A

Project Report
On
Linear Alkyl Benzene [L.A.B.]
Submitted in partial fulfillment towards the bachelor’s
degree in the field of Chemical Engineering

Prepared By
Pritesh S. Chauhan(CH-09)

Guided By

Dr. Mahendra Gaikwad

Department of Chemical Engineering

Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University
College road, Nadiad – 387 001

New Doc 2019-03-08

16.48.35.pdf

I
DECLARATION

I Pritesh Chauhan declare that, the project report on LINEAR ALKYL

BENZENE comprises my original work towards the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Chemical Engineering at Dharmsinh Desai University and is not
copied from any published or proprietary source .I further declare that this work
is of submitted elsewhere degree or diploma in any university or college. The
whole content of this project work is genuine and distinctive.

Pritesh Chauhan
CH-(09),Semester VIII,
Department of Chemical
Engineering,
Faculty of Technology,
Dharmsinh Desai University,
Nadiad-387001

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great pleasure in submitting this In-plant Training Report at

the end of our training period from 10/12/2018 to 02/02/2019 at LAB plant of
NIRMA LIMITED at ALINDRA, VADODARA.

I would also like to thank technician who helped me developing the bridge
between the theoretical knowledge and its practical application in plant and all in
training centre for their help at each stage of difficulty during the training period.

I also thank Dr. M.S.Rao (HOD, Chemical Engineering Department)

and Guide Dr. Mahendra Gaikwad and all the lecturers of CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT for guidance & help in preparation of the
project.

III
 Abbreviation

LAB Linear alkyl benzene

HAB Heavy alkyl benzene

PF Pre-fractionation

UF Union fining

MOLEX Molecular extraction

NP Normal paraffin

NNP Non Normal paraffin

PACOL Paraffin converted to olefin

PEP Pacol enhancement process

DETAL Detergent Alkylation

HO Hot oil

MUG Make up gas compressor

HOH Hot oil heater

ETP Effluent treatment plant

IV
 Nomenclature

Cp Specific heat

 Latent heat of vaporization

M Mass flow rate

Q Heat flow rate

Eo Overall tray efficiency

V Vapour flow rate

Vc Column velocity

D Diameter

A Area

Ρ Density

Co Orifice co-efficient

Vo Hole velocity

H Height

P Pressure

T Temperature

Μ Viscosity

Η Efficiency

T Thickness

tf Roof plate thickness

V
 List Of Figures

Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of LAB 01

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of process 09

Figure 4.2 Process flow diagram of PF 12

Figure 4.3 Process flow diagram of UF 19

Figure 4.4 Process flow diagram of Molex 29

Figure 4.5 Process flow diagram of Pacol 35

Figure 4.6 Process flow diagram of Define 40

Figure 4.7 Process flow diagram of Pep 44

Figure 4.8 Process flow diagram of Detal 48

Figure 5.1 Process flow diagram of H2 Plant 51

Figure 5.2 Diagram of cooling tower 58

Figure 5.3 Process flow diagram of ETP 63

Figure 6.1 PF material balance sheet 73

Figure 6.2 UF material balance sheet 75

Figure 6.3 Molex material balance sheet 76

Figure 6.4 Pacol & Define material balance sheet 78

Figure 6.5 Pep & Detal material balance sheet 79

Figure 10.1 Outside battery limit of plant 102

Figure 10.2 Inside battery limit of plant 103

VI
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Specification of LAB 02

Table 4.1 Contents of hydrotreater catalyst 14

Table 4.2 Suction and discharge pressure for MUG compressor 22

Table 4.3 Contents of Molex adsorbent 23

Table 4.4 Contents of Pacol catalyst 33

Table 4.5 Data of Pacol CFE inlet-outlet temperature 36

Table 4.6 Contents of Define catalyst 38

Table 5.1 Data of Final treated quality of ETP 65

Table 5.2 Data of Tank stored material and its capacity 68

Table 6.1 Data for feed composition of stripper column 70

Table 6.2 Data of stripper overhead composition 71

Table 6.3 Data of stripper bottom composition 71

Table 6.4 Data of rerun top product composition 72

Table 6.5 Data of rerun bottom product composition 72

Table 6.6 Pre-fractionation material balance summery 73

Table 6.7 Union fining material balance summery 74

Table 6.8 Molex material balance summery 76

Table 6.9 Front end material balance summery 77

Table 7.1 Data of CP& QReboiler for equipment 84

Table 7.2 Data of CP& Qfin for equipment 84

Table 8.1 Equilibrium data of x-y data for stripper column 86

VII
Table 8.2 Data for centrifugal pump 91

Table 8.3 Data for storage tank 95

Table 8.4 Data of height-thickness data for storage tank 96

Table 9.1 Fire extinguisher 100

Table 10.1 Color coding of plant 104

Table 11.1 Direct cost of fixed capital investment 105

Table 11.2 Indirect cost of fixed capital investment 106

Table 11.3 Fixed cost 107

Table 11.4 Direct production cost 107

Table 11.5 General expenses 109

VIII
 Contents
Sr No. Contents Page No.

Preface II

Acknowledgment III

Abbreviation IV

Nomenclature V

List of Tables VI

List of Figures VII

1 Introduction to product 01

1.1 Linear alkyl benzene 01

1.2 History 01

1.3 Application of LAB 02

1.4 LAB specification 02

2 Selection of process 03

3 Properties of raw material & by product 07

4 Manufacturing process 10

4.1 Overview of process 10

4.2 Block diagram of process 11

4.3 Process description 12

4.3.1 Prefractionation 12

9
 4.3.2 Union fining 17

4.3.3 Molecular extraction 27

4.3.4 Pacol 42

4.3.5 Define 49

4.3.6 Pep 52

4.3.7 Detal 59

5 Utilities 67

6 Material balance 77

7 Energy balance 87

8 Equipment design 92

9 Fire & Safety 105

10 Plant layout & location 108

11 Cost Estimation 113

12 References 117
10
 Chapter: 1 Introduction to Product

1.1 Linear Alkyl Benzene [LAB]

Linear alkyl benzene is sometimes referring as LAB. It is an intermediate in detergent

production.

The chemical structure of LAB is shown in figures below:

Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of LAB

1
.

1.2 Application of LAB

LAB is the most common raw material for the manufacture of bio-degradable household
detergents. It is sulphonated to produce linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LAS).

1.3 LAB Specification

Table 1.1 Specification of LAB

Property Specification

Appearance Clear colorless liquid

Odor Odor less

Boiling Point 282 – 302 oC

Flash Point 130 oC

Aniline Point 15.9

Average Molecular Weight 235 – 239 Kg/Kmol

Specific Gravity at 20oC 0.855 – 0.870

Kinematic Viscosity at 40oC 4.3 centistokes

Vapor Pressure at 20oC 0.01mmHg

Bromine Index 10 max mg/100g

Moisture 200 max ppm

2
 Chapter: 2 Selection process

2.1 Introduction

The commercial development of LAB focused on the extraction of high purity linear par-
affin derived from kerosene feed. This linear paraffin was dehydrogenated to linear internal
mono-olefins. Using a catalyst dehydrogenated effluent was used to alkyl ate benzene to pro-
duce LAB. The resulting LAB product became the detergent intermediate for the production
of linear alkyl benzene sulfonate which is a major biodegradable synthetic surfactant which
re-placed do-decyl benzene having slow rates of biodegradation.

2.2.1 Detergent History

• Late 1940’s
• Rise of modern synthetic detergent industries.
• Dodecylbenzene was used as the main ingredient.
• 1950’s
• Biodegradation became hot topic.
• Development of synthetic Linear Alcohol started.
• 1960’s
• LAB was developed.
• 1990’s
• Detal process was developed.

3
 Routes of producing LAB

Olefins from C2=

Olefins from
Dehydrogenation HF LAB
Olefins from
Dehydrochlorination
Olefins from
from Wax Cracking Detal
AlCl3
Chloroparaffins
Pure Olefins
Olefins

Raw material suppliers are

 Kerosene – IOCL(by Pipelines)

 Benzene – Reliance(by road through tankers)

 N-pentane – PPL, Oriented Ltd.(by road through tankers)



2.2.2 Available production processes for LAB

There are five production processes of LAB :

[1] UOP/HF n-paraffin process:

The HF process involving dehydrogenation of n-paraffin to olefins & subsequent reaction

with benzene using HF as catalyst. These process accounts for the majority of the installed LAB

4
production in the world, It includes a PACOL stage where n-paraffin are converted to mono-
olefins a Define unit whose primary function is to convert residual diolefin to mono-olefin a
Pep unit a alkylation step where alkylation of benzene is done by reaction between benzene &
paraffin by using HF acid as catalyst.

[2] UOP/Detal process:

This is a newer technology & has several of stages same as in the HF process but it is
principally different in the benzene alkylation step, during which a solid-state catalyst (Detal)
is employed (AlSiF4).

[3] Friedel-craft alkylation:

Friedel-craft involves chlorination of n-paraffin to mono chloro paraffin followed by ben-

zene

Alkylation with AlCl3 catalyst. This is an oldest process.

[4] HF /olefin process:

Purchased olefins reacted with benzene in presence of HF or AlCl3 catalyst.

[5] Sasol process:

In this process chlorination of n-paraffin to mono-chlorinated paraffin followed by

dechlorina-tion to produce olefins & subsequent benzene alkylation.

2.3 Selection of process

Several LAB production processes are reviewed. The emphasis is on the Detal & HF pro-
cesses as these are the dominant technologies in the LAB industry today.

5
UOP HF process involve the problem of corrosion catalyst neutralization, disposal of HF&
enviournmental concern while Detal technology is very safe, non corrosive ,eco friendly &
zero discharge. Detal process uses solid catalyst which is regenerable over life of 2 yrs, so it
is also economically viable.

From the overall observations Detal process is preferred for LAB production.

6
 Chapter: 3 Properties of raw material & by product

Raw Materials Specifications

Superior Kerosene (LABFS):

Unit Specification
Composition range C7 to C17
Colour Saybolt 18 min
Bromine index gm/100 gm 11 max
Sulphur wt ppm 3000 max
Aromatics vol% 25 max
Smoke point mm 18 min
Flash point °C 40 min
nC10– C13 wt% 15 min
Boiling Range °C 175-265
Vapor density 4.5 (air=1)
Specific gravity at 15°C .79-.82 (H2O=1)
Flammable Yes
LEL 1.16%
UEL 6%
Flash point °C >34.2
Autoignition temp °C 254

Benzene (Benzol):
Unit Specification
Formula C6H6
Colour Pt – Co Scale 20 max
Boiling point °C 80
Melting point °C 5.5
Vapor density 2.7 (air=1)
Specific gravity at 15 °C .875-.886(H2O=1)
Flammable Yes
LEL 1.3%
UEL 7.1%
Flash point °C -11.1
Autoignition temp. °C 580

7
Hydrogen:
Unit Specification
Formula H2
Boiling point °C -252
Melting point °C -259
Vapor density 0.0788 (air=1)
Specific gravity at 15°C 0.0695 (water=1)
Flammable Yes
LEL 4.1%
UEL 74.2%

N-pentane:
Unit Specification
Molecular weight kg/kmol 72.2
Boiling point °C 36
Specific gravity at 15°C .63

I-octane:
Unit Specifications
Molecular weight kg/kmol 119.2
Specific gravity at 15°C .7
Vapor pressure mm Hg 11

8
Product Specifications

Linear Alkyl Benzene:

Unit Specifications

Formula CH2(CH2)m-CH(CH3)nCH3

C6H5

Colour colourless
Flash point °C 140
Boiling range °C 200-260
Specific gravity at 15°C .855-.865 (water=1)
Moisture content 500 max
Bromine index mg/100mg 30 ppm max
Molecular wt 31 max
Flammable No
LEL 0.5%
UEL 5%

Heavy Alkyl Benzene:

Unit Specifications
Flash point °C 170
Density kg/m3 876
Molecular weight kg/kgmol 386
Viscosity cp 1161

9
 Chapter: 4 Manufacturing Process

4.1 Overview of process

The process plant is divided into two main sections. These two sections contain process units.

[1] Front end

 
 Pre-fractionation (PF)
 
 Union fining (UF)
 
 Molecular extraction (MOLEX)

[2] Back end

 
 Paraffin converted to olefin (Pacol)
 
 Pacol Enhancement Process (Pep)
 
 Define
 
Detergent Alkylation (Detal)

Kerosene Pre-fractionation is used to tailor the kerosene feed to the desired carbon range.
Kerosene is stripped off light ends and heavier ends so that the heart cut, containing the desired n-
paraffin for the production of LAB of a certain range of molecular weight is produced.

The Distillate Union Fining process hydro treats kerosene at sufficient severity to remove
sulphur, nitrogen, olefins, and oxygenates compounds which might poison the Molex adsorbent.

The Molex process is a liquid state separation of n-paraffin from branched and cyclic components
using Sorbex Technology. The simulated moving bed adsorptive separation results from using a pro-
prietary multiport rotary valve. The extract stream is a high purity n-paraffin stream. The raffinate
stream, consist mainly of iso-kerosene or cyclic-kerosene range compounds.

In Pacol process, the n-paraffin are de-hydrogenated in a vapor phase reaction

correspondingmono-olefins over a highly selective and active catalyst. The Define process is a liquid
phase selective hydrogenation of di-olefins in the Pacol reactor effluent to corresponding mono-
olefins over a catalyst bed.

The P.E.P process allows the selective removal of aromatics in the feed to the Detal. The Detal
process is a solid catalyst fixed bed process in which benzene is alkylated with mono-olefins
produced in Pacol Unit.

10
4.2 Block diagram of Process

C7-C9 H2 NNP

NNP+NP
KEROSENE PRE C10-C13
UNION FINING MOLEX
FRACTIONATION

C14-C17 NP

NP
BENZENE

MONO MONO
PACOL + PEP DETAL
DEFINE
NP DI OLEFIN +NP
+
NP
H2 Aromatics LAB HAB
C10-C13 C11-C14

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of process

11
4.3 Process description

The process is divided into two parts:

 
Front End: 
 Prefractination unit
 Union fining unit
Molex unit (Molex Extraction)

 
Back End:
Pacol unit (Paraffin Conversion to Olefin)
Define unit (Di-olefin conversion to mono olefin)
PEP unit (Pacol Enhancement Process)
Detal unit (Detergent Alkylation)

In front end, n-paraffin is produced from the kerosene.

