ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

CHAPTER 8
Production of Power from Heat by Power Cycles

Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are power generation and refrigeration. Both power generation and
refrigeration are usually accomplished by systems that operate on a thermodynamic cycle

Two general categories of thermodynamic cycle

1. Power cycles – engines, power plants
2. Refrigeration cycles – refrigerators, heat pumps, air conditioning unit

Categories according to the phase of working fluid

1. Vapor cycles – the working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part and liquid in another part of the cycle. Key
components include a condenser and a boiler
2. Gas Cycles – the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase all throughout the cycle

Other categories:
1. Closed cycles – the working fluid the working fluid (such as steam in power plants) is returned to the initial state at the end
of the cycle and is recirculated
2. Open cycles – the working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated. In automobile engines,
the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of each cycle. One heat exchanger is
missing. After the working fluid passes through three processes, it is discarded and replaced by fresh working fluid.

Most power producing devices operate on cycles and the study of power cycles is an exciting and important part of
thermodynamics. The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze because of the presence of complicating effects
such as friction and the absence of sufficient time for the establishment of the equilibrium conditions during the cycle. To make an
analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to keep the complexities at a manageable level and utilize some idealizations. When the
actual cycle is stripped of all the internal irreversibility and complexities, we end up with a cycle which resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up entirely of internally reversible processes. Such cycle is referred to as IDEAL CYCLE

It was pointed out that heat engines which operate on a totally reversible cycle such as the Carnot cycle have the highest thermal
efficiency of all heat engines operating between the same temperature levels. If the Carnot cycle is the best possible cycle, why do
we not use it as the model cycle for all the heat engines instead of bothering with several so called ideal cycles? The answer to this
question is hardware related. Most cycles encountered in practice differ significantly from the Carnot cycle, which makes it
unsuitable as a realistic model.

Why is the Carnot Cycle Impractical?

Figure 1. TS Diagram of a Carnot Cycle

Carnot Cycle is not practical for vapor power cycles for the following reasons:
1. Boiler: Isothermal heat transfer eliminates the possibility of using subcooled liquid boiler feed or producing superheated
vapor in the boiler effluent.
2. Turbine: Adiabatic expansion yields low steam quality in the turbine feed.
This can result in damage to the turbine rotor.
3. Condenser: Isothermal heat transfer eliminates the possibility of using superheated vapor in the condenser feed.
4. Pump: Quality > 0 in the pump feed. This can result in damage to the pump rotor.

Each of the following ideal cycle is related to a specific work-producing device and is an idealized version of the actual cycle.
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2
I. VAPOR CYCLES
Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapor power cycle because of its many desirable characteristics such as low
cost, availability, and high enthalpy of vaporization.

IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE

The Rankine Cycle is the practical and ideal vapor power cycle that is most similar to a Carnot Cycle. The condenser effluent in a
Rankine Cycle is a saturated liquid. The boiler effluent is either saturated vapor or superheated vapor.

Processes:
1 – 2: Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of vapor in a TURBINE to the pressure of the condenser. The step normally
crosses the saturation curve, producing a wet exhaust. However, the superheating accomplished in step 1-2 shifts the vertical line
far enough to the right on Figure 1 that the moisture content is not too large.
2 – 3: A constant pressure, constant temperature heat rejection process in a CONDENSER to produce saturated liquid at point 4.
3 – 4: Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) compression in a PUMP of the saturated liquid to the pressure of the boiler, producing
compressed (subcooled) liquid. The vertical line (whose length is exaggerated in the figure) is very short, because the temperature
rise associated with compression of a liquid is small.
4 – 1: A constant pressure heating process in a BOILER. The step lies along an isobar (the pressure of the boiler), and consists of
three sections: heating of subcooled liquid water to its saturation temperature, vaporization at constant temperature and pressure,
and superheating of the vapor to a temperature well above its saturation temperature.

Energy Balance for Rankine Cycle

Process 1 – 2: (Turbine) w/ ∆KE & ∆PE = 0 Process 3 – 4: (Pump) Q = 0, ∆KE & ∆PE = 0
TEB yields: WT = ∆H = H2 – H1 WP = ∆H = V∆P, WP = H4 – H3 = V(P4 – P3)
Rate of power generation: WT = ms(H2 – H1) Power rate: WP = ms(H4 – H3) = msV(P4 – P3)

Process 2 – 3: (Condenser) W = 0, ∆KE & ∆PE = 0 Process 4 – 1: (Boiler) W = 0, ∆KE & ∆PE = 0
@ P = K, Qout = ∆H = H3 – H2 @ P = K, Qin = ∆H = H1 – H4
Rate of heat transfer: Qout = ms(H3 – H2) Rate of heat transfer: Qin = ms(H1 – H4)

Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle:

