit
combustion section, therefore shortening the engine life. adjustments.
The methanol is pre-mixed (30% Methanol by weight) with the
water and a substance called PYRODINE (1/2% of total) is added to
prevent the water-methanol from being consumed, it has the effect
of making the water-methanol fluid unpalatable!
Operation
The water-methanol control unit operates everytime take-off power
is selected and has two functions: -
1. It switches the flow of water-methanol through the unit
whenever the throttle is moved to the take-off position.
2. It regulates the rate flow based upon engine power, sensed
by the torque meter oil system, and atmospheric pressure.

3
Water Methanol Injection Dart Engine Series Water Methanol
Tank and Pump

Torque
Torque
Pressure
Pressure
(ENGINE
POWER)

Water Methanol Control

Unit

Thrust Augmentation
4
WATER INJECTION
The system shown below is the system fitted to the Rolls-Royce via a water flow sensing unit.
Spey series bypass engines. There are two levels of wet take-off: - Power Restoring, and Power
Water injection produces a greater expansion in the combustion Boosting.
chamber and therefore more power. 3. Power Restoring – makes up the losses to engine power due
The water is heated to super heated steam and cools the turbine to deteriation i.e. wear and tear.
section. 4. Power Boosting – does the above and adds a further
The cooled turbine means that extra fuel can be added to further increase of power.
increase power, the extra fuel being engine fuel, i.e. an increase in The level of power increase depends on the Mark of the engine and
the rate of fuel into the engine. is achieved by control unit mechanical differences and unit
The use of this system is restricted in terms of the engine ‘life’ as adjustments.
where, unlike the Dart system previously described, although
combustion takes place in the inner combustion (flame) tube as per
normal operation, but it can still accelerate the deteriation rate of the
engine combustion section, therefore shortening the engine life.
Operation
Selecting a wet power take-off allows water to be injected via
additional nozzles built into the fuel spray nozzles. Operation of the
water injection system automatically produces a reset of the fuel
control unit to allow more fuel to flow.
In aircraft operational procedures, the only difference between a
‘wet’ take-off and a ‘dry’ take-off is the operation of the water
injection system; if this is not switched on during pre-take-off
checks then a dry take-off will take place.
Injection is effected by throttle micro switches switching on the air
driven water pump, flow is controlled by HP compressor pressure

5
Water Injection Rolls-Royce Spey Series

Increased Water
Primary flow Take a
Fuel flow closer look
here

Water cools the turbine and increases pressure and therefore velocity = more power.

Cooler turbine means more fuel can be added = more power.

Thrust Augmentation
6
REHEAT SYSTEMS
The illustration below shows a typical Reheat system as fitted to the so once again use is restricted to the absolute necessary. One good
Rolls-Royce Phantom Spey, the Adour engine in the Jaguar, the point is that unlike the previous systems discussed, reheat does not
RB199 in the Tornado and the EJ2000 in the Typhoon. affect the life of the basic engine, as temperatures and RPM are not
Reheat allows the selection of power increase over the basic thrust changed with the increase in power.
of the engine for take-off, climb and (for military aircraft) combat
performance; and can be selected at any time during the flight.
Operation
Reheat consists of the introduction and burning of fuel between the
engine turbine and the jet pipe propelling nozzle, utilizing unburnt
oxygen in the exhaust gas to support combustion. The resultant
increase in temperature of the exhaust gases gives an increased
velocity of the jet leaving the propelling nozzle and therefore
increasing engine thrust.
The variable nozzle opens during reheat to maintain jet pipe
pressure, therefore not affecting the basic engine (an increase in
pressure can lead to lower basic engine power and increase in
temperatures; a decrease can lead to engine surge), but, the casings
and the engine mounts will need to be able to take the increased
thrust produced.
Selecting reheat power is by simply moving the throttle lever
through a mechanical gate in the cockpit. Moving the throttle from
the normal range into the reheat range does not select a higher RPM
etc on the basic engine, it merely controls the reheat power.
Reheat power can be up to 70% higher than basic engine dry power.
There are penalties however, reheat uses a massive amount of fuel,

7
Typical Reheat System
Rolls-Royce Phantom Spey and Jaguar Adour series

Thrust Augmentation
8
REHEAT SYSTEMS
The reheat system consists of a larger diameter jet pipe, with
internal heat shields. On a bypass engine cooler bypass air can flow
between the heat shields and the jet pipe providing a cooling flow.
Inside there are stabilising burner manifolds and fuel spray tubes.
Ignition is usually via a catalytic igniter; this is a platinum element
which ignites fuel on contact. Earlier versions used an electrical
igniter or a ‘Hot-shot’ system; i.e. a method of carrying the
combustion flame from the engine combustor to the jet pipe.
The variable nozzle is driven by a series of hydraulic rams moving a
nozzle operating sleeve backwards and forwards which is fitted
around the outside of the jet pipe. The nozzle operating sleeve
backwards and forwards movement in turn moves the nozzle
interlocking flaps, causing them to open (reheat on) or close (reheat
off).

9
 E n g in e R e h e a t S y s te m
Rear End (A fte rb u rn e r)

V a ria b le
N o z z le
(O p e n )

Heat
S p ra y T u b e s V a p o u r G u tte rs S h ie ld s

T h ru s t A u g m e n ta tio n

10
REHEAT SYSTEMS (Cont’d)
Below can be seen various aircraft with reheat on.

At the time it was produced, the Spey powered Phantom was the
only aircraft to produce the diamond pattern shock waves in the
exhaust plume.

Bottom right is a photograph taken of a Lockheed SR71 Blackbird

in full reheat, and left to test duration. It is plainly obvious that the
jet pipe gets very hot during extended operation. The darker lines
silhouetted around the outside will be the hydraulic pipes to the
nozzle operating rams, the rams themselves and the nozzle sleeve.
Also visible are similar visible shock waves in the exhaust plume

11
 UNIT-1 Part (P-I)
MacDonald Douglas F4 Phantom – Reheat Lit

Visible ‘Shock’ waves appear in exhaust plume!

Does the Afterburner get hot?

FA18 Hornet on Carrier

Take-off – Reheat Lit
Just a little bit!!

Use of the afterburner is restricted to take-off and combat only (except

Concorde of course) due to the extremely high fuel consumption rate

Thrust Augmentation
13