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Appendices

A Scientific Notation and

Experimental Error
B SI Units, Unit Conversions, and
Physics for General Chemistry
C Mathematics for General
Chemistry
D Standard Chemical
Thermodynamic Properties
E Standard Reduction Potentials
at 25°C
F Physical Properties of the
Elements
G Solutions to Selected Odd-
Numbered Problems

© Thomson Learning/Charles D. Winters

A crystal of elemental bismuth.

A.1

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Licensed to: iChapters User
APPENDIX A
Scientific Notation and
Experimental Error

A.1 Scientific Notation

Very large and very small numbers are common in chemistry. Repeatedly writing
such numbers in the ordinary way (for example, the important number
602,214,200,000,000,000,000,000) would be tedious and would engender errors.
Scientific notation offers a better way. A number in scientific notation is expressed
as a number from 1 to 10 multiplied by 10 raised to some power. Any number can
be represented in this way, as the following examples show.
643.8 ⫽ 6.438 ⫻ 102
⫺19,000,000 ⫽ ⫺1.9 ⫻ 107
0.0236 ⫽ 2.36 ⫻ 10⫺2
602,214,200,000,000,000,000,000 ⫽ 6.022142 ⫻ 1023
A simple rule of thumb is that the power to which 10 is raised is n if the decimal
point is moved n places to the left and is ⫺n if the decimal is moved n places to
the right.
When two or more numbers written in scientific notation are to be added or
subtracted, they should first be expressed as multiples of the same power of 10:
6.431 ⫻ 104 0 6.431 ⫻ 104
⫹2.1 ⫻ 102 0 ⫹0.021 ⫻ 104
⫹3.67 ⫻ 103 0 ⫹0.367 ⫻ 104
? 6.819 ⫻ 104
When two numbers in scientific notation are multiplied, the coefficients are multi-
plied and then the powers of 10 are multiplied (by adding the exponents):
1.38 ⫻ 10⫺16 ⫻ 8.80 ⫻ 103 ⫽ (1.38 ⫻ 8.80) ⫻ 10(⫺16⫹3)
⫽ 12.1 ⫻ 10⫺13 ⫽ 1.21 ⫻ 10⫺12
We divide one number by a second by dividing the coefficients and then multiply-
ing by 10 raised to the first exponent minus the second (exponents are subtracted):
6.63 ⫻ 10⫺27 6.63 10⫺27
⫺16
⫽ ⫻ ⫺16
2.34 ⫻ 10 2.34 10
⫽ 2.83 ⫻ 10[⫺27⫺(⫺16)] ⫽ 2.83 ⫻ 10⫺11
Any calculator or computer equipped to perform scientific and engineering
calculations can accept and display numbers in scientific notation. It cannot deter-
mine whether the input has an error, however, or whether the answer makes sense.
That is your responsibility! Develop the habit of mentally estimating the order of
magnitude of the answer as a rough check on your calculator’s result.
A.2

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 APPENDIX A ■ Scientific Notation and Experimental Error A.3
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A.2 Experimental Error

Chemistry is an experimental science in which every quantitative measurement is
subject to some degree of error. We can seek to reduce error by carrying out addi-
tional measurements or by changing our experimental apparatus, but we can never
eliminate error altogether. It is important, therefore, to be able to assess the results
of an experiment quantitatively to establish the limits of the experiment’s validity.
Errors are of two types: random (lack of precision) and systematic (lack of accu-
racy).

Precision and Random Errors

Precision refers to the degree of agreement in a collection of experimental results
and is estimated by repeating the measurement under conditions as nearly identi-
cal as possible. If the conditions are truly identical, then differences among the
trials are due to random error. As a specific example, consider some actual results
of an early, important experiment by American physicist Robert Millikan in 1909,
to measure the charge e on the electron. The experiment (discussed in greater de-
tail in Chapter 1) involved a study of the motion of charged oil drops suspended
in air in an electric field. Millikan made hundreds of measurements on many dif-
ferent oil drops, but we shall consider only a set of results for e found for one
particular drop (Table A.1). The values he found ranged from 4.894 to 4.941 ⫻
10⫺10 esu. What do we choose to report as the best estimate for e? The proper
procedure is to first examine the data to see whether any of the results are espe-
cially far from the rest (a value above 5 ⫻ 10⫺10 esu would fall into this cate-
gory). Such values are likely to result from some mistake in carrying out or
reporting that particular measurement and therefore are excluded from further
consideration (although there have been cases in science where just such excep-
tional results have led to significant breakthroughs). In Millikan’s data, no such
points should be excluded. To obtain our best estimate for e, we calculate the
mean, or average value, by adding up the values found and dividing by the num-
ber of measurements. We can write the average value of any property after a se-
ries of N measurements x1, x2, … , xN as