 = net work = WT + WP ;  = (H2 – H1) + (H4 – H3) = 1 - QC
QH QH H1 – H4 QH

Practice Problems:
1. Compute the thermal efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle for which steam leaves the boiler as superheated vapor at 6 MPa,
350oC, and is condensed at 10 kPa.
2. A Rankine cycle operating between limits of 10,000 kPa and 10 kPa. If the temperature of the steam entering the turbine is 600
o
C and the power delivered is 80,000 kW, determine (a) steam rate (kg/s) (b) heat transfer in the condenser (kJ/s) (c) heat
transfer rate in the boiler (kJ/s) (d) efficiency of the cycle
3. Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple Rankine cycle. The steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350 oC and is
condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.
4. A steam power plant operates on a cycle for the following conditions. Determine (a) steam rate (b) heat transfer rate in boiler
(c) heat transfer rate in the condenser (d) thermal efficiency of the plant. P 1 = P4 = 7000 kPa, T4 = 550 oC, P2 = P3 = 20 kPa, T =
0.75, p = 0.75, PT = 100,000 kW.
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2
Ways to Improve the Simple Rankine cycle efficiency:
• Superheat the vapor: Average temperature is higher during heat addition. Moisture is reduced at turbine exit
(we want x3 in the above example > 85 percent)
• Increase boiler pressure (for fixed maximum temperature): Availability of steam is higher at higher pressures.
Moisture is increased at turbine exit.
• Lower condenser pressure: Less energy is lost to surroundings. Moisture is increased at turbine exit.

IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE WITH REHEAT

As the boiler pressure is increased in the simple Rankine cycle, not only does the thermal efficiency increase, but also the turbine
exit moisture increases. The reheat cycle allows the use of higher boiler pressures and provides a means to keep the turbine exit
moisture (x > 0.85 to 0.90) at an acceptable level.

1 2-Stage Turbine

Boiler High-P Low-P WT

I II
2
QH
4
3
QC
6
Condenser
Wp
5

Compressed liquid sat’d liquid

Two-Stage Expansion:

1st Stage: High – Pressure Turbine

Component Process First Law Result
• Steam is expanded isentropically to an intermediate
Turbine Isentropic Wout = (H1 – H2) + (H4 – H3)
pressure and sent back to the boiler where it is reheated at
Expansion
constant pressure, usually to the inlet temperature of 1st stage.
Condenser Constant P Qout = (H4 – H5)
nd
2 Stage: Low – Pressure Turbine (Qout or Qc) Heat
• The heated steam is again expanded isentropically Rejection
to the condenser pressure. Pump Isentropic Win = (H6 – H5) = V5(P6 – P5)
Compressio
n
The total heat input and the total turbine work output for the Boiler Constant P Qin = (H1 – H6) + (H3 – H2)
reheat cycle is given by the f equations: (Qin or QH) Heat
Addition

The efficiency of the cycle is also given by:

 = Wnet = Qin –Qout = (H1 – H6) + (H3 – H2) + (H5 – H4)

Qin Qin (H1 – H6) + (H3 – H2)
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2
 A single reheat in a modern power plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4.5% by increasing the average temperature at which
heat is added to the steam.
 This method is commonly used in modern large power plants.

II. GAS CYCLES

1. Otto Cycle - the ideal model for the spark-ignition engine (gasoline engine). It is named after Nikolaus A. Otto, 1876. The cycle is
consist of the following internally reversible processes:
1-2: isentropic compression
2-3: isochoric (constant volume) heat addition
3-4: isentropic expansion
4-1: isochoric heat rejection

Figure 2. PV and TS
Diagrams for Ideal Otto Cycle

Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Q

Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle:  th     1  out
Qin Qin Qin Qin

To find Qin and Qout, apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Qnet , 23  U 23
Thus, for constant specific heats,
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )

Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant

Thus, for constant specific heats, Qnet , 41  U 41

Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes 
Qout (T  T )
th , Otto  1   th , Otto  1  4 1
Qin (T  T ) 3 2
mCv (T4  T1 ) T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1  1
mCv (T3  T2 ) T2 (T3 / T2  1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, we see that T2  T3 Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

T1 T4
or
T4 T3

T1 T2
1
where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and  th , Otto  1  k 1
r

We see that increasing the compression

ratio increases the thermal efficiency.
However, there is a limit on r depending
upon the fuel.

