CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1.1 BRAKE CALIPER
Brake calipers are a vital part of your vehicle's braking system. Brake calipers squeeze
the brake pads against the surface of the brake rotor to slow or stop the vehicle. The
brake caliper fits over the rotor like a clamp. Inside each caliper is a pair of metal plates
bonded with friction material -- these are called brake pads. The outboard brake pads
are on the outside of the rotors (toward the curb) and the inboard brake pads on the
inside (toward the vehicle). When you step on the brake, brake fluid from the master
cylinder creates hydraulic pressure on one or more pistons in the brake caliper, forcing
the pads against the rotor. The brake pads have high-friction surfaces and serve to slow
the rotor down or even bring it to a complete halt. When the rotor slows or stops, so
does the wheel, because they're attached to one another.
Brake caliper is a U-shaped casting that wraps around the rotor and is mostly made of
cast iron or aluminium alloys. For High performance of vehicles caliper should be
lighter in weight and stiffer. The higher the stiffness the shorter the pedal strokes.
Caliper body can be manufactured either as a single piece or two pieces which can be
bolted together. One piece calipers are manufactured from forging and two piece
calipers are regularly machined from an aluminium billet.
There are two main types of calipers. One is floating or sliding calipers and other is
fixed calipers. Floating calipers move in and out relative to the rotor and have one or
two pistons only on the inboard side of the rotor. This piston pushes the entire caliper
when the brakes are applied, creating friction from the brake pads on both sides of the
rotor. Fixed calipers, as the name implies, don't move, but rather have pistons arranged
on opposing sides of the rotor.

1.2 TOPOLOGY OPTIMIZATON

Topology optimization is a method for determining the optimal material layout and
distribution within a given packaging space. Topology optimization generates the optimal
shape of a mechanical structure. In topology optimization a predefined domain in 2D or 3D
space with set of boundary conditions and external loads are considered and the intention of
topology optimization is to distribute the percentage of mass on the given domain so that the
global measure takes it as a minimum.
Topology optimization finds the best distribution of material given an optimization
goal and a set of constraints. It works by taking a solid block of material in any shape and
removes material from it to minimize or maximize an optimization objective such as mass,
displacement, or compliance while satisfying a set of constraints such as maximum stress or
displacement.
Topology Optimization has a wide range of applications in aerospace, mechanical, bio-
chemical and civil engineering. Currently, engineers mostly use Topology optimization at the
concept level of a design process.
 Topology optimization can be implemented through the use of finite element methods
for analysis and optimization techniques based on Homogenization method, Optimality criteria
method, level set, Moving asymptotes, Genetic algorithms.

Homogeneous
based
optimization
Gradient
based
Topology
optimization The solid isotropic
Non gradient material with
based penalization
Sizing
FEM
optimization
Structural
optimization
Shaping
BEM
optimization

Figure1. Layout of structural optimization

1.2.1 Homogenization method:

In the homogenization method, the material property of each design cell is computed
by the homogenization theory, and the optimal topology is obtained by solving a material
distribution problem.
In this method generalized layout of a problem is defined by introducing infinitely many
micro scale voids (holes) to form a possibly porous medium that yields a linearly elastic
structure. An optimization problem for the generalized layout problem is defined by solving
the optimal porosity of the medium identified with a design domain. If a portion of porous
medium consists of only voids, structure is not placed over there. On the other hand, if no
porosity is realized at another portion, a solid structure must be placed over there. If porosity
is not the limit values, porous medium is generated. In this sense, solid material consisting of
a structure is optimally distributed in a specified region so that a certain objective function is
minimized under a set of constraints.
1.2.2 Performance-Based Topology Optimization Method:
Liang developed the performance based topology optimization method. This method is
for topology design of continuum structures using Performance indices. In this method
practical design requirements are considered to achieve a specific performance level.
In this method design, strength, serviceability, cost and performance requirements must
be satisfied by the design. The values specified by the design codes governs the strength and
serviceability of the design. The performance objective function in this to be weight of the
structure and constraints can be stresses, displacements, compliance. The overall stiffness of
structure is obtained by minimizing the stain energy of the structure.
Minimize W=∑𝑁
𝑒=1 𝑊𝑒(𝑡)

Subjected to * σ max ≤ σ
uj ≤ uj * (j=1……..m)
C ≤ C*
tl ≤ t ≤ tu
Where W is the total weight of the structure,
We is the weight of the eth element,
t is the thickness of all elements,
tl is the lower bound on the element thickness,
tu is upper bound on the element thickness,
N is the total number of elements.

1.2.3 Optimality criteria method:

A classical approach to the numerical solution of a discretized structural optimization
problem is the optimality criteria (OC) method. OC method has turned out to be very efficient
for solving the topology optimization problems. In contrast to the mathematical programming
methods, the optimum criteria methods take advantage of the knowledge on the physics and
mechanics of the respective problem set.
It is a method based on the Lagrangian function. The methods are iterative in nature because
of the nonlinearity of the constraints and the statistical indeterminacy of the structure. In
deriving the optimality criterion and developing the algorithm, full use is made of the
knowledge of the behaviour of the constraints imposed on the structure. The algorithms are
efficient because they are specifically developed for structural optimization and generally treat
the constraints that weakly affect the behaviour of the structure as passive constraints. The
optimization procedure may be divided into two major steps. These are the analysis of the
structure, and the redistribution of the material so that the weight of the structure is reduced
and the active constraints are satisfied.
1.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE)
Design of experiments (DOE) is a systematic method to determine the relationship
between factors affecting a process and the output of that process. In other words, it is used to
find cause-and-effect relationships. This information is needed to manage process inputs in
order to optimize the output.
1.3.1 Terms used in DOE:
a. Controllable input factors are the input parameters that can be modified in an experiment
or process.
b. Uncontrollable input factors are the input factors are those parameters that cannot be
changed.
c. Responses, or output measures, are the elements of the process outcome that gage the desired
effect. The controllable input factors can be modified to optimize the output. The relationship
between the factors and responses is shown in Figure 2.
d. Hypothesis testing helps to determine the significant factors using statistical methods.
There are two possibilities in a hypothesis statement: the null and the alternative. The null
hypothesis is valid if the status is true. The alternative hypothesis is true if the status is not
valid. Testing is done at a level of significance, which is based on a probability.

e. Blocking and replication: Blocking is an experimental technique to avoid any unwanted

variations in the input or experimental process. For example, an experiment may be
conducted with the same equipment to avoid any equipment variations. Practitioners
also replicate experiments, performing the same combination run more than once, in order to
get an estimate for the amount of random error that could be part of the process.

f. Interaction: When an experiment has three or more variables, an interaction is a situation

in which the simultaneous influence of two variables on a third is not additive.

controllable input Responses/Outpu

Process
factors t measures

Uncontrollable
input factors

Figure 2: Process Factors and Responses

Design of experiments techniques