In back end, LAB is produced from n-paraffin.

A. Front end:

4.3.1 Pre-fractionation (PF)

4.3.1.1 Introduction
LAB manufacturing requires special type of feed. To get this specification Pre-frac-
tionation is used. The feed to the Pre-fractionation unit is straight run Kerosene, which
contains carbon range C7 to C17.This stream contains considerably more nonlinear
hydrocarbon than linear hydrocarbon. Pre-fractionation section contains one stripper column
and one rerun col-umn. The carbon range for LAB feed is from nC10 to nC13 for light LAB
product and nC11 to nC14 for heavy LAB product. Stripper column removes lighter
components up to C9 and rerun column removes C14 to C17 the heavier components. The
product stream from rerun column called “Heart-cut” which contain C10-C13carbon range
along with contaminants like organic sulphur, nitrogen & metal compounds.

12
4.3.1.2 Process flow description
Supply kerosene from the storage tank is pumped through fresh feed/rerun bottom
ex-changer bottom exchanger gets pre-heated to 910C & then to feed/rerun pump around
exchanger where it is heated from 910C to1380C & fed to 26th tray of the stripper column. In
the Stripper columns the lighter ends C7-C9 are stripped on temperature difference & removed
from top. The heat load to the stripper column is supplied by thermos-siphon type re-boiler &
the heating medium used is circulating hot oil [Therminol].
The stripper column overhead vapors are condensed in fin fan cooler, where it is cooled

from 158 °C to 770C. The condensed liquid is collected in receiver. Before the stripper overhead
is send to fin fan cooler, water wash is given for dilution of the halide impurities which may
corrode the fin pipes. From the receiver, the non-condensable goes to the flare header. The
receiver floats on the flare header pressure, positive nitrogen pressure given as purge eliminates
any possibility of back flow to the receiver which may lead to contamination. The condensed
liquid in the receiver separates into water & kerosene. The sour water collects in the receiver boot
and is send to Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP).One stream of the receiver liquid is sent as reflux
to the column & the other stream is sent to rerun return kerosene storage tanks.
The bottom product from stripper column is pumped by stripper column bottom pump

& fed to the 27th tray of the rerun column. This stream contains C10& other heavier hydrocar-
bons and will be at about 236°C.This stream is sent to the rerun column. This column is pro-
vided with two reboiler [for stand by].Thermo-siphon reboiler supplies heat to the rerun col-
umn. The heating medium used is circulating hot oil [Therminol] & its flow is controlled by
Flow Control Valve. This column is operated under vacuum & its vacuum is maintained by
the vacuum pump.
The overhead of rerun column is C10-C13 heart cut. The overhead vapours (O/H va-pours)
are condensed in built in packed bed contact condenser by the flow controlled cold reflux

& collected in the O/H accumulator located below contact condenser. The temperature of the
accumulator tray is around 159 °C. The rerun column O/H pumps take suction from the accu-
mulator and delivers into three separate streams. The first stream is sent as hot reflux on the

first tray controlled by Flow Control Valve (FCV), which is cascaded with TRC [41 st tray tem-
perature].The second stream is taken as a side stream, downstream of feed/rerun pump around
exchanger routed through rerun pump around cooler cooled to 55°C and sent to the top of con-tact
condenser as cold reflux controlled by FCV. The third stream is the feed to UF unit. It has

13
a carbon range of C10-C13 hydrocarbons. The bottom products from the rerun column are
pumped by rerun bottom pump to the kerosene tanks via feed/rerun bottom exchanger and re-
turn kerosene cooler. This stream will have carbon range of C14-C17 hydrocarbons.

Figure 4.2 process flow diagram of PF ( Stripper and Rerun Column )

14
4.3.1.3 Process equipments

[1] Stripper column

Stripper column consists of 50 trays. The feed enters on the 26th tray. It has a narrow
cross sectional area at the top while it is broad from bottom. The input of heat is from bottom
through horizontal Thermo-siphon type reboiler. The heat input is the only independent varia-
ble which will affect the reflux rate and as a result the distillation efficiency of the column. The
stripper bottom is pumped from column on level controller and sent directly to rerun column.

[2] Rerun column

The Rerun column consists of 50 trays. There is no separate storage tank on top but there
is an inbuilt accumulator which stores the heart cut. Heat input to this column is provided by
Hot Oil circulation to the Reboiler. The Rerun column is operated under vacuum to minimize
the required heat input. The vacuum conditions are maintained by a line from top of column
to LRVP.
[3] Thermosyphon reboilers

Thermosyphon reboilers do not require pumping of the column bottoms liquid into
the reboiler. Natural circulation is obtained by using the density difference between the re-
boiler inlet column bottoms liquid and the reboiler outlet liquid-vapor mixture to provide suf-
ficient liquid head to deliver the tower bottoms into the reboiler.

15
 Thermosyphon reboilers (also known as calandrias) are more complex than kettle re-
boilers and require more attention from the plant operators. There are many types of
thermosy-phon reboilers including vertical, horizontal, once-through or recirculating.

Thermo-siphon Reboiler

16
4.3.2 Union fining (UF)

4.3.2.1 Introduction
Contaminants like Sulphur, Nitrogen and Metals compounds are present in the petro-
leum fraction. Purpose of Union fining process is to remove these contaminants as they lead
to problems like increase in air pollution, corrosion & difficulties in further processing of ma-
terial [damage the molecular sieves used in MOLEX].
Union fining is a catalytic, fixed bed process developed by UOP for hydro treating a
wide range of feed stocks. This process uses a catalytic hydrogenation method to upgrade the
quality of petroleum fractions by decomposing contaminants with negligible effect on the boil-ing
range of the feed. This process removes sulphur & nitrogen & saturates olefin & aromatic
compounds while reducing other contaminants like oxygenates & organ metallic compounds.

The hydrogenation of feed is obtained by processing the feedstock over a fixed bed
of catalyst in the presence of large amount of hydrogen. UNIONFINING is the fixed bed
cata-lyzation process in which “NIMOX” catalyst based on alumina used for removal of these
con-taminants by hydro treating. After hydro treating reaction 0.2wt% sulphur & 0.02wt%
nitrogen are permissible.
UF reactor catalyst: The Hydro-treator catalyst consists of oxides of nickel and molybdenum
impregnated on an alumina base. The catalyst is prepared either as a sphere or an extrudate
with special shapes. The catalyst is yellowish green in colour and odourless.

Table 4.1 Contents of Hydro treater Catalyst

Content Weight Percent

Aluminum Oxide 65 – 80

Molybdenum Trioxide 10 – 19

Phosphorus Oxide 02 – 08

Nickel Oxide 01 – 05

4.3.2.2 Process Principles:

17
 Union fining is carried out at elevated temperatures which may range upto 750 °F
and pressure of 1200psi in hydrogen atmosphere.

The union fining catalyst consists of varying amounts of nickel or cobalt with mo-
lybdenum oxides on an alumina base. The design depends on feed quality, desired product
properties, desired cycle length, operating flexibility, ease of operation & operating costs.

Hydro treating chemistry:

The following chemical steps and reactions occur during hydro treating process.

 Sulphur removal:

Union fining feed contains Mercaptans, sulphides and disulphides. These com-
pounds get easily converted to H2S. But feed stocks containing heteroatomic aromatic mole-
cules are more difficult to process. Desulphurization of these compounds proceeds by initial
ring opening & then sulphur removal which is followed by saturation of the resulting olefin.
Thiophene is considered 15 times more difficult to process compared to diethyl sulfide.


Mercaptan:
C-C-C-C-SH + H2 C-C-C-C + H2S


Sulfide:
C-C-S-C-C + 2H2 2C-C + H2S


Disulfide:
C-C-S-S-C-C + 3H2 2C-C + 2H2S

Cyclic sulfide:
C
C C + 2H2 C-C-C-C (and C-C-C) + H2S

C C

S

Thiophene:
C
C C + 4H2 C-C-C-C (and C-C-C) + H2S

C C

18
Nitrogen removal:

Denitrogenation is more difficult than desulfurization. Side reactions may take place
which may yield nitrogen compounds more difficult to hydrogenate than the original reactant.
Saturation of heterocyclic nitrogen containing rings is hindered by large attached groups. The
denitrogenation of pyridine proceeds by aromatic ring saturation, ring hydrogenolysis, and fi-
nally denitrogenation.


Pyridine:
C
C C C
+ 4H2 C-C-C-C-C (and C-C-C-C) + NH3
C C
N


Quinoline:
C C C
C C C C C-C-C-C
+ 4H2 + NH3
C C C C C
C N C

Pyrole:
C
C C + 4H2 C-C-C-C (and C-C-C) + NH3

C C

 Oxygen Removal:

Organically combined oxygen is removed by hydrogenation of the carbon-hydroxyl

bond forming water & corresponding hydrocarbon.


Phenol:
OH

C C
C C C C
+ H2 + H2O
C C C C
C C

19
Olefin Saturation:

This reaction proceeds very fast & has a high heat of reaction.


Linear olefin:
C-C=C-C-C-C + H2 C-C-C-C-C-C (and isomers)


Cyclic olefin:
C C
C C C C
+ H2
C C C C
C C

 Aromatic saturation:

The saturation reaction is very difficult & highly exothermic.

C C
C C C C
+ H2
C C C C
C C

 Metal removal:

Crude oil contains metals like Ni, Pb, Va, Fe, etc. These metals are also removed
from the crude oil by this process. The mechanism of organometallic compound
decomposition is not well understood. The metals are retained on the catalyst by combination
of adsorption & chemical reaction. Removal of metal occurs normally in plug flow fashion.
Nickel, Vanadium and Iron are removed as metal sulfides which are corrosion products. Lead
deposits on the catalyst & gets removed.

Catalyst has a certain tolerance for retaining metals. Useful life of the catalyst may be
determined based on the amount of metal that has accumulated on it during the operation. Metal
removal is essentially complete above 600 °F to a metal loading of 2-3% of the total catalyst.

Above this level, catalyst begins to approach equilibrium saturation & metal break-
through is likely.

 Halide removal:

Organic halides like chlorides and bromides are also decomposed in the reactor. The
inorganic ammonium halide salts which are produced, when the reactants are cooled, are dis-
solved by injecting water into the reactor effluent or leave with the stripper off-gas.

20
  Reaction Rates:

UF reactions are exothermic in nature so they result in temperature rise across the
reac-tor. Olefin saturation generates greatest amount of heat.

 Hydrocracking reactions:

UF products are of lower density than the feed stock. Therefore, total liquid yield will
be greater than the feed. Hydro cracking may also take place in the UF process. This usually
happens towards the end of an operating cycle when reactor temperatures are raised to com-
pensate for lower catalyst activity. As the reaction proceeds, total liquid yield & hydrogen
con-sumption increases.

 Hydrogen Consumption:

Hydrogen consumed by UF reactor is supplied by Pacol process unit & H2 plant. UF

reactor is not designed to operate at hydrogen purities below 70% due to the adverse effect on
the catalyst performance & excessive compressor horsepower.

 Catalyst:

Unionfining catalyst consists of nickel/cobalt & molybdenum impregnated on an alu-

mina base. For a given unit, specific catalyst is selected based on type of feedstock, desired
product properties & process design conditions.

 Catalyst deactivation:

Catalyst deactivation is caused mainly due to coke formation.
Coke is formed when polynuclear & olefin compounds condense into high molecular weight
& low H2 containing compounds. Coke covers active sites &/or prevents access to these sites
by physical blockage of the entrance to the pores leading to the sites. Deactivation increases
with time & magnitude of temperature catalyst is exposed to. Reactor temperature is
increased to compensate for the decline in activity of catalyst caused due to coke
accumulation. This in turn increases rate of coke formation & reducing length of operating
cycle. Catalyst activity is recovered by regeneration.

Catalyst sintering also causes catalyst deactivation. Catalyst
support & active metal sites can be sintered upon exposure to high temperature. Under these
conditions, active metals become mobile & agglomerate. Thus active sites are lost & catalytic
activity reduces. Catalyst support losses surface area due to collapse of pores or due to
increase in pore diameter with pore volume remaining constant.

Catalyst deactivation also depends on hydrogen partial pressure.
Hydrogen partial pressure is the system pressure times the hydrogen purity. At a given
system pressure, the recycle gas purity will determine the partial pressure of hydrogen in the
reactor. If the H2 purity decreases the reaction rate also decreases. Thus it leads to coke
formation which in turn decreases catalyst activity. The minimum H2 gas purity is 70%.

21
4.3.2.3 Process flow description
Product from pre fraction unit is stored in the feed surge drum of union fining unit.
By using sun dyne pump it is pumped to combined feed heat exchanger, here the temperature
of feed is increases up to 2920C and again it is send to charge heater for further increasing of
temperature. Outlet of charge heater is at 3110C. The heat exchanger is known as combined
feed heat exchanger because here H2 and feed both are heated with the outlet of catalytic bed
reactor by using sun dyne pump the pressure is increases up to 75 – 80 kg/cm2.

In the catalytic bed there are two beds provided. In the reactor hydrogenation
reaction is carry out, & hydrogenation reactions are exothermic in nature. The reactor
containing two beds to maintaining temperature by providing quenching of hydrogen. In this
catalytic bed re-actor NIMOX catalyst is used. It is Nickel with Molybdenum oxide catalyst
on alumina based. In the reactor temperature and pressure requirement are high because for
sulfur removal high temperature is required and for nitrogen removal high pressure is
required. At the output of reactor water injection and hydrogen addition is carried out. Water
injection is carried out in order to dissolve the (NH3)2S formed during the reaction. In the
reactor the H2/ HC ratio is about 500 (volume basis), and about the makeup gas it is
depending upon the reaction conver-sion.

The makeup gas comes from MUG compressor’s 4thstage. By number of compressors
in series the pressure is increases from 2 kg/cm2 to 15 kg/cm2.This outlet of reactor goes to
fin fan cooler and is send to high pressure separator. Here the pressure is reduces from 75 – 7
kg/cm2. At the top of separator hydrogen is separated and that hydrogen is going to recycle
gas compressor. The liquid of high pressure separator is then sent to low pressure separator.
The reduction of pressure is carried out by using angle valve.