1 1 N
x⫽ (x1 ⫹ x2 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ ⫹ xN) ⫽ a xi
N N i⫽1

where a capital Greek sigma (⌺) is introduced to indicate a summation of xi over

values of i from 1 to N. In the present case, this gives an average for e of 4.917 ⫻
10⫺10 esu.
This average by itself does not convey any estimate of uncertainty. If all of the
measurements had given results between 4.91 ⫻ 10⫺10 and 4.92 ⫻ 10⫺10 esu, the
uncertainty would be less than if the results had ranged from 4 ⫻ 10⫺10 to 6 ⫻
10⫺10 esu. Furthermore, an average of 100 measurements should have less uncer-
tainty than an average of 5. How are these ideas made quantitative? A statistical

T A B L E A.1
Measurement Number
e (10ⴚ10 esu)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
4.915 4.920 4.937 4.923 4.931 4.936 4.941 4.902 4.927 4.900 4.904 4.897 4.894

From R. A. Millikan, Phys. Rev. 32:349, 1911. [1 esu ⫽ 3.3356 ⫻ 10⫺10 C]

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 A.4 APPENDICES
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measure of the spread of data, called the standard deviation s, is useful in this re-
gard. It is given by the formula

(x1 ⫺ x)2 ⫹ (x2 ⫺ x)2 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ ⫹ (xN ⫺ x)2

s⫽
B N⫺1
N
1
⫽ a (xi ⫺ x)
2
B N ⫺ 1 i⫽1

The standard deviation is found by adding up the squares of the deviations of the
individual data points from the average value x, dividing by N ⫺ 1, and taking
the square root. Table A.2 shows how s is used quantitatively. A confidence limit
is defined as

ts
confidence limit ⫽ ⫾
2N

The table gives the factor t for various numbers of measurements, N, and for vari-
ous levels of confidence.
For Millikan’s data, N ⫽ 13 and s ⫽ 0.017 ⫻ 10⫺10. For 95% confidence with
13 measurements, the table shows t ⫽ 2.18 and the confidence limit is

(2.18)(0.017 ⫻ 10⫺10)
confidence limit ⫽ ⫾ ⫽ ⫾0.010 ⫻ 10⫺10 esu
213
Thus, a 95% probability exists that the true average (obtained by repeating the
experiment under the same conditions an infinite number of times) will lie within
⫾0.010 ⫻ 10⫺10 esu of the average 4.917 ⫻ 10⫺10 esu. Within this 95% confi-
dence level, our best estimate for e is written as

(4.917 ⫾ 0.010) ⫻ 10⫺10 esu

For other confidence levels and other numbers of measurements, the factor t and
therefore the confidence limit change.

T A B L E A.2
N Factor t for Confidence Interval of

(Number of Observations) 80% 90% 95% 99%

2 3.08 6.31 12.7 63.7
3 1.89 2.92 4.30 9.92
4 1.64 2.35 3.18 5.84
5 1.53 2.13 2.78 4.60
6 1.48 2.02 2.57 4.03
7 1.44 1.94 2.45 3.71
8 1.42 1.90 2.36 3.50
9 1.40 1.86 2.31 3.36
10 1.38 1.83 2.26 3.25
11 1.37 1.81 2.23 3.17
12 1.36 1.80 2.20 3.11
13 1.36 1.78 2.18 3.06
14 1.35 1.77 2.16 3.01
15 1.34 1.76 2.14 2.98
⬁ 1.29 1.64 1.96 2.58