2. Diesel Cycle - ideal cycle for the compression-ignition engines (diesel engines). Proposed by Rudolph Diesel, 1890. It is
composed of the following processes:
1-2: isentropic compression
2-3: isobaric heat addition
3-4: isentropic expansion
4-1: isochoric heat rejection

Figure 3. PV and TS Diagrams of Ideal Diesel Cycle

Wnet Q
Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle  th , Diesel   1  out
Qin Qin

To find Qin and Qout, apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant

Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Thus, for constant specific heats
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR (T3  T2 )
Qin  mC p (T3  T2 )

Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant

ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2
(just as we did for the Otto cycle)

Thus, for constant specific heats, Qnet , 41  U 41

Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )

Cv (T4  T1 )
 th , Diesel  1  PV PV
C p (T3  T2 ) * What is T3/T2 ? 3 3
 2 2 where P3  P2
T3 T2
1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1 T3 V3
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)   rc
T2 V2

* where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure of the duration of the heat addition at constant pressure.
Since the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can be related to the number of degrees that the crank rotated
during the fuel injection into the cylinder.

**What is T4/T1 ? PV PV Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so:
4 4
 1 1 where V4  V1
1 1  PV 4 4  PV
k k k k
T4 T1 PV 2 2 and PV 3 3
T4 P4

T1 P1

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and obtain

1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
Therefore  th , Diesel  1 
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)
1 T1 rck  1
 1
k T2 (rc  1)
1 rck  1
 1 k 1
r k (rc  1)

When rc > 1 for a fixed r, ƞth, diesel < ƞth, Otto. But, since rdiesel > rotto, ƞth, diesel > ƞth, Otto

3. Stirling and Ericsson Cycles

The ideal Otto and Diesel cycles are internally reversible, but not totally reversible. Hence their efficiencies will always be less
than that of Carnot efficiency. For a cycle to approach a Carnot cycle, heat addition and heat rejection must take place
isothermally.
• Stirling and Ericsson cycles comprise of isothermal heat addition and heat rejection.
 Both these cycles also have a regeneration process.
• Regeneration, a process during which heat is transferred to a thermal
energy storage device (called a regenerator) during one part of the cycle
and is transferred back to the working fluid during another part of the cycle.

3.a. Stirling Cycle (Robert Stirling) Figure 4. Concept of a Regenerator

Consists of four totally reversible processes:
1-2: isothermal expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3: constant volume regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the regenerator)
3-4: isothermal compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2
4-1: constant volume regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working fluid)

Figure 5. PV and TS Diagrams for Stirling Cycles

3.b. Ericsson Cycle (John Ericsson)

Consists of four totally reversible processes:
1-2: isothermal expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3: constant pressure regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the regenerator)
3-4: isothermal compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4-1: constant pressure regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working fluid)

Figure 6. PV and TS Diagrams for Ericsson Cycles

4. Brayton Cycle – ideal for gas turbine engine

• The Brayton cycle was proposed by George Brayton in 1870 for use in reciprocating engines.
• Modern day gas turbines operate on Brayton cycle and work with rotating machinery.
• Gas turbines operate in open-cycle mode, but can be modeled as closed cycle using air-standard assumptions.
• Combustion and exhaust replaced by constant pressure heat addition and rejection.
• The Brayton cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2: Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3: Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4: Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1: Constant-pressure heat rejection

Figure 7. PV and TS Diagrams for Brayton Cycles

Wnet Q
Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle  th , Brayton   1  out
Qin Qin
To find Qin and Qout, apply the conservation of energy to process 2-3 for P = constant (no work), steady-flow, and neglect changes in
kinetic and potential energies. E in  E out

 2 h2  Q in  m
m  3h3

The conservation of mass gives

 in  m
m  out
m2  m3  m
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

Q in  m (h3  h2 )
For constant specific heats, the heat added per unit mass flow is
Q in  mC
 p (T3  T2 )
Q in
qin   C p (T3  T2 )
m
 out  m
Q  ( h4  h1 )
The conservation of energy for process 4-1 yields for constant specific heats:

Qout  mC
 p ( T4  T1 )
 out
Q
qout   C p ( T4  T1 )
m
The thermal efficiency becomes

Q q (T4  T1 )
 th , Brayton  1  out  1  out  th , Brayton  1 
Qin qin (T3  T2 )
C p (T4  T1 ) T (T / T  1)
 1  1 1 4 1
C p (T3  T2 ) T2 (T3 / T2  1)

Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

T2 T3 T4 T3
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that  or 
T1 T4 T1 T2

T1
The Brayton cycle efficiency becomes  th , Brayton  1 
T2

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

1
where the pressure ratio is rp = P2/P1 and  th , Brayton  1  ( k 1)/ k
rp

Example Problems:
1. An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working fluid. Initially P1 = 95 kPa, T1 = 17oC, and V1 = 3.8
liters. During the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ of heat are added. Determine all T's, P's, th.

2. An ideal 250 KW diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20 and a cutoff ratio of 1.3. The maximum temperature of the air
and the rate of heat addition are to be determined.

3. The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95 kPa, 22 oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1
and the air leaves the heat addition process at 1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit
mass flow, the cycle efficiency, and the back work ratio. Assume constant properties.