From low pressure separator the liquid is sent to product stripper column, and off
gases are removed from the top. These off gases are used in Hot Oil Heater (H.O.H.) as a fuel.
Over head of product stripper column is cooled in fin fan cooler and sent to receiver. From
the boot of receiver the sour water is coming out, which goes to STP plant. One fraction of
liquid from receiver is recycled back to product stripper and the other fraction is sent to light
end stripper column. The bottom of product stripper column is the final product of the Union
fining unit which is feed for the MOLEX unit. The light end stripper column bottom is sent to
return ker-osene tank. This column is on the total reflux condition.

22
Figure 4.3 Process flow diagram of UF

23
4.3.2.4 Process Equipments

[1] Reactor:

A Kerosene Union Fining reactor is typically constructed of 1.25 Cr-0.25 Mo, 2.25 Cr–1 Mo
base metals with S.S lining. The alloy is selected on excellent corrosion resistant properties.

Reactor has two beds of catalysts with one inter bed quenching zone.

The Reactor consists:

1. Inlet Diffuser

It is inserted into the inlet nozzle to eliminate a symmetric flow pattern, reduce fluid ve-
locity and distribute the liquid evenly across the tray.
2. Vapor/Liquid Distribution tray

Optimum catalyst performance is achieved when efficient contact of reactant is there. The
tray is fabricated sections by beams and a ring on vessel wall. Cylindrical risers with slotted
caps are evenly spaced across top of tray.
3. Quenched Section

24
 The reaction system is divided into multiple catalyst bed with each bed separated by
quench section. The quench assembly is designed to thoroughly mix quench gas with effluent
from previous bed and re-distribute the reactants uniformly over the top of next catalyst bed.
[2] Stripper column:

This is a vertical vessel constructed of carbon Steel. It is made up of number of sieve trays
which will vary depending on units designed. Feed is introduced towards the middle of col-
umns. The stripper is typically reboiled with circulating Hot Oil. The stripper bottom is
pumped out from bottom of column while vapor flows to overhead condenser. Liquid reflux
is returned to top of column above tray number 1.

[3] Light ends stripper column:

The column is a vertical carbon steel vessel which is fitted with internals to support two
packed beds for vapor liquid contact.

[4] Charge heater:

The Charge Heater of UF section is made up of S.S 34%. It produces the desired reaction
temperature of 311°C.
It consists of two sections
(i) Radiation Section: Consists of 28 vertical tubes. Feed passes through the tubes.
(ii) Convection Section: Consists of 18 horizontal tubes. Feed passed through the tubes where
it is heated by convection currents of flue gases rising.

The charge heater is single pass. The source of heat is 3 burners. Fuel Oil is used as fuel &
reaction temperature of 311°C is obtained.

[5] Sundyne pump:

Sun dyne pump is also called vertical pump, it is used for high flow and high pressure.
Here we need high pressure to keep the kerosene in liquid phase. It consists of one main shaft
which is coupled with motor which rotates at 30,000 rpm. There are two gears, one having
small grooves fixed with other having large grooves. Again this large gear is grooved with
small. The arrangement is such that one revolution of large gear produces 3-4 revolutions of
smaller grooves. The pump produces a discharge pressure of 117 kg/cm2 .It is high speed
pump with 20600 rpm.

[6] Recycle gas compressor:

It is constructed of killed carbon steel with 316 SS mesh blanket for entrained liquid re-
moval located towards top of the reactor. Gas enters side of vessel and leaves out from the top

25
and condenses liquid and is drained periodically from bottom. It is single stage double acting
compressor. There are two pistons and two cylinders for continuous discharge. H2 gas from
HPS goes to cooler. Thus liquid particles get separated and gas then goes to separator. It has a
mesh blanket. The suction pressure of R.G compressor is 68kg/cm2 and discharge pressure is
78 kg/cm2.

[7] Make up gas compressor:

It is constructed of killed carbon steel. It is four stage single acting compressor. The
suction and discharge pressure of the four stages are:

Table 4.2 Suction & Discharge pressure for MUG compressor

Suction pressure Discharge pressure

1st Stage 1.8 7

2nd Stage 7 18

3rd Stage 18 39

4th Stage 39 80

The H2 gas feed to this compressor is from PACOL unit. If PACOL unit is closed H2 gas is
added to the third stage from hydrogen plant. The first two stages run on spill back. Thus it
increases pressure from 1.8 kg/cm2 to 80 kg/cm2.

26
4.3.3 :- MOLEX UNIT

4.3.3.1 Introduction:

Molex Process

The UOP Molex process is an effective method of continuously separating normal

paraffin from a stream of co-boiling hydrocarbons by means of physically selective
adsorption. The feed stock, essentially having the same properties of kerosene, is separated
into a high purity normal paraffin fraction at high recoveries, and a non-normal fraction.

The process simulates countercurrent contact between a fixed bed adsorbent and the
feed stream. It uses a solid adsorbent, liquid desorbent, and a flow- directing device called the
Rotary Valve.

Adsorbent

The key to the UOP Molex process is the proprietary molecular sieve, capable of pref-
erentially adsorbing the narrow, straight chain normal paraffin while excluding the bulkier non-
normal. It is this difference in physical shape that allows the separation to take place.

Desorbent

The desorbent is a liquid mixture of a different boiling point than the feed
components and is capable of displacing the adsorbed normal paraffins from the pores of the
sieve and displacing the non-normal component from the non-selective volume of the
adsorbent. Normal pentane (nC5) and iso-octane (2,2,4 trimethyl pentane) both boil much
lower than the feed components and therefore can be easily fractionated and recycled.

Feed

Paraffinic compounds those having all saturated, single bonds, in the c10, c14 range,
are typically fed to the Molex unit. Molex separates the straight chain n-paraffins (nP) from
the iso-paraffins and aromatics (nnP).

Products

Molex produces two product streams, the extract, containing a mixture of normal
par-affins and desorbent, and the raffinate, containing the non-normals and desorbent. Both
streams are sent to columns, which remove the recyclable, desorbent and produce a high
purity normal or non-normal product. The normal paraffins can be sent down stream for
further processing in a pacol unit for the production of linear n-olefins.

27
4.3.3.2 Process Theory:
INTRODUCTION


During the course of the UOP Molex process development, an adsorbent was
produced that selectively adsorbed normal paraffins, a compatible desorbent material
was identi-fied, and a mechanical system to simulate the continuous counter-current
flow of ad-sorbent and process liquid was perfected. In this sectionon Molex theory,
the basic techniques used to develop this system will be discussed.


The equilibrium section will introduce the reader to the concept of selectivity which is
used to evaluate different adsorbents. Kinetic tests are used to obtain an indication of
selectivity and capacity, mass transfer rates, desorbent compatibility, the effects of
feed composition changes, and tailing problems. After these kinetic tests are

completed and an adsorbent-desorbent system is selected, the process is ready for
commercial scale testing.


The section on the commercial design presents the ideas that were developed to produce a
continuous counter-current process using the adsorbent-desorbent system. The con-
tinuous counter-current separation process was first conceived as a moving bed system.
This system evolved in to a stationary bed design with adsorbent chambers and a Rotary
to help develop a better
Valve. Along with this information, several models are presented
mental picture of how the simulated moving bed system works.


In summary, this section presents the stages of development that took place in the
evo-lution of the Molex process. These stages lay the foundation for Molex theory. In
the subsequent on “Process Calculations” and “Process Variables”  a practical
presentation of the theory and methods of operation will be presented.

ADSORBENT THEORY


It is convenient to visualize the adsorbent as a porous solid having certain characteris-tics.
When the solid is immersed in a liquid mixture, the pores become filled with liquid. At
equilibrium, the composition of the liquid in the pores will be different from that of the
liquid surrounding the particles. The adsorbent is said to be physically selective for the
component which is more concentrated in the pores than in the surrounding liquid.


Adsorbents have been produced which differ widely from each other in physical prop-
based on the synthetic crystalline ze-
erties. This is particularly the case for adsorbents
olites designated generically as molecular sieves.


The adsorbent employed in Molex is a specially prepared molecular sieve with
selective pores. From the structure of the variuos hydrocarbon depeicted in Figure II-
1, it may be seen that n-paraffin has much smaller maximum diameter thatn the other
species present. The pore diameter of the sieve is selected so that the n-paraffins can
 the crystal structure, while the
pass through the pores and in to the cavities within
other species are excluded because of their size.

28
 
The non-adsorbed branched and cyclic paraffins, referred to as non-normal, they may
become entrained in the large sieve voids but are easily removed by washing the ad-

sorbent with a non-desorptive hydrocarbon, such as iso-octane (iC8). The iC8 effec-
tively flushes away the non-normals while leaving the adsorbed n-paraffins intact.


To displace the n-paraffins from the selective pores, short linear chained paraffin such
as normal pentane (nC5) must be used. By virtue of its short length and small
diameter, the nc5 is extremely mobile and can easily pass in to the selective pores of
the sieve and displace the larger c10-c14 n-paraffins.

MECHANICAL DESIGN


The adsorbent performs the physical separation as described above, but in order to op-
erate continuously, a mechanical method must be implemented. To facilitate explana-

tion of the mechanical separation, it is advantageous to develop the process in stages
by means of increasingly complex models.

1. BATCH SYSTEM


If Molex were approached as a batch system, it would contain three basic steps: Feed
 (or molecular sieve contaminant removal), and Desorption (or n-
Adsorption, Purification
paraffin recovery).

A. Feed Adsorption


A vessel full of molecular sieve, is filled with feed material. With adequate time, a
concentration difference of n-paraffins between the material adsorbed by the molecular
sieve and the surrounding liquid will exist. The concentration of n-paraffins will be
higher in the molecular sieve due to the physical limitation of only n-paraffins being able
to enter the selective pores. These selective pores make up approximately 11% of the total
volume in the vessel. The remaining larger, non-selective, pores will contain both n-
paraffins and non-normal hydrocarbons. If the liquid is drained by opening  the bottom
 valve, the liquid between the molecular sieve particles would be removed.

B. Purification


To remove the remaining non-normals form the non-selective pores, a lighter non-
nor-mal material, like iC8 can be used to flush the molecular sieve. By flushing
enough iC8 through the molecular sieve, all of the heavier non-normals will be
removed out the bottom of the vessel. This will leave only n-paraffins in the selective
pores and iC8 in the larger pores. The material removed form the bottom of the vessel
 could then be fractionated to recover the iC8 from the heavier non-normals.



C. Desorption



With n-paraffins in the selective pores and iC8 in the remaining volume, the heavy normal paraffins are
recovered using a mixture of desorbent, nC5 and iC8.

29
 
By flushing at a relatively high rate with the desorbent, the nC5 will displace the
heavy normal paraffins from the selective pores. The liquid drained from the bottom
of the vessel can then befractionated to separate the desorbent material from the
heavy normal paraffins.


The batch system would work very  well, except the efficiency would be poor and the mechanics of
operations would be prohibitive.

2. MOVING BED SYSTEM


In moving bed system,the adsorbent circulates continuously as a dense bed, in a closed
cycle, and moves up the adsorbent chamber from bottom to top. Liquid streams flow
down through the bed, counter-current to the solid. The solid consists of both selective
pores and non-selective pores. For simplicity, the feed is assumed to bea binary mixture
of A and B, with component A being adsorbed selectively relative to B.


Desorbent, D is introduced to the moving bed model at a point above the extract loca-
tion. The desorbent is a liquid of a different boiling point from the feed components
and a high adsorbent selectivity. This means that the desorbent can desorb the feed
 and in downstream fractionation can be separated
components from the adsorbent
from the feed components.


Zone Flush, Hz or Z, enters the system immediately below the extract point. The Zone
Flush is a non-desorptive hydrocarbon of a different boiling point than the feed com-
ponents. Therefore the flush can wash away the non-adsorbed impurities without dis-
species and easily separated from the feed components
placing the desirable adsorbed
in downstream fractionation.


Raffinate product, consisting of the less strongly adsorbed component B mixed with
desorbent and Zone Flush is withdrawn from a position below the feed entry. Extract
product, consisting of the more strongly adsorbed component A mixed with desorbent
and Zone Flush is withdrawn from the chamber above the feed point. Only a portion 
of the flowing liquid in the bed is withdrawn, and the remainder continues to flow.


The positions of introduction and withdrawal of net streams divide the bed in to four
main
zones, each of which performs a different function. The zones are described be-low:


Zone I is defined as the section between the feed and raffinate points. The primary
function of Zone I is to adsorb A from the liquid. The solid entering the bottom of this
zone carries only B and D in its pores. As the liquid stream flows downward, counter-
current to this solid, component A is transferred from the liquid stream in to the selec-
tive pores of the solid. At the same time, component D is desorbed from the selective
pores due to concentration driving forces and selectivity differences. This means it is
transferred from the selective pores to the liquid stream making room for A in the se-
 are adsorbed from the liquid
lective pores. Zone I is the zone in which the n-paraffins
phase. Thus, it is referred to as the Adsorption Zone.

30
 
Zone II is defined as the section between the extract and feed points. The primary
function of Zone II is to remove B from the non-selective pores of the solid. When
the solid arrives at the feed point, the selective pores will contain the quantity of A
that was adsorbed in Zone I. However, the non-selective pores will also contain a
quantity of B, because the solid does not make a perfect separation. As the solid
moves up-ward, B is gradually washed from the seive. The liquid beneath the zone
flush point contains very little B only A and Hz. Thus, when the solid arrives at the
zone flush point, the pores will contain essentially only A and Hz. By proper
regulation of the liquid rate in Zone II, B can be almost completely removed from the
sieve. This can be done without simultaneously desorbing all of A, because A is more
strongly ad-sorbed than B. the small section of Zone II between the zone flush and
extract points serves as a buffer. It keeps the highly desorptive D or any additional A
from entering the remainder of Zone II where it would desorb A from the pores and
carried out with the raffinate. This buffer zone is maintained by allowing the net
 in which n-paraffins
liquid flow to run co-current with the sieve. Zone II is the zone
are purified. Thus, it is referred to as the Purification Zone.