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 APPENDIX A ■ Scientific Notation and Experimental Error A.5
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Accuracy and Systematic Errors
The charge e on the electron has been measured by several different techniques
since Millikan’s day. The current best estimate for e is
e ⫽ (4.80320775 ⫾ 0.0000015) ⫻ 10⫺10 esu
⫽ (1.60217646 ⫾ 0.00000049) ⫻ 10⫺19 C
This value lies outside the range of uncertainty we estimated from Millikan’s orig-
inal data. In fact, it lies well below the smallest of the 13 measurements of e. Why?
To understand this discrepancy, we need to remember that there is a second
source of error in any experiment: systematic error that causes a shift in the mea-
sured values from the true value and reduces the accuracy of the result. By making
more measurements, we can reduce the uncertainty due to random errors and im-
prove the precision of our result; however, if systematic errors are present, the av-
erage value will continue to deviate from the true value. Such systematic errors
may result from a miscalibration of the experimental apparatus or from a funda-
mental inadequacy in the technique for measuring a property. In the case of Mil-
likan’s experiment, the then-accepted value for the viscosity of air (used in
calculating the charge e) was subsequently found to be wrong. This caused his re-
sults to be systematically too high.
Error thus arises from two sources. Lack of precision (random errors) can be
estimated by a statistical analysis of a series of measurements. Lack of accuracy
(systematic errors) is much more problematic. If a systematic error is known to be
present, we should do our best to correct for it before reporting the result. (For
example, if our apparatus has not been calibrated correctly, it should be recali-
brated.) The problem is that systematic errors of which we have no knowledge
may be present. In this case the experiment should be repeated with different ap-
paratus to eliminate the systematic error caused by a particular piece of equip-
ment; better still, a different and independent way to measure the property might
be devised. Only after enough independent experimental data are available can we
be convinced of the accuracy of a result—that is, how closely it approximates the
true result.

A.3 Significant Figures

The number of significant figures is the number of digits used to express a measured
or calculated quantity, excluding zeros that may precede the first nonzero digit. Sup-
pose the mass of a sample of sodium chloride is measured to be 8.241 g and the un-
certainty is estimated to be ⫾0.001 g. The mass is said to be given to four significant
figures because we are confident of the first three digits (8, 2, 4) and the uncertainty
appears in the fourth (1), which nevertheless is still significant. Writing additional
digits beyond the 1 would not be justified, however, unless the accuracy of the weigh-
ing could be improved. When we record a volume as 22.4 L, we imply that the un-
certainty in the measurement is in the last digit written (V ⫽ 22.4 ⫾ 0.3 L, for
example). A volume written as 22.43 L, on the other hand, implies that the uncer-
tainty is far less and appears only in the fourth significant figure.
In the same way, writing 20.000 m is quite different from writing 20.0 m. The
second measurement (with three significant figures) could easily be made with a
common meterstick. The first (with five significant figures) would require a more
precise method. We should avoid reporting results such as “700 m,” however, be-
cause the two trailing zeros may or may not be significant. The uncertainty in the
measurement could be of order ⫾1 m or ⫾10 m or perhaps ⫾100 m; it is impossi-
ble to tell which without further information. To avoid this ambiguity, we can