Zone III is defined as the section between the desorbent and extract points. The func-
tion of this zone is to desorb A from the pores. The solid entering the zone carries A,
Hz and D in the selective and non-selective pores; the liquid entering the top of the
zone consists of pure D. As the solid rises, A in the pores is displaced by D. Zone III

is the zone in which n-paraffins are desorbed from the solid. Thus, it is referred to as
the Desorption Zone.


Zone IV is defined as the section between the raffinate and desorbent points. The pur-
pose of Zone IV is to keep component B which is at the bottom of Zone I from flow-
ing through Zone IV and Zone III and contaminate the extract material. If the flow
rate is set so that desorbent flows up in Zone IV, raffinate material would be pre-
vented from gaining access to Zone III where it would contaminate the extract stream.
This means that the main function of Zone IV is to separate Zone III from Zone I and
 it is referred to as the Buffer Zone.

3. PROBLEMS WITH CIRCULATING SOLIDS


The use of a moving bed introduces the problem of mechanical erosion of the
adsorbent, and the problem of obtaining uniform flow of both solid and liquid in beds
 of this type of operation can be greatly degraded
of large diameter. The performance
by non-uniform of either phase.


Another arrangement that might be  considered is the use of a series of fluidized beds, in which solid
overflows from each bed to the next.


This, however, would involve a sacrifice in mass-transfer efficiency because the num-
ber of theoretical equilibrium trays can not exceed the number of physical beds. In
con-trast, it is known that flow through dense fixed beds of adsorbent, as practiced in
chro-matography, can provide hundreds of theoretical trays in beds of modest length.
An-other disadvantage of a fluidized bed operation would be large-sized equipment

re-quired to contain a given inventory of adsorbent, and the erosion of the equipment
and the adsorbent caused by the fluidization.

31
 
In view of these difficulties, a simulated moving bed techniques has been developed and
 with-out
applied, to retain the process advantages of continuous counter-current flow
 introducing the problems associated with the actual movement of solids.

4. SIMULATED MOVING BED SYSTEM


In the moving bed system, solid is moving continuously, in a closed circuit, past fixed
points of introduction and withdrawal of liquid. The same process results can be ob-
tained by holding the bed stationary and periodically moving the positions at which
the various streams enter and leave. A shift in the position of the liquid feed and with-
drawal, in the direction of fluid flow through the bed, simulates the movement of
solid in the opposite direction.


It is, of course, impossible to move the liquid feed and withdrawal positions continu-
ously. However, approximately the same effect can be produced by providing
multiple adsorbent beds and liquid-access lines to the  chamber, and sequentially
switching each net stream from one bed to the next bed.


Therefore the five major liquid access positions can be moved around the bed in discreet steps, always
maintaining the same distance between the various net streams.


Here, the adsorbent is maintained as a stationery bed. A liquid circulating Pump is
pro-vided to Pump liquid from the bottom to the top of the adsorbent chamber. A
fluid-directing device known as a “Rotary Valve” is provided. This functions on the
same principle as a multiport stopcock, directing each of several streams to different
lines. At the right-hand of the valve, the five net streams to and from the process are
 of lines
contin-uously fed and withdrawn. At the left-hand side of the valve, a number
are connected, which terminate in distributors within the adsorbent bed.


At any particular moment, only five lines between the Rotary Valve and the adsorbent
chamber are active. For an example, Assume that the flows exist at any time when
lines 2, 5, 6, 9 and 12 are active. When the rotating element of the Rotary Valve is

moved to its next position, each net flow is transferred to the next adjacent line. Thus,
the lines 3,6,7,10, and 1 will become active.


From the moving-bed operation, It can be seen that the liquid flow rate in each of the
five zones is different because of the addition or withdrawal of the various net
streams. In the simulated moving-bed of figure II-7, the liquid rate is controlled by the
circulat-ing Pump. This is commonly called the Pump around Pump. Since these rates
are dif-ferent, a sequential flow control system must be employed. The requirements
for the Pump around controller will be described later. Stated briefly, the Pumparound
flow controller must be programmed to Pump at five different rates. The control  set
point will be altered each time that a net stream is transferred from line 12 to line 1.


relative to the solid must be the
To complete the simulation, it is necessary that the liquid flow rate
same in both the moving-bed and simulated moving bed operations.

32
 
Since the solid is physically stationery in the simulated moving bed operation, the liq-uid
 to the vessel wall must be higher than in an actual moving bed
velocity relative
operation.


A minor complication results from the fact that each line between the Rotary Valve and
the bed is employed successively in carrying feed and zone flush to t he bed. To avoid
having this feed carried out with the extract (causing the product purity to drop), it is
necessary to flush the feed from each line before the line is used for injecting the zone
 in the
flush. Flushing is accomplished with zone flush liquid, and this ability is included
mechanical construction of the Rotary Valve and Pump around flow controller.


Likewise, a flush out line is provided to flush the lines of Extract before the
Desorbent enters. If left in the line, some of the extract would flow with the
Desorbent, through Zone IV, and out the Raffinate, causing a loss in product
through the Rotary Valve to the extract Column
recovery. The flush out line is routed
 so the n-paraffins can be recovered.

5. ROTARY VALVE


The Rotary Valve is the piece of equipment by which we have been able to simulate the movement of
molecular sieve.


With an infinite number of discrete beds, the system would be identical to a
continuous counter-current system. The chamber in figure II-7 shows 12 beds.
Current commercial designs uses 24 beds, the number which approaches the
continuous system in a practical and economic manner. The valve contains a
stationery part to which the piping can connect, and a moving rotor to move the
equals the
positions of the streams. The time for once complete revolution of the rotor
 time for the solids to make one complete cycle in the moving bed models.

6. ADSORBENT CHAMBERS
 
The adsorbent chambers requirement are as follows:

 They must have discrete beds.

 They must be able to add and withdraw liquid between beds.
 They must not allow adsorbent to leave the chambers.
 They must redistribute liquid often enough to maintain plug flow.


These requirements are met by using screen or profile wire-covered grids which
contain internal baffles and piping. Each grid supports the adsorbent bed above it.
Liquid is added and withdrawn through the grid. Adsorbent is kept in place by using
supported fine mesh screen or profile wire. The liquid phase is mixed by using baffles
internal to the grid and redistributed by the pressure drop across the adsorbent bed.

33
4.3.3.3 PROCESS FLOW AND DESCRIPTION
The following is the description of Molex unit process flows:

1. FEED


The feed is pumped from the Molex feed surge drum by the feed pumps through the
feed filters as a precautionary measure against possible damage to the turbine meter or
rotary valve, and directed to the CMI on flow control. The feed enters the chambers
between Zone I and IIA. The temperature of the feed stream sent to the adsorbent
cham-bers should be maintained constant, normally at 177 C. The UF Product stripper
bottom temperature is controlled by heat exchange with its feed so as to maintain the
 desired molex feed temperature.

2. ADSORBENT CHAMBER CIRCULATION


The adsorbent loading is equally divided in to 24 beds contained in two chambers. At
any one time, there are 4 streams entering and 3 streams leaving the chamber in the
bed lines connected to the CMI. The streams entering the chambers are the Feed,
Desorbent, Zone flush and Line flush in. Extract, Raffinate and Line flush out exit the
chambers. A pump around stream continually circulates from the pump around pump,
to the top of and through Chamber-A, to the top of and through Chamber-B, and back
to the pump. The pump around stream is primarily used to control the rate of flow
through discrete sections of the chambers referred as Zones. The chambers are 
divided into 7 continuous circulating zones and their functions are described below.

Zone I: The beds (6 nos.) between the Raffinate outlet and feed inlets. In Zone I the
normalparaffin in the feed are adsorbed by the adsorbent and the Raffinate is rejected.

Zone IIA: The bed (1 no.) between the feed and the line flush inlets.

Zone II: The beds (5 nos.) between the Line flush and Zone flush inlets. This Zone acts as
aNon-normal desorption or purification zone.

Zone IIB: The bed (1 no.) between the Zone flush inlet and the extract outlet. This Zone
flowis controlled to eliminate the flow of desorbent or n-paraffin into Zone II.

Zone III: The beds (7 nos.) between the Extract and Line flush out outlets. In Zone III
thenormal paraffin in the adsorbent are desorbed and exchanged with the desorbent. This is
re-ferred to as the Desorption zone.

Zone IIIA: The (1 no.) bed between the Line flush out and desorbent inlets.

Zone IV:


 and Raffinate outlets. Zone IV also acts as a buffer zone
The beds (3 nos.) between the desorbent inlet
separating adsorption and desorption zones.


 through which the streams are entering
Since the zones are defined with respect to the active bed lines
or leaving the chambers and at each step these bed lines are

34
 switched downward in sequence, it becomes apparent that each zone travels
downward through the chamber-A, out the bottom and via the push around circuit re-
enters the top of Chamber-B. The material leaving the bottom of the chamber-B is
pumped via pump around pump back to the top of the chamber-A.


A flow controller controls the flow rate in the pump around circuit. Since the flow rate is
different in each zone, it is a requirement that the pump around flow rate changes as each
zone passes through the pump around circuit. This flow rate controller is thus reset by the

Adsorbent Chamber Control System (ACCS). Facilities are provided for record-ing the
differential pressures across each chamber and individual bed.


With the exception of the Raffinate stream, all flows entering and leaving the chambers
are on flow control. The Raffinate is pressure controlled and maintains the bottom of the
chamber-B at constant pressure at 24.6 Ksc. It is a requirement that all 6 flows be
accurately controlled and turbine meters are used to achieve this accuracy. Orifice flow
meters are also provided for redundancy during turbine meters failures withAuto PV
 switching (APS) facility in ACCS, which will be described in the next section.

3. EXTRACT


The extract, containing the recovered n-paraffin, desorbent and zone flush materials
leaves the chambers between zones III and IIB, flows through the CMI, protective
filter, turbine meter, flow control valve and on to the extract mixing drum. The
mixing drum is designed to smooth out the concentration fluctuations in the column
feed, which could upset column  operations. Slight variations in the extract
concentration can be expected.


The extract and line flush out streams merge and enter the extract column. The lighter
desorbent and zone flush components are taken overhead, leaving the purified n-
 to exit the column bottom, from where it is sent to Pacol FSD or
paraf-fin product
storage tanks.


Extract Column is having 40 no.s of sieve trays and its 21 st tray temperature is main-tained to effect
the separation.


The reboiler with the hot oil flow control supplies the heat duty to the column. The
rectification temperature is controlled by cascade control with the column net O/H
flow, which in turn alter the reflux flow to the column. The column bottom level is
controlled by cascade control with its bottom flow. The N-C5 and I-C8 in the
overhead receiver are directed to the desorbent surge drum. The O/H receiver level is
cascaded with the reflux flow and controlled. A side cut  stream richer in I-C8 is
 withdrawn from the tray-13 and fed to the desorbent stripper.

4. RAFFINATE


The Raffinate, containing the rejected non-normal paraffin, desorbent and zone flush
materials leaves the chambers between Zones I and IV on pressure control, flowing
through the CMI and on to the Raffinate mixing drum. From the mixing drum,
 the raffiante is joined by the CMI
designed to smooth out concentration fluctuations,
dome seal-ant out enters the Raffinate column.

35
 
The Raffinate column sends the lighter desorbent and zone flush components
overhead and drops non-normal out the column bottom. The non-normal are cooled
first in the Raffinate bottoms-desorbent exchanger and send to return kerosene cooler
in PF section for final cooling before sending to storage tanks.


Raffinate Column is having 40 nos. of sieve trays and its 21 st tray temperature is main-
tained at around 135 C to effect the separation. The reboiler with the hot oil flow control
supplies the heat duty to the column. The rectification temperature is controlled by cas-
cade control with the hot reflux flow to the column. The column bottom level is con-
trolled by its level control valve. The N-C5 and I-C8 in the overhead receiver are di-
rected to the desorbent surge drum. The O/H receiver level is cascaded with the net O/H
flow and controlled. A side cut stream richer in I-C8 is with drawn from the accumula-tor
tray and fed to the desorbent stripper. The  accumulator level is controlled by the cold
 reflux flow from its O/H receiver on cascade.

5. DESORBENT AND ZONE FLUSH


A mixture of recyclable N-C5 and I-C8 is taken overhead from both the extract and
raffinate columns and directed to the desorbent surge drum. The side-cut streams,
which are richer in I-C8, are sent to the desorbent stripper to meet the I-C8 demand of
the system. The purpose of desorbent stripper is to produce a high purity I-C8 stream
 The DSD material, a 60%: 40% mixture of N-C5
for the zone, line and head flushes.
and I-C8 is used as desorbent.


The DSD serves as surge capacity for the desorbent. If any make up of N-C5 or I-C8
is required, it can be sent to the Raffinate column. The composition of the DSD is
regu-lated by making up the required component N-C5 / I-C8 from the storage or
 O/H to storage via Desorbent drag cooler. The
sending a slipstream from the columns
withdrawal rate is Flow controlled.


Desorbent is pumped using the pumps to the CMI on flow control, through Raffinate
bottoms-desorbent exchanger and desorbent Heater, desorbent filters, turbine meter
and control valve. The temperature of the desorbent is controlled at 177 C. The TIC
to the desorbent Heater on cascade control to maintain the
adjusts the hot oil flow
desorbent temperature.


The desorbent stripper column sends the stripped N-C5 overhead vapor stream back
to Raffinate column, while producing the high purity I-C8 in the bottoms. The hot
 from the column on flow control supplies the heat duty to the
raffi-nate bottom stream
de-sorbent stripper.


The desorbent stripper bottom level is controlled by the raffiante side cut stream on
cascade control. This desorbent stripper bottom material is recycled back to the adsor-
bent chambers as Zone flush, Line flush, head flush and dome sealant.


Purified Flush material from the desorbent stripper bottom is pumped using the pumps, is
heated across the flush Heater, filtered and split into the various flush streams. The
temperature of the flush stream is controlled by regulating the hot oil flow to the flush
Heater. The zone flush and line flush in enter the CMI on turbine measured flow control.

36
 
Any n-C5 material contaminating these streams will reduce the product recovery if it
enters the zone II, where it will desorb the desirable n-paraffin. Any C9+ will contam-
inate the extract if it is coming from the Raffinate column side cut or reduce capacity
if it is coming from the extract column side  cut. The side cuts drawing rates are
 controlled to prevent accumulation of C9+.

6. LINE FLUSH


Since each bed line successively carries feed, zone flush and extract, it is necessary to
flush the residual feed material from the line before the zone flush is injected or
extract is withdrawn. This is done because with only one bed between the zone flush
and the extract withdrawal points, the extract product would be contaminated with
feed com-ponents. This same principle applies to the line after being used for extract
removal, which is next used for desorbent. The line volume of extract would be
 of
displaced back into the chamber at the interface of zone III and zone IV, and some
the n-paraffin would be lost to the Raffinate stream causing a loss of recovery.


To eliminate these sources of contamination and product loss, two line flushes are
pro-vided. The line flush in stream, consisting of essentially pure I-C8, is injected one
bed after the feed its flow is controlled. The line flush out stream is with drawn from
the first line below the desorbent injection, flushing the line of extract to the extract
column and its flow is controlled. In both cases sufficient liquid is pumped to leave
the line clean. The line flush rates, which are on flow control using the turbine meters,
are cal-culated such that the longest bed line will be flushed with normally twice its
own vol-ume during one valve step.  However, the percentage of longest bed line
volume can be changed in ACCS.

7. HEAD FLUSH


Head flushes are provided at the top and bottom of each adsorbent chamber to prevent
contamination caused by the dead volumes of the elliptical heads. A small purge of flush
material is withdrawn downstream of the flush filters and sent to the top and bot-tom
heads of both chambers on flow control. These streams will then enter the main body of
the chambers through the top and bottom grid snorkels. The head flush material slightly
dilutes the circulation liquid and leaves with Raffinate stream. The smallestflow which
will prevent contamination determines the head flush rate and is controlled.

37
Figure 4.4 Process flow diagram of MOLEX

Adsorption Chamber

38
39
4.3.3.4 Process equipment
[1] Rotary valve:

It is a device through which the bed mechanism is controlled in the adsorption chamber. In
rotary valve there are rotors and 2 stator plates. Each plate containing 24 holes in its periphery.
Bottom plate which is static in nature is having all holes in open condition and the top plate
which is rotary is having 7 open holes. These hole openings is followed by the mechanism of 6-
1-5-1-7-1-3.

After a particular time the stroke is applied on the system so that the feed position is changing
from one bed to second one. Means each stream goes to one number higher position than the pre-
vious one. This is done by hydraulic system in which the oil is used at a pressure of 80 Kg/cm2.

[2] Adsorption chamber:

The vessels that contain the Molecular Adsorbent and the Distributor Grids are called Cham-
bers. Between two adjacent beds of adsorbent is a special distributor grid which also acts as a
support plate for the bed above it. Distributors between each bed are connected to peripheral
parts of the Rotary Valve. In addition to these, grids are provided at top and bottom of each
chamber. Liquid is pumped to and from the chambers. The two process variables for the
chambers that need to be controlled are Temperature and Pressure. The chamber Temperature is
controlled by incom-ing feed and desorbent system at approximately 177 0C. The Pressure is set
at 24.6 kg/cm2 which are high enough to prevent Hydro-carbon from vaporizing.

If pressure falls below the bubble point, liquid will boil and vaporize and this is to be
prevented as vaporization may damage adsorbent structure. Pressure here is important so slight
difference of flow may change and so for it pressure controller at the bottom of chamber 2 is
there which controls Raffinate from Adsorbent chamber to Raffinate column. There is an
emergency system for pre-venting loss in pressure. The switch on chamber to control the
pressure and closes the Extract valve if pressure falls below the determined point.

[3] Extract and raffinate column:

The primary purposes of both columns are to separate the recyclable desorbent and yield a
purified bottom product, Normal paraffin from the extract and Non-normal paraffin from
raffinate, as well as to provide feed source to desorbent stripper column. Bottom product level
controller and pure products are sent to storage after cooling. Bottom product is recycled for high
recovery. The overhead vapor is condensed and dropped to receiver. Bypass line connects the
receiver with vapor line to control pressure by Butterfly valve.

It is desirable to run outlet condenser at temperature slightly less than condensing temperature
as if the temperature is high all vapors will condense and if it is too low heat will be wasted. The side
cut product from raffinate column is pumped to desorbent stripper on flow control. Suction for this is
provided. The side cut’s major portion is given back to column tray below weir. This

40
rate is controlled by TRC located few trays below weir. The net overhead from the raffinate
column is pumped out on flow control by level in receiver to desorbent surge drum.

The reflux to extract column is pumped by reflux pump. The amount is reset by overhead
receiver level controller. The other net draw is sent to desorbent surge drum. The iC8 rich side cut
is sent to the stripper desorbent. It is important to maintain tight and accurate control as loss of
normal Paraffin decreases purity and recovery causing to loss of desorbent.

[5] Desorbent stripper column:

This is typically a 20-30 tray vessel. The objective is to produce high purity of iC 8 and nC5
contamination will reduce purity. The Extract and Raffinate Column side cut streams merge and
enter the Stripper Column of flow control. Purified iC8 exists at bottom and is pumped through
Desorbent Stripper Column bottom heater to filter and the same process again. Temperature of
Zone Flush leaving Exchanger is regulated by flow control by Hot Oil. Desorbent Stripper over-
head is nC5 and is returned to the Raffinate Column to a point just above the side cut tray.

[6] Filters:

Filters are located in three streams leading to Adsorbent Chambers feed, Desorbent and
Flush. Filters remove particles that could damage Turbine Meters, Vortex Meter or the Rotary
Valve Teflon Sheet. The Filters have replaceable Cartridges. These should be initially placed to
remove particles from the system. It can remove particles of diameter 10 microns and larger.
Strainers are provided to protect the turbine meters if Filters are out of Streams.

B. Back end
  Back end is mainly divided in four units.
1) PACOL
2) DEFINE
3) PEP
4) DETAL

41
4.3.4 PACOL

4.3.4.1 INTRODUCTION


The UOP Pacol process is a fixed bed catalytic process designed to selectively dehydro-
genate a high purity, normal paraffin feed to the corresponding mono-olefin product.
Feed to the Pacol Unit must be free of impurities, which could harm the platinum
containing catalyst, and contains as much as four-carbon range of normal paraffin
component (e.g. C10-C13 or C11-C14). Commercial operation has utilized C10-C14 range
material although other feeds have been used successfully in the pilot plant. The catalyst
employed is high selective for the desired reactions; successive and competing reactions
such as cyclization; skeletal isomerization, di-olefin products and
cracking are minimized
by proper catalyst formulation and choice of operation condition.


The conversion of paraffin to olefin is equilibrium limited to low levels if selectivity to
normal mono-olefin is maintained reasonably high. Therefore recycle of unreacted normal
paraffin from the down stream Unit is moderately large. The reactions are promoted in a low-
pressure hydrogen environment (low Hydrogen partial pressure) at moderately high
 temperature. The single reactor with the capability of on-stream efficiency. Catalyst life 
depends strongly on operating conditions; design catalyst life cycle is normally 30-45 days.
 
All the recent designs incorporate the DEH-7 Pacol catalyst.


Small amount of di-olefins is also produced in the Pacol Reactor. The di-olefin form unde-
sirable byproduct when alkylated, decreasing the yield of LAB and degrading LAB quality.
Processing the Pacol separator liquid through the Define Unit, selectively converts these
undesirable species to desired mono-olefins. The Define Unit consists primarily of a reac-tion
vessel containing proprietary Define Catalyst. In the typical UOP designed LAB com-plexes,
the Define Reactor is placed between the Pacol Separator and Product Stripper. The Define

process significantly improves the overall efficiency and profitability of LAB com-plex
operation when heavy alkylate benzene is an undesirable product.

4.3.4.2 PROCESS FLOW AND DESCRIPTION

 PACOL/DEFINE


The feed to PACOL process Unit consists of both fresh & Recycle paraffin streams. Fresh paraffin is
pumped to PACOL surge drum at 25-35oC. The recycle paraffin  stream would typically emanate from
 the paraffin accumulator tray of paraffin Column of DETAL sec-
tion by paraffin Column overhead Pump through Flow control Valve, at temperature 110-
120oC. The recycle paraffin is heated up to 170-180oC in Recycle paraffin/Pacol stripper
bottoms exchanger before going to PACOL surge drum. Recycle flow depends on paraffin

42
 conversion in PACOL reactor. If front-end plant is running extract Column bottom (Nor-
mal paraffin) is sent to PACOL feed surge drum at 240-250OC. If front-end plant is not
running, Fresh paraffin feed is sent to the PACOL surge drum on flow control

 Spilt-range assembly on PACOL surge drum maintains Pacol feed surge drum pressure at
1.75 ksc. If the surge drum pressure will increase more than 1.75 ksc Valve will open to
flare to maintain surge drum pressure. If surge drum pressure will decease below 1.75
ksc, Nitrogen valve will open to take Nitrogen inside surge drum.


The mixed paraffin is pumped by PACOL charge Pump, at temperature 160-180oC,
through reactor feed control Valveto the combined feed Exchanger tube side. FV bypass-
 ing the reactor should be closed.


The feed from the Pacol charge Pump mixes with recycle hydrogen at temperature 45-
55oC & at pressure 2.2 ksc) from the recycle gas compressor. Flow rate of hydrogen is
controlled by compressor spill back Valve to product separator. Recycle gas flow vary
according to recycle gas purity tomaintain hydrogen to hydrocarbon to the reactor by 5.0
mole of feed /mole of hydrogen.


The combined feed exchanger is special vertical heat exchanger designed to maximize the
amount of heat recovered from the reactor effluent at shell side, while minimum pressure
drop.


The feed & Recycle gas enter the combined feed exchanger through two different inlet lines
 located 
on the bottom of the exchanger. After passing through separate Distributors they mix
and pass through the tube side of the exchanger exiting through the top. The
reactor effluent passes through the shell side of the exchanger where it is cooled up to
o o
 165-170 C as the combined feed to reactor is preheated up to 390-405 C.

The combined feed from combined feed exchanger tube side Outlet at temperature 390–
405oC is further heated to reaction temperature by charge heater. DM water is injected
into the combined feed Outlet stream by water injection Pump. Water injection flow can
 be measured by utilizing the gage glass provided on water injection  tank. Adjusting
stroke of water injection Pump can control the water injection flow.

Reactor Inlet temperature is varies from 450-465oC at SOR (start of Run of Pacol catalyst) to
487-505oC at EOR (End of run of Pacol catalyst). Reactor Inlet temperature is increased 
o
 gradually from SOR to EOR by 1 or 2 C, as PACOL catalyst activity & economy fall down.

Hydrogen from hydrogen plant is injected in charge heater outlet to increase recycle gas
of Pacol is sent to MUG compressor (Front-
purity. This extra hydrogen added to gas loop
end) from Recycle gas compressor discharge.


 Reactor 
Inlet temperature is controlled by fuel pressure. Fuel pressure control Valve is in cascade with
temperature controller. Normally the fuel pressure varies in between 4.5 to
6.5 ksc. All Fuel oil burners are required to maintain reactor Inlet temperature.

43

Pacol charge heater is a radiant convection type , where the radiant section provides the necessary process
duty while the convection section is used to heat hot oil in hot oil heater


There is 20-25oC reduction in the Pacol Rx product
 temperature than reactor feed temper-ature, as
Pacol reaction is endothermic gas phase reaction.


 mono-olefins, di-olefins, aromat-ics, lighters
Pacol Rx Outlet streams contains unreacted N-paraffin,
hydrocarbon which have carbon number less than C 10,


After passing through the combined feed exchange shell side, the reactor product is sent
to the product separator at temperature 165-170oC. The reactor product enters the bottom
por-tion of product separator and passes through a packed bed. The vapor is cooled while
pass-ing up through the bed by cold recirculated liquid flowing down. As the vapor cools
the condensable hydrocarbon (N-paraffin) condense & collect at the bottom of the
separator with the recirculated liquid (pumparound). The cold gas (i.e. hydrogen) then
the top of the separator where it is returned to the suction of recycle
passes out through
gas compres-sor.


The amount of net gas (generated in Pacol reactor due to reaction) sent out of the Pacol
loop is controlled by pressure recording controller located on the product separator. The
PRC is set to control the reactor Outlet pressure at desired level 1.3 to 1.4 ksc. The net
gas is sent to front –end MUG compressor Ist stage from recycle gas compressor
discharge, if front end-running. Other wise it is sent to fuel drum through PV from the
 compressor (Net
discharge of recycles gas compressor. The Net gas is also sent to booster
gas compres-sor) to Define reactor as reactant for Defines reactor.


The liquid is collected at the bottom of the product separator is recycled by using Pump
to the top of the product separator as pump around liquid. The pumparound liquid passes
through trim cooler & then product condenser. The flow of pumparound is controlled. 
FRC is cascaded with TRC to maintain recycle gas compressor suction temperature.

44
Figure 4.5 Process flow diagram of PACOL

45
4.3.4.3 REACTION [DEHYDROGENATION REACTION]

[1] Olefin formation

R-C-C-R’ R-C=C-R’ + H2
N-paraffin mono-olefin
[2] Diolefin formation

R-C-C=C-R’ R=C-C=C-R’ + H2
Mono-olefin Di-olefin

[3] Aromatics Formation R”

R=C-C=C-R’

R”’
The primary reaction of Pacol unit is dehydrogenation of normal paraffin into mono-ole-
fins, the desired product [Saturated to unsaturated].

In this dehydrogenation reaction of normal paraffin because of high temperature [450-500 °C]
and low pressure [1.4 Kg/cm2] subsequently Di-olefins and aromatics are also formed by the side
re-actions to minor extent.

The dehydrogenation reaction of n-paraffin is an endothermic reaction. The percentage con-

version of n-paraffin is 10% into mono-olefins, Di-olefins, light ends, aromatics & hydrogen.

Pacol catalyst: The catalyst is a 1/16” spherical dehydrogenation catalyst of stabilized platinum
on alumina base & it is non- regenerable. It is dark gray in color and is odorless. It is in the form
of spheres.

4.3.4.4 Process Equipments

[1] Vertical combined feed exchanger:

46
 The main purpose of combined feed exchanger is to recover heat of reactor effluent and to
pre-heat fresh feed. The Vertical combined feed exchanger is a simple shell and tub kind of heat
ex-changer. This is specially designed vertically to maximize the amount of heat recovered from
the reactor effluent while minimizing pressure drop.

There is 2100 tube in a single shell. The material of construction of vertical combined feed
exchanger is carbon steel. The fresh feed which needs to be preheated passes through the tube
side enter form bottom and the reactor effluent stream passes through the shell side enters from
the top and out form bottom and exchanges its heat to the tube side.

Table 4.5 Data of Pacol CFE inlet-outlet temperature

Initial Temp Final Temp

Feed 209°C 390°C
[Tube]
Effluent 473°C 213°C
[Shell]

[2] Charge heater:

The main purpose of charge heater is to preheat the feed to high temperature. This charge
heater is U – Tube Type. There are seven burners pre-heat which uses fuel oil, air and steam for
combus-tion. There are 42 single pass U – Tubes. From the only inlet heater feed is entered, flow
through the tube joining the outlet header. The temperature of heater is 1000°C.
The feed enters the inlet header from bottom passes thought the curved part and then enters
the outlet header from where it is removed from bottom again.

[3] Pacol Reactor:

The main purpose for the Pacol reactor is dehydrogenation reaction in presence of catalyst.
The main shell of the reactor contains the cylindrical bed of catalyst with perforated holes over
them. The Pacol reactor is divided into three zones:

(i) Reduction Zone:

This zone contains one fresh batch of catalyst. Hot hydrogen purging is done to remove any
moisture present and oxygen from catalyst.

(ii) Reaction Zone:

The feed initially enters the main shell of reactor. The vaporized feed enters the top of the
reactor passes down through an opening along the vessel wall, the flows across the catalyst bed
and collects in the pipe located in the centre of the reactor. This type of reactor is called a radial
flow reactor because the feed passed in radial direction. The advantage of radial flow reactor is
that the pressure drop through reactor is very low. PACOL catalyst is confined to an annulus be-
tween the outer basket and inner center pipe in this zone (JOHNSON BASKET).

47
(iii) Collection zone:
This part helps in changing of catalyst. This contains Valve, Funnel and Drum for storage of
used catalyst.

Catalyst is fed through the Lock Hopper-1 in the reactor at the top and the spent catalyst is
unloaded through Lock Hopper-2 at the reactor bottom. The reactor shell and heads are
fabricated from 1Cr, ½ Mo alloy material suitable for hydrogen services.

[4] Separator:
The main purpose of separator is to separate hydrogen and hydrocarbon. The top of the sepa-
rator contains a random pack bed of pall rings. This provides the residence time & above the
pack bed mist eliminator is provided.

The reactor product contains H2 gas of hydrocarbon and liquid hydrocarbon. This product stream
is charged centrally. The liquid part moves downwardly and gets cooled with the help of fin fan
cooler and condenser while a vapor rises to the pack bed. The cooled liquid bottom is quenched
at the top of the packing bed. It passes through the packing and condenses hydrocarbon vapors.
This quenching cools hydrogen gas before it is charged to the Kobe Compressor & even after this
any liquid hydrocarbon particle is carried with H2 gas them it may damage the compressor so
eliminator is provided. The reactor shell and heads are fabricated from Killed C.S each Metal
Pall Rings are 50mm C.S. rings.

[5] Kobe Compressor:

This is the heart of entire plant. In case if compressor gets tripped, there is no alternated of
shutdown of plant and should be immediately closed. There is no stand by compressor because it
is very costly [about 12 crores] and is designed by Kobe Compressor manufacturing Co. Japan.
It is a screw type compressor with two screws, Male rotor and Female rotor. Both are having
screwed lobes and these rotors are inter-meshed in parallel in sealed casing. Clearance between
two rotors is only 3 mm. Both rotors are supported by bearing at two ends so that they can rotate
without contacting each other.
Uniqueness of the compressor is that no lubrication is required except in bearing. To prevent
ingress of bearing lubrication oil into chamber or leakage of compressed gas to outside, an oil shield
and shaft scaling deceive is provided. A clearance is kept between rotor and casing to prevent metal
to metal contact, so that is unnecessary to supply lubrication oil to compressor chamber.

48
4.3.5 DEFINE

4.3.5.1 Introduction

The effluent from the Pacol unit is alkylated with Benzene in the Detal unit. Now it is required
that side products are obtained in minimum quantity and we get high yield of LAB. Di-olefins are also
formed in the Pacol reactor with Mono-Olefins which forms undesired products as HAB so they are
required to be removed. For this purpose Define unit is required. The Define process significantly
improves the overall efficiency and profitability of LAB complex.

Di-Olefins present in Pacol reactor effluent are selectively hydrogenated to the corresponding
mono-olefins in presence of Sulphur. At 90% Di-olefins conversion, the selectivity to mono-olefins is
about 50%

Table 4.6 Contents of Define Catalyst

Content Weight%

Nickel <6

Nickel Oxide < 10

Aluminum Oxide (non fibrous) > 94

Reaction [Hydrogenation Reaction

R –C=C-C-C=C-R’ + H2 R—C=C-C-C-C-R’

Di-olefin Mono-olefin

R—C=C-C-C-C-R’ + H2 R—C-C-C-C-C-R’

Mono-olefin Paraffin

49
4.3.5.2 Process flow description


The product separator liquid is pumped to Define reactor at 35 Ksc by Define reactor feed
Pump on level control of the Product Separator. Define reactor flow is controlled by FV
(located at Define reactor Outlet). FRC is cascaded with LIC (separator bottom level).


Sulfur is injected into the feed to Define reactor by sulfur injection Pump. Sulfur
injection flow can be measured by utilizing the gage glass provided on sulfur injection
drum. Ad-justing stroke of sulfur injection Pump can control sulfur injection flow. Sulfur
 selectivity of Define reactor. Sulfur injection rate is
injection rate is depend upon
normally 1 wt PPM of feed.



The net gas (Hydrogen) from recycle gas compressor is boosted upped 35-38 ksc from 2.2 ksc by Net gas
compressor (Three stage double acting reciprocating compressor) is mixed
with Define feed as a reactant. Hydrogen flow depends upon selectivity & conversions of
di-olefin in Define reactor. Define feed is heated to reaction temperature 190-200oC by
Define charge heater and is controlled by temperature controller. Define charge heater
hot oil flow is controlled by FV, it is cascaded to TI at the outlet of the Process fluid side.


Two Define feed filters at the inlet of Define reactor are there to filter out impurities from Define feed to
 control Define reactor delta-P.

  Define reaction is exothermic reaction where di-olefin is converted to mono-olefin (desired

reaction) and mono-olefin is converted to paraffin (undesired reaction). Normally Define
delta T is maintained to 2-3.5 o C and hydrogen to di-olefin ratio 1.4, to get Define
reactor outlet di-olefin less than 0.02 % (Wt.).

 o
 
From Define reactor Outlet is sent to product stripper Column at temperature 190-200 C. Product
stripper Column is designed to fractionate off all hydrocarbons, which have carbon
number less than C10, which is formed by cracking in the Pacol reactor. Product stripper
overhead vapors are cooled in stripper overhead condenser up to 55oC and separated into gas
& liquid phase in the overhead receiver. Stripper off gas is sent to fuel drum through off gas
cooler. Net stripper overhead liquid flow is controlled by FRC; it is cascaded to Column 8th
number tray temperature controller. The TRC is set such that the net overhead liquid having
C10 less than 0.5%. Net overhead is sent to fuel drum through cooler. Over-head receiver
level controller controls the stripper Column reflux. The stripper overhead Pump is used to
Pump both the net overhead liquid & Column reflux. . Stripper Column hot oil reboiler gives
the Column heat input. Hot oil flow is flow controlled. The flow is being varied to maintain
Column reflux by 5-10 m3/hr. Product stripper Column is floated on Fuel drum. So Stripper
Column pressure is controlled 1.1 ksc by fuel drum split range type pressure controller. The
net gas from recycle gas compressor discharge & Off gas

50
 from product stripper overhead are coming to fuel drum is sent to pilot gas balancing
drum (PGBD) through PV. The Pacolate from the product stripper bottom is sent to the
PEP Unit.

Figure 4.6 Process flow diagram of DEFINE

4.3.5.3 Process equipment

[1] Define reactor:

Reactor Heads and Shells are fabricated of Killed C.S. head is 2:1 Ellipsoidal head. It is de-
signed for 22.2KSC and 260°C.200Kg of Di-methyl Disulfide [DMDS] is used as a catalyst acti-
vation agent.

[2] Feed surge drum & Stripper Column:

Reactor Heads and Shells are fabricated of C.S.Head is 2:1 ellipsoidal head.

51
4.3.6 PACOL ENHANCEMENT PROCESS (PEP)

4.3.6.1 INTRODUCTION


The UOP PEP is a fixed bed adsorption unit for the selective removed of aromatic compo-
 
nents from the Pacol product stream. Using this proprietary adsorption technology, removal
of aromatics to a level less than 1% may be expected.
 
The primary sources of aromatics in the Pacol product are:
 Aromatics in the fresh n-paraffins feed to the Pacol unit.
 Aromatics produced in the Pacol reactor.
 Light alkyl ate in the recycle paraffins (From the Detal unit).


As the aromatics build up in the recycle paraffin stream, The LAB yield will drop off &
the product quality will also decline. The removal of aromatics compound from the AL-
kylation unit feed will reduced the production of heavy Alkyl ate by 60-75% & increase
the yield of LAB product by 3-5%. Improvement of the LAB product quality is also
possi-ble.

4.3.6.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION


The Pacol Enhancement Process (PEP) is designed to remove aromatic compounds from
the C10 to C13 paraffins/olefin product from the process. The unit is typically designed to
 remove about 80% of the aromatics  that are normally present in the Pacol product with
minimum loss of Paraffins & olefins.
  The PEP unit has 2 sections:-
  The adsorption section,
 The fractionation section.


The adsorption section consists of 6 absorbers loaded with molecular sieve which remove the
 section typically consist of 2 column which
aromatics, from the pacolate. The fractionation
are used to remover the purge & desorbent.


The absorbers cycle through a series of different steps during normal operation. Each ad-
sorbed will cycle through an adsorption step, a purge step& Desorption step. At any
given time there are typically 
4 absorbers on the adsorption step, one on the purge step,
&none on the Desorption step.


Aromatics in the feed are adsorbed in to the pores of the molecular sieves during the ad-
sorption step. In the Desorption step aromatics are displaced from the molecular sieve by the
desorbent (usually benzene) because the desorbent & the adsorbed aromatics boil at the
different temp., They can be separated by fractionation. In order to prevent mixing of the 
desorbed aromatics with Parrafins/Olefins product stream a purge step is necessary. During

52
 this step, a purge flow (n-paraffins) is sent through the absorbers to displace the paraf-
fins/olefins product out of the absorber before the desorbent comes in.

ADSORPTION


Adsorption is the adhesion of a very thin layer of molecular to a solid surface. So, in order for
adsorption to take place, there must be a solid surface, & a force of attraction to cause the
adhesion of the thin layer of molecules.


The molecules sieve that is used in the PEP unit absorbers provides both the solid surface &
 part of attractive force, & thus is called Adsorbent. The molecular sieve  is made up of
synthetic crystals of zeolite, bound together with clay to from pellets or beads.
 
The molecular sieve adsorbent contains a myriad network of tiny pores.


The molecular sieve is specially formulated to attract “Polar” molecular. Some molecular
such as aromatics (& water) have slightly positive charges on one end of the molecule &
slightly negative charges on the other end, & are called “Polar molecules”. The attractive
 force between the polar charge on the molecule & specially formulated molecular  sieve
cause the adsorption of polar molecules on to the surface of the molecular sieve.
 
Polar molecules will be more strongly adsorbed on the sieve.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The PEP unit has 2 sections:-
(1) Adsorption Section
(2) Fractionation Section.
(i) Desorption Column,
(ii) Depentanizer Column.
Adsorption takes place in 6 steps.

(1) Desorption Displacement Steps


At the beginning of the Desorbent Displacement steps the void space in the adsorbed (&
adsorption sites on the surface of the molecular sieve) are full of desorbent (BZ). Feed is
then introduced into the adsorbed & the benzene in the void space is displaced to the de-
sorbent column. As the feed begins passing through the adsorber, The aromatic in the
feed start to adsorb on the molecular sieve. Just before feed breaks through to  the
adsorber out-let, the desorbent displaced bent step ends & the Adsorption step begins.

(2)Adsorption Step:-


Following the completion of the desorbent step, feed continuous to go to theadsorber inlet, but the outlet is
directed to the treated feed product line. The small amount of benzene that

53
 was left in the void space is displaced with feed. As aromatics are adsorbed on the molec-
ular sieve, Benzene is displaced from the sieve. The low concentration of benzene in the
void space of the adsober allows the adsorbed benzene flows along with the treated fed to
the ALkylation unit where it is removed into recycle benzene stream.


In order to prevent aromatics from breaking through to the adsorber outlet, The
adsorption step must end just before the aromatics have completely filled the adsorption
 sieve. The feed to the adsorber is stoped & the adsorber procedes
sites on the molecular
to the topmost step.

(3)Treated Feed Displacement Step


In order to prevent the loss of treated feed, light paraffins (n-pentane) is fed to the top of the
adsorber to displace the treated feed in the void space. During  the treated feed displace-ment
step, the adsorber effluent goes to the treated feed product line.


The treated feed displacement step should end just before n-pentane breaksthrough to the outlet of the
adsorber. Any n-pentane that leaves the unit with the treated feed will be lost.

(4)Purge Step


The purpose of purge step is to create a buffer between the feed & desorbent, which prevent
contamination &/or excessive loss of the feed. If the adsorber inlet was switched directly
from feed (paraffins/olefins) to desorbent the desorbed aromatics would start coming out of
the adsorbed before all of the treated feed came out. This would cause a significant amount of
treated feed to be lost in the desorbent column bottoms, or a significant amountof aromatics
in the treated feed depending on when the adsorbed outlet valves are switched.