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 A.6 APPENDICES
Licensed to: iChapters User
write such measurements using the scientific notation described in Section A.1.
The measurement “700 m” translates into any of the following:
7.00 ⫻ 102 m Three significant figures
7.0 ⫻ 10 m 2
Two significant figures
7 ⫻ 10 m 2
One significant figure
Frequently, it is necessary to combine several different experimental mea-
surements to obtain a final result. Some operations involve addition or subtrac-
tion, and others entail multiplication or division. These operations affect the
number of significant figures that should be retained in the calculated result. Sup-
pose, for example, that a weighed sample of 8.241 g of sodium chloride is dis-
solved in 160.1 g of water. What will be the mass of the solution that results? It is
tempting to simply write 160.1 ⫹ 8.241 ⫽ 168.341 g, but this is not correct. In
saying that the mass of water is 160.1 g, we imply that there is some uncertainty
about the number of tenths of a gram measured. This uncertainty must also apply
to the sum of the masses, so the last two digits in the sum are not significant and
should be rounded off, leaving 168.3 as the final result.
Following addition or subtraction, round off the result to the leftmost decimal
place that contained an uncertain digit in the original numbers.
Rounding off is a straightforward operation. It consists of first discarding the
digits that are not significant and then adjusting the last remaining digit. If the first
discarded digit is less than 5, the remaining digits are left as they are (for example,
168.341 is rounded down to 168.3 because the first discarded digit, 4, is less than
5). If the first discarded digit is greater than 5, or if it is equal to 5 and is followed
by one or more nonzero digits, then the last digit is increased by 1 (for example,
168.364 and 168.3503 both become 168.4 when rounded off to four digits). Fi-
nally, if the first digit discarded is 5 and all subsequent digits are zeros, the last digit
remaining is rounded to the nearest even digit (for example, both 168.35 and
168.45 would be rounded to 168.4). This last rule is chosen so that, on the average,
as many numbers are rounded up as down. Other conventions are sometimes used.
In multiplication or division it is not the number of decimal places that matters
(as in addition or subtraction) but the number of significant figures in the least
precisely known quantity. Suppose, for example, the measured volume of a sam-
ple is 4.34 cm3 and its mass is 8.241 g. The density, found by dividing the mass by
the volume on a calculator, for example, is
8.241 g
⫽ 1.89884 . . . g cm⫺3
4.34 cm3
How many significant figures should we report? Because the volume is the less
precisely known quantity (three significant figures as opposed to four for the
mass), it controls the precision that may properly be reported in the answer. Only
three significant figures are justified, so the result is rounded to 1.90 g cm⫺3.
The number of significant figures in the result of a multiplication or division is
the smallest of the numbers of significant figures used as input.
It is best to carry out the arithmetical operations and then round the final an-
swer to the correct number of significant figures, rather than round off the input
data first. The difference is usually small, but this recommendation is nevertheless
worth following. For example, the correct way to add the three distances 15 m,
6.6 m, and 12.6 m is
15.6 m 15 m 0 15 m
⫹66.6 m 6.6 m 0 17 m
⫹12.6 m rather than 12.6 m 0 13 m
34.2 m 0 34 m 35 m

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 APPENDIX A ■ Scientific Notation and Experimental Error A.7
Licensed to: iChapters User
For the same reason, we frequently carry extra digits through the intermediate
steps of a worked example and round off only for the final answer. If a calculation
is done entirely on a scientific calculator or a computer, several extra digits are
usually carried along automatically. Before the final answer is reported, however,
it is important to round off to the proper number of significant figures.
Sometimes pure constants appear in expressions. In this case the accuracy of
the result is determined by the accuracy of the other factors. The uncertainty in
the volume of a sphere, 43 pr3, depends only on the uncertainty in the radius r;
4 and 3 are pure constants (4.000 . . . and 3.000 . . . , respectively), and p can
be given to as many significant figures (3.14159265 . . .) as are warranted by the
radius.

PROBLEMS
Answers to problems whose numbers are boldface appear in Ap- Experimental Error
pendix G. 7. A group of students took turns using a laboratory balance
to weigh the water contained in a beaker. The results they
Scientific Notation reported were 111.42 g, 111.67 g, 111.21 g, 135.64 g,
111.02 g, 111.29 g, and 111.42 g.
1. Express the following in scientific notation.
(a) Should any of the data be excluded before the average is
(a) 0.0000582
calculated?
(b) 402
(b) From the remaining measurements, calculate the aver-
(c) 7.93
age value of the mass of the water in the beaker.
(d) ⫺6593.00
(c) Calculate the standard deviation s and, from it, the
(e) 0.002530
95% confidence limit.
(f) 1.47
8. By measuring the sides of a small box, a group of students
2. Express the following in scientific notation.
made the following estimates for its volume: 544 cm3, 590
(a) 4579
cm3, 523 cm3, 560 cm3, 519 cm3, 570 cm3, and 578 cm3.
(b) ⫺0.05020
(a) Should any of the data be excluded before the average is
(c) 2134.560
calculated?
(d) 3.825
(b) Calculate the average value of the volume of the box
(e) 0.0000450
from the remaining measurements.
(f) 9.814
(c) Calculate the standard deviation s and, from it, the
3. Convert the following from scientific notation to decimal 90% confidence limit.
form.
9. Of the measurements in problems 7 and 8, which is more
(a) 5.37 ⫻ 10⫺4
precise?
(b) 9.390 ⫻ 106
(c) ⫺2.47 ⫻ 10⫺3 10. A more accurate determination of the mass in problem 7
(d) 6.020 ⫻ 10⫺3 (using a better balance) gives the value 104.67 g, and an
(e) 2 ⫻ 104 accurate determination of the volume in problem 8 gives the
value 553 cm3. Which of the two measurements in prob-
4. Convert the following from scientific notation to decimal
lems 7 and 8 is more accurate, in the sense of having the
form.
smaller systematic error relative to the actual value?
(a) 3.333 ⫻ 10⫺3
(b) ⫺1.20 ⫻ 107
(c) 2.79 ⫻ 10⫺5
Significant Figures
(d) 3 ⫻ 101 11. State the number of significant figures in each of the follow-
(e) 6.700 ⫻ 10⫺2 ing measurements.
(a) 13.604 L
5. A certain chemical plant produces 7.46 ⫻ 108 kg of poly- (b) ⫺0.00345°C
ethylene in one year. Express this amount in decimal form. (c) 340 lb
6. A microorganism contains 0.0000046 g of vanadium. Ex- (d) 3.40 ⫻ 102 miles
press this amount in scientific notation. (e) 6.248 ⫻ 10⫺27 J

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A.8 APPENDICES

12. State the number of significant figures in each of the follow- 19. Express the results of the following multiplications and divi-
ing measurements. sions to the proper number of significant figures. All of the
(a) ⫺0.0025 in numbers are measured quantities.
(b) 7000 g ⫺72.415
(a) ⫽
(c) 143.7902 s 8.62
(d) 2.670 ⫻ 107 Pa (b) 52.814 ⫻ 0.00279 ⫽
(e) 2.05 ⫻ 10⫺19 J (c) (7.023 ⫻ 1014) ⫻ (4.62 ⫻ 10⫺27) ⫽
13. Round off each of the measurements in problem 11 to two 4.3 ⫻ 10⫺12
(d) ⫽
significant figures. 9.632 ⫻ 10⫺26
14. Round off each of the measurements in problem 12 to two 20. Express the results of the following multiplications and divi-
significant figures. sions to the proper number of significant figures. All of the
15. Round off the measured number 2,997,215.548 to nine sig- numbers are measured quantities.
nificant digits. (a) 129.587 ⫻ 32.33 ⫽
4.7791
16. Round off the measured number in problem 15 to eight, (b) ⫽
3.21 ⫻ 5.793
seven, six, five, four, three, two, and one significant digits.
10566.9
17. Express the results of the following additions and subtrac- (c) ⫽
3.584 ⫻ 1029
tions to the proper number of significant figures. All of the (d) (5.247 ⫻ 10 ) ⫻ (1.3 ⫻ 10⫺17) ⫽
13
numbers are measured quantities.
(a) 67.314 ⫹ 8.63 ⫺ 243.198 ⫽ 21. Compute the area of a triangle (according to the formula
(b) 4.31 ⫹ 64 ⫹ 7.19 ⫽ A ⫽ 12 ba) if its base and altitude are measured to equal
(c) 3.1256 ⫻ 1015 ⫺ 4.631 ⫻ 1013 ⫽ 42.07 cm and 16.0 cm, respectively. Justify the number of
(d) 2.41 ⫻ 10⫺26 ⫺ 7.83 ⫻ 10⫺25 ⫽ significant figures in the answer.

18. Express the results of the following additions and subtrac- 22. An inch is defined as exactly 2.54 cm. The length of a table
tions to the proper number of significant figures. All of the is measured as 505.16 cm. Compute the length of the table
numbers are measured quantities. in inches. Justify the number of significant figures in the
(a) 245.876 ⫹ 4.65 ⫹ 0.3678 ⫽ answer.
(b) 798.36 ⫺ 1005.7 ⫹ 129.652 ⫽
(c) 7.98 ⫻ 1017 ⫹ 6.472 ⫻ 1019 ⫽
(d) (4.32 ⫻ 10⫺15) ⫹ (6.257 ⫻ 10⫺14) ⫺ (2.136 ⫻ 10⫺13) ⫽

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