Then pentane purge removes nearly all of the treated feed form the adsorbed, But does
not desorbed any of the aromatics from the molecular sieve. During the purge step, the
ad-sorbed effluent goes to the depentanizer column where the n-pentane is recovered
over-head, & the treated feed & benzene are sent to the Alkylation unit. The purge step
does not take much time & the purge flow by passes the adsorbed for some time before
the pentane displacement step begins. The reason of by passing the purge flow is to
prevent desorbing some of the aromatics during this step.

(5)Pentane Displacement Step


During the pentane Displacement step, Benzene is introduced to the top of the adsorbed
displacing the n-pentane contains in the void space. The adsorbed effluent step is still
sent to the depentanizer column when most of the n-pentanes has been displaced, &
before the benzene desorbs a significant amount of aromatics from the sieve, the pentane
 and the adsorbed effluent is switched from the depentanizer to
Displace-ment step ends
the desorbent column.

54
 
Any aromatics that go to the dependence column will pass on to the ALkylation unit with the
feed, which is undesirable. Any n-pentane that goes to the desorbed column should be
removed because the desorbent column overhead goes to the depentanizend column.

(6)Desorption step


In the Desorption step, benzene is recovered overhead & the aromatics are taken off as
the bottoms product from the column. Nearly all of the aromatics are removed from
 the adsorbed is full of benzene
sieves during this step. At the end of the Desorption step,
& the cycle return to the desorbent displacement step.

Adsorption Section


The adsorption section typically has 6 adsorbed vessels loaded with molecular sieves. Each
adsorbed has an inlet & outlet manifold  with switching valves, so that it can cycle through
the adsorption purge, & Desorption steps.


The fresh feed to the PEP unit typically comes from the Pacol stripper column bottom pumps.
 passes through a series of heat exchanger to cool the feed to the desired adsorbed
The feed
temp.


The feed is distributed to 4 of the 6 adorers via the adsorbed feed header & switching
valves. The feed enters the top of the adorers & should be distributed evenly with 25% of
 flow going to the total flow going through each of the 4 adorers in the adsorption
the total
step.


Inside the adorers, aromatics are removed from the feed by adsorption on to the
molecular sieve. The treated feed leaves the bottom of the adorers & flows into the

treated feed header via the switching valves. The treated feed is then typically re-heated
& proceeds to the Detal unit.


One of the adorers will be in the purge step. N-pentane is taken from the depentanizer
overhead receiver on flow control, to a heat exchanger where the n-pentane is adjusted to
the desired adsorbed temp. The n-pentane then goes into the top of the adsorbed in the
purge step via the purge inlet header & switching valves.


The n-pentane displaced the paraffins & olefins feed components from the pores of the
molecular sieve in the adsorbed. The purge adsorbed  outlet goes to the purge mixing drum
via the switching valve & the purge outlet beadier.


The mixing drum runs liquid full. The purpose of the mixing drum is to smooth out com-
position changes that occur during the adsorbed sequence which could upset the
operation of depentainzer column. (A back pressure control valve on the mixing drum
 in the purge step.) The purge mixing drum effluent
controls the pressure of the adsorber
goes to the depentanizer column.

55
 
The last of the 6 adsorber will be in the Desorption step. Benzene is typically pumped
from the detail unit on flow control, to heat exchanger where the benzene is adjusted to
the de-sired adsorber temp. The benzene then goes in to the top of the adsorber in
Desorption step via the Desorption inlet header & switching valve. The benzene desorbs
 goes
the aromatics from the molecular sieve in the adsorber. The Desorption step effluent
to the desorbent mixing drum via the switching valve & the purge outlet header.


The purpose of mixing drum is to smooth out composition changes that occur during the
adsorber sequence which could upset the operation of the desorbent column. (A back
pres-sure control valve on the mixing drum controls the pressure of the adsorber in the
Desorp-tion step. The desorbent step mixing drum effluent gas to the desorbent column).

Desorbent Column


The feed to the desorbent column is the effluent from the desorbent mixing drum. This
stream contains mostly benzene along with the aromatics that are desorbed from the mo-
lecular sieve during the Desorption step. At certain times in the adsorber sequence, there
will also be some n-pentane in the stream due  to imperfect separation between the
pentane displacements step. & the Desorption step.


In the desorbent column, the benzene & n-pentane are taken overhead & the aromatics go
out the bottom of the column. The net overhead goes to the depentanizer column. Where
the n-pentane is separated from the benzene. The desorbent column net bottom is
stream consist of the aromatics
typically pumped through a cooler to a storage tank. This
that have been removed from the paraffins/olefins feed.


The paraffin/ olefin feed to the PEP unit is heavier than benzene. Any paraffin/olefin feed
that slips in to the desorbent column feed will be lost out the desorbent column feed will
be lost out the desorbent column with the aromatics. So, it is important to minimize the
 feed that goes to the desorbent column in order minimize the
amount of paraffin/olefin
loss of this material.

DEPENTANIZER COLUMN


There are 2 feed streams to the depentanizer column. The first is the net overhead from
the desorbent column which is mostly benzene along with a little n-pentane. The second
is the effluent from the purge mixing drum. This stream contains mostly n-pentane along
with the treated feed that is displaced from the pores of the molecular sieve during the
sequence, there will also be some benzene the
purge step. At certain times in the adsorber
pentane displaced step &Desorption step.


The two different feed streams enters the column at different trays because the composition of the streams
are much different, therefore the optimum feed point is different.


In the depentanizer column, the n-pentane is taken overhead & the benzene treated feed go out the bottom
of the column. The net overhead stream is the purge to the adsorber section.

56
 The depentanizer column net bottoms consists of the benzene that has been used as
desorb-ent in the unit along with some treated feed. This stream is typically pumped back
to the detail unit.


Any aromatics that slip in to the depentanizer column feed will go out the bottom of the
column. With the benzene & on to the detail unit. So, it is important to minimize the

amount of desorbed aromatics that go to the depantanzer column in order to maximize the
aromat-ics removal efficiency of the PEP unit.

DEPENTANIZER DRIER


The depentanizer drier is typically a vendor. supplied package unit that used
automatically regenerated molecular sieve to remove water from the make-up n-pentane
& from the small stream coming from the benzene column overhead receiver in DETAL
unit. The drier is also used burning start- up to help dry out the unit.

Figure 4.7 Process flow diagram of PEP

57
58
4.3.7 Detergent alkylation (DETAL)
4.3.7.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND


The Detal Process is catalytic process to alkylate benzene with linear olefins to form linear
alkylbenzene (LAB). The linear alkylbenzenes produced from the C10 to C13 or C11 to C14
range linear olefins are useful detergent intermediates and can be readily sulfonated to yield
linear alkylbenzene sulfonates. These compounds constitute the “active” ingredi-ents of
many household detergents. They are surface active compounds (surfactants) which  are
combined with various builders (often inorganic salts) to make up a detergent formula.


During the 1940s and 1950s, the detergent market was primarily captured by dodecylben-
zene (DDB), a product formed by alkylation of benzene with propylene tetramer in a “hard”
detergent alkylation unit. It was found, however, that the branched structure of the alkyl
group was responsible for the poor biodegradability of this detergent. The linear alkylben-
zenes (LAB) which are produced in the “soft” detergent alkylation units that were intro-
duced in the early 1960s have substantially replaced their branched counterparts.


Since the late 1960s, HF acid has been the principal catalyst for the alkylation reaction
that produces LAB. Due to the high capital and maintenance costs involved with a very
corro-sive acid like HF, and due to the growing concerns about the safety and waste
disposal in an HF acid.Such a catalyst was developed in the early 1990s and is the basis
for the Detal process.


In a typical LAB complex, there is an n-paraffin extraction unit (such as the UOP Molex
Unit) which extracts n-paraffins from a kerosene feed. The pure n-paraffins are then fed to a
UOP Pacol unit where about 13% of the n-paraffins are dehydrogenated to n-olefins. This
mixture of n-olefins and n-paraffins is then fed to the Detal unit where the n-olefins react
with benzene to form LAB. The unreacted normal paraffins are continuously recycled to the
Pacol feed after passing through the Detal unit. It has been found that adjusting the Pacol
reactor to about 13 wt % olefin conversion is the most economical way to operate in terms of
product quality and operating costs. The 13 wt% conversion Pacol operation utilizes an
improved Pacol catalyst that was developed in the mid-1980s. The recently de-veloped
DeFine process unit is included in the Pacol units which are associated with Detal units.
DeFine selectively hydrogenates the diolefins which are formed in thePacol reactors,
reducing the formation of by-products which would foul the Detail catalyst.


The n-olefins produced in the Pacol unit are alkylated with benzene in the Detal reactor
section to yield linear alkylbenzene. Due to the buildup of polymer-like-by-products on
the catalyst, it is necessary to regenerate the catalyst with hot benzene after about 24
hours operation. For this reason, a two-reactor system is used so that one reactor can
always be on-line while the other is being regenerated.

59
 
The reactor section effluent proceeds to a series of fractionation columns where the
various remaining reactants and the products are separated. The unreacted benzene is
taken over-head in the benzene column and recycled back to the Detal reactor. The
benzene column also separates the heavy by-products from the regenerant benzene. The
unreacted n-paraf-fins are taken overhead in the paraffin column and recycled back to the
 the heavy
pacol unit. The LAB product is taken overhead in the rerun column. Finally,
alkylate (HAB) by-product is taken from the bottom of the recycle column.

Detal reaction:

+ CH3-(CH2)X-CH=CH-(CH2)Y-CH3

Benzene N-olefins

LAB

4.3.7.2 PROCESS FLOW & DESCRIPTION


A C10-C13 or C11-C14 n-paraffin stream containing about 13% n-olefins is produced in the
Pacol unit. This paraffin/olefin feed is mixed with an excess of benzene & feed to one of
the two Detal reactors where the olefins react with the benzene to produce LAB. The
reac-tors are switched daily & the off-line reactor is regenerated with hot benzene to
remove the heavy H.C. that build up on the catalyst. The reactor effluent goes to benzene
column where the excess benzene is removed & recycled to the reactors. The bottoms of
the benzene column go to the paraffin column where the paraffin is taken overhead &
recycled to the Pacol unit. The paraffin column bottom stream is fed to the rerun column
where LAB prod-uct is taken overhead. The rerun column bottom is sent to recycle
column where the heavy alkyl by-product is taken from the bottom  of the column &
overhead is recycled back to the paraffin column via clay treater.

REACTOR SYSTEM


There are two identical Detal reactors each with three catalyst beds. The feed from the Pacol
unit is divided into three equal streams. One third of the flowof feed is mixed with the entire
flow of recycle benzene & is fed to the top bed in the reactor.

60
 
The effluent from top bed then exits, & mixed with the second one third of the feed & is
fed to the middle of the reactor. Again the olefin is completely converted in the middle
bed. The effluent from the middle bed exits & is mixed with the final one third  of the
feed & is fed to the bottom of the reactor, where the last of the olefin is reacted.


The split feed olefin, series flow benzene scheme give roughly three times the effective
benzene to olefin ratio. So the advantage of higher benzene/olefin ratio obtained without
an increase in utility cost due to higher recycle benzene flow rate. Although there are two
Detal reactors, only one is on line at a time. During operation small amounts of heavy tar
like polymer material builds up on the surface of the catalyst. It is necessary to switch the
reactors daily to remove these heavy materials from the catalyst using a hot benzene re-
generation procedure. The reactor effluent meets with the regenerant effluent & is fed to
the benzene column.

REGENERATION SYSTEM
  After about 24 hours of operation the Detal catalyst must be regenerated with a hot benzene
wash. Benzene from the accumulator tray of benzene column is used as regenerant
benzene is heated to 250◦ C before entering the reactor. The hot regenerant passes
through a reactor where it removes heavy H.C. from the surface of the catalyst.
Regenerant is finally goes to the alkylation mix drum where it mixes with the effluent
from online reactor before going to the benzene column.

BENZENE COLUMN


The top section of the column is a stripper for the make up benzene. Water & dissolved
non condensable are removed in this section of the column. The bottom section of the
column  separates the benzene from heavier H.C. in the reactor & regenerator effluent
streams.


The feed to the benzene column is comprised of both the reactor effluent & regenerant
effluent. The flashing of the feed to the benzene column is necessary because the reboilor
is not capable of supplying sufficient heat for proper column operation if significant
portion of feed is vaporized.


The benzene column has a step in type reboiler & is heated by hot oil. The paraffin &
heavier H.C. are taken from the bottom of the benzene column & this feed is fed to the
paraffin column. The benzene obtained from the accumulator tray can be sent to the off-
spec-tank. This is useful during start up & shutdown operation when it is necessary to
remove some or all of the benzene from the unit.

PARAFFIN COLUMN

The paraffin column separates the n-paraffin (overhead) from the LAB & heavier H.C., due

to the high boiling temp of the H.C. being fractionated. The paraffin column operated under
vacuum (17 mm of Hg) in order to prevent excessive thermal cracking.

61
 
The net bottom stream from the benzene column is fed to the paraffin column which con-sists
of a packed section above the accumulator tray. Paraffin column overhead  air-cooler & is
continuously circulated as flow control to the top of the condenser packing.

RERUN & RECYCLE COLUMN


The rerun column makes a rough separation of the detergent range LAB product from the
HAB. The rerun column is typically a packed column & operates under vacuum (10 mm
the recycle column it is similar to the rerun column; it is also operated under
of Hg). In
vacuum.


The recycle column has a steb in type reboilor. The net bottom of the recycle column is HAB
& is pumped to the column. The net overhead from the column is LAB & this stream is sent
to the clay treater before being recycled upstream.

CLAY TREATERS


The purpose of the clay treater is to reduce the bromine index of the LAB product. In the clay
treaters, trace amounts of the olefins & other impurities which contributethe bromine index
can either be adsorbed on the clay or they can react to form heavier H.C.


An important side reaction that can take place in the clay treater is the Trans alkylation. In
this reaction the straight chain alkyl group from the one molecule of LAB is transferred to
another LAB molecule creating one di-alkyl benzene & one benzene molecule. The amount
of trans-alkylation reaction increase as the clay treater temp increases.

62
Figure 4.8 Process flow diagram of DETAL

Benzene Column
63
64
4.3.7.3 Process Equipments
[1] Reactor:
There are two DETAL reactors. Each reactor consists of three beds of catalysts. The feed of
the DETAL reactor is divided into three parts of which one part is mixed with Benzene in the
ratio of 15:1.One reactor is operational while other is on regeneration stage for duration of 24
hours. The reaction takes place there and the effluent mixes with the other 1/3rd part of Benzene,
which is charged to the second bed. The same procedure takes place in the third bed. The re-
generation takes place simultaneously in other reactor by help of Benzene at 150°C. The Benzene
removes the Polymer product, which is formed on the catalyst bed. The bottom of both reactors
are mixed and sent to the Benzene column. The reactor effluent backpressure valve keeps the
Hydro-carbon in the reactor in the liquid phase.

[2] Benzene Column:

Benzene is removed from the top and the bottoms are a mixture of n-Paraffin, LAB, HAB. The
bottom products are level controlled and sent to the paraffin column. The reflux is sent on tem-
perature of accumulator tray.

[3] Paraffin column:

The paraffin column separates out Paraffin from LAB and other heavier Hydrocarbons. Due to
high Boiling point difference the Paraffin are fractioned. To prevent thermal cracking the col-umn is
kept under vacuum under vacuum pump. In the top part of the column the contact condenser

65
is made up of packings, which give lower pressure drop. The top paraffin product is sent above
this condenser as cold Reflux while below condenser as hot reflux.
Below the condenser the accumulator tray is provided which acts as overhead receiver. On the
temperature of this tray the column works. Top product stream is sent to the PACOL unit as recycle
stream. Reboiler is provided inside the column as reboiling system. The bottom product containing
LAB and other heavier hydrocarbon are obtained on level control and sent to the rerun column.

[4] Rerun column:

The rerun column makes a rough separation of detergent range LAB product and HAB. The
rerun column is a typical packed column and runs under vacuum. In the top part contact
condenser is there which is same as that in the paraffin column.
There are three packing sections. Top packing above accumulator tray work as contact con-
denser. The middle packing between accumulator tray and feed point work as Rectification
section and bottom packing between feed point and reboiler tubes work as Stripping section.
The reason for using such system is to get effective temperature control for good separation,
only 10-20% of column feed is obtained as bottom product. Low pressure drop is required here
and good overhead product. The column has same Stab in boiler system and accumulator tray
acting as overhead receiver. The bottom product containing maximum HAB and some LAB is
obtained on level control and sent to the recycle column.

[5] Recycle column:

The construction of recycle column is same as rerun column where same packing system is
given. Here also the accumulator tray acts as overhead receiver and reboiler system is provided.
The vacuum is maintained in the tower and with the help of vacuum pump the desired vacuum is
obtained.
The bottom product from the recycle column is HAB and it is pumped to storage on level
control. The net overhead product from the column is LAB and this stream is sent to cay treater
before being recycled to upstream.
HAB is controlled at top to maintain the Bromine index for linearity of LAB product.

[6] Clay treater:

The purpose of clay treater is to reduce the Bromine index of LAB product. In clay treater,
trace amount of olefins and other impurities, which contribute to Bromine index, can either be
adsorbed on clay or they can react to from heavier hydrocarbons. Adsorption occurs at lower
temperature and reaction occurs at higher temperature. Life of clay is much shorter.

66
 Chapter: 5 Utilities

The Utility section consist 12 units:

5.1 HYDROGEN PLANT

INTRODUCTION:

  The hydrogen plant has been set up to produce highly pure hydrogen gas from liquid naph-tha.

 H2 is produced  by catalytically reforming naphtha at elevated temperature in the vertical cylindrical
reformer furnace.
  Further, hydrogen is produced by the reaction of CO and steam in the shift converter.


The impurities present in the H2 streamsuch as CO,CO2,CH4 and water are removed by adsorption system
and thus a highly pure H2 is produced.

PROCESS:


  feed for production of H2 is stored in a buffer vessel at a temperature 21 C
The liquid naphtha which is the
and pressure of 2.04 kg/cm2.
 
 From here, naphtha is pumped from 2.04 kg/cm2 upto 27.4 kg/cm2 with horizontal sun-dyne pump.

The naphtha is sent to kettle type vaporizer through a filter at 268 C where it exchanges heat
 
with fuel gas flowing in the tube side. When the level in the vaporizer goes to 40, the pump
starts and when it reaches to 70, the pump automatically stops.

Now the naphtha from the vaporizer enters into the heater where it exchanges heat with
reformer gas on tube side and temperature rises to 399 C. Before it enters the heater, it is
mixed with a side stream of H2 from the compressor. Heating is done to remove any kind
 of moisture present in naphtha.

During start up of the plant, naphtha fuel is directly taken from the buffer vessel. So it is
very important to keep a check on the moisture getting accumulated in it. During normal
operation, the fuel is taken from 
the bottom of the feed vaporizer in order to remove hy-
 drocarbon which is accumulated.

From here, feed flows through hydrotreater. Here, in presence of COMOX (cobalt-
molyb-dnum oxide) catalyst, any olefins present in the feed react with the hydrogen to
form satu-rated hydrocarbons and sulphur present in it reacts with hydrogen forming
  A chlorine guard is kept at the top of the hydrotreater to remove any
hydrogen sul-phide.
Cl present in it.

The feed gas then flows through the desulphurizer, where,in the presence of ZnO catalyst and

at temperature of 300-400 C, H2S formed in hydrotreater is absorbed by the following
reaction:

ZnO+H2S→ZnS+H2O

67

 feed, type and total amount of sulfur and unsaturates, pressure, temperature and hydro-gen.
The performance of the catalyst used in hydrodesulfurization unit are dependent flow rate of


The flow rate through the hydrotreater and desulfurizer units and the amount of
unsaturates and sulphur compounds in the feed and the pressure are factors which are not
 associated  is the only parameter that can be controlled to
with these units. Temperature
improve the performance of the units.

 operating pressure is increased.
The efficiency of the hydrotreater and desulfurizer units increases greatly as the flow is decreased or its


The feed gas then enters the reformer which is vertical cylinder balanced draft type with
20 tubes and 3 burners. The tubes are arranged in a circle near the insulated refractory
Naphtha and vent gas are
 wall.
supplied from the air preheater.
used as fuel. Burner design draft is -6.35 mmWC. Air is


The burners should be operated to provide a flame which is very short and thin.Flow in the
 tubes  The furnace should be fired such that the
and the firing of the furnace are both upward.
flame should not impinge on the catalyst tubes.

Here, the feed reacts with superheated steam coming from super heater at a temperature of
500-875 C. The reaction takesplace in presence of Ni catalyst to form mixture of water
vapor, CO, CO2, CH4 and H2.

CmHn +mH2O → (n/2 + m)+mCO


The reforming reaction is highly endothermic reaction. In addition to the reforming reac-tion, a partial
water shift reaction also occurs in the reformer.

CO+H2O→CO2+H2


The hot process gas exiting the reformer flows through the Reformer Effluent Steam gen-
erator at around 800 -875 C. The gas leaving the reformer furnace is used to superheat the
steam before it enters the reformer tubes. Flue gas is alsoused to produce steam
 process
and to heat the combustion air before it enters the reformer tubes.

 357 C.
In the Reformer Effluent Steam generator, the steam is produced and temperature is con-trolled down to


The flue gases from the reformer goes flue gas steam generator and then into the APH
where it heats the air blown in by the FD fan and this air is sent into the Reformer furnace
 for burning. The remaining flue gas enters into the economizer where again  it exchanges
heat with liquid and then the ID fan will take the flue gases into the stack.

The gas then enters the shift converter wherein presence of copper promoted iron oxide
 catalyst the water gas shift reaction converts the CO to H2  and CO2. The reaction being
exothermic, the temperature increases by around 40 to 50 C.

The shift conversion reaction depends on temperature, pressure, steam/carbon ratio and
flowrate. The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction rate. The normal pressure

drop is very low in the converter which can increase due to fouling,catalyst breakdown
etc. The shift converter catalyst is very sensitive to sulphur poisoning.

68

This gas flows through heater where it exchanges heat with the naphtha and hydrogen mixture coming from
vaporizer. The temperature is reduced to 388 C.

 This gas then goes to vaporizer where temperature further reduces to 320 C.

The process gas then flows through the Shift Effluent Steam Generator, through the boiler
 feed  (BFW) heat exchanger where it will exchange heat with mixture of BFW and DM
water
water.

 Then it goes into deaerator exchanger where it again exchanges heat with water on tube side.
 
 It is further cooled in a cooler to a temperature of 38 C with the help of water coming from cooling tower.

The cool gas is sent cold condenser separator (CCS) where the process gas is separated
from top and sent to pressure swing adsorber(PSA) which consists of three layers of
 adsor-bent. the bottom and sent to deaerator exchanger after
The liquid is separated from
making up with the boiler feed water..

 In deaerator exchanger, the liquid exchanges heat with process gas. 

This liquid is sent into the deaerator where a side stream from the steam drum is also en-
tering. In the deaerator,the liquid is treated with hydrazine to remove O2. This hydrazine
is prepared in a low pressure vessel as well as in a high pressure vessel. The hydrazine
 deaerator where it exchanges heat with process gas.
from HP vessel is sent to the BFW exchanger along with the bottom liquid from


 goes into the steam drum.
This liquid enters into the economizer where it will exchange heat with the flue gases and this hot liquid


In PSA, there are four adsorption beds and one will remain in run mode whereas
remaining three in regeneration condition.Granular adsorbents in the adsorber vessel trap
all the im-purities. This system uses alumina for bulk water, activated carbon for bulk
CO2 and me-thane removal and molecular sieve for CO removal and purity
 at 20.4 kg/cm2 The pure hydrogen is sent to different units wherever required.
improvement.After purifi-cation by the Adsorption system, product hydrogen is available


 
During the regeneration step, the impurities are cleaned from the adsorbent by the follow-ing steps:
1. The adsorber is depressurized to a lower pressure to reject some of the impurities.
2. The adsorbent is purged with hydrogen to remove remaining impurities.
3. The adsorber is repressurised to adsorption pressure and is again ready to purify
the feed gas.

 from the bottom are taken into the vent drum from where it is sent to re-former to be used as fuel
The impurities
for burning.

69
 Figure 5.1 Process flow diagram of Hydrogen Plant

5.2 COOLING TOWER

5.2.1 Introduction

The basic purpose of the cooling tower is that it gives cold water for plant requirement. Here
induced draft cooling tower is used to supply cold water in all parts of plant.

It is work on principle of evaporative cooling. Here mass transfer is taking place. Heats which are evolved
for this operation are sensible heat & latent heat.

70
 Figure 5.2 Diagram of cooling tower

An induced draft counter current cooling tower is used to supply cooling water for entire plant. It
contains 4 cells of 800 m3/ hr capacity with a common bottom basin to collect water. Each cell has an
induced fan to induce 543600 m3/hr capacity of air. 4 pumps of capacity 800 m3 /hr are provided for
circu-lating water. 2 emergency pumps of capacity 3200 m3/hr are also provided. Total cooling water
consumption is 2673 m3/hr. 19.7% excess capacity is also available.

Cooling water is used in, Heat Exchangers, Pumps, Compressors, Sample coolers, Utility points.

The cooling water operating conditions are:

Supply Pressure 4kg/cm2

Return Pressure 2kg/cm2

Supply temperature 33°C

Return temperature 25-26°C

5.3 Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)

5.3.1 Introduction
Capacity: 75 m3/day

71
 Effluent streams from various areas of plant consist of plant effluent, effluent generated in
tank farm and loading/ unloading, utility effluents etc.

5.3.2 Process flow diagram

Figure 5.3 Process flow diagram of ETP

5.3.3 Process flow description

Process effluents consist of water with aromatics/ hydrocarbon is pumped to ETP. All non-benzene
hydrocarbons are collection in underground drainage and pumped to slops tank via underground tank. All
floor wash water is routed to ETP via channels to pit. Effluents from tank farm are collected in a pit and
periodically pumped to ETP

Various steps in effluent treatment unit are given below

(i) Free oil separation:

Effluent from plant contains free as well as emulsified oil for removal of free oil, effluent is
passed through a tank in which corrugated plate interceptors are provided free oil settled as thin

72
layer to the top is removed by an oil skimmer and transferred to oil tank. Oil from tank is
pumped to slop tank effluent free from free oil overflows in to dissolve air floatation (DAF) unit.
(ii) Emulsified oil removal:

Effluent contains emulsified oil to very small extent for removal of this oil, dissolve air floata-tion
is provided air floatation also reduces organic content of effluent. In this unit, re- circulated effluent
saturated with air is diffused at high pressure. When it is released to atmosphere due to buoyancy
effect minute oil droplets and other suspended particles rise to the top.

Forming a thick floating sludge skimmer in to floating sludge beds for drying. Sediment able
particle settled at the bottom of the unit are swept in to sludge tray by a scrapper attached to rotating
middle shell. The sludge generated is taken in to sludge drying beds for drying. Polyelectrolyte is
added in to DAF unit so that it brake emulsified oil and make it possible to remove oil.
(iii) Biological treatment:

This treatment is given to effluent in order to reduce biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen de-
mand and suspended solids effluent is taken into aeration tank and then secondary classifier.

In aeration tank, micro-organisms will be developed. Some nutrients like urea solution, cow dung are
also added. Microorganisms will act on organic effluents. Process is based on activated sludge process
with extended aeration principle. Air is supplied for aeration purpose.

In case of effluent containing benzene in it, activated carbon powder is used which will adsorb non
degradable organic. Effluent from aeration tank is taken to secondary settling tank. Where suspended
solids are removed here effluent enters centrally near bottom of tank and an agitator is rotating at half
RPM in to which helps for setting of suspended solids. Settled solids are taken to sludge beds.

(iv) Sludge handling:

Sludge from various units is dried on sludge drying beds. Sludge cakes after drying is disposed off and
filtrate is taken to equalization pond.

(v) Polishing unit:

Treated effluent from clarifiers, cooling water blow down is taken in to polishing sump. It is
neutralized with acid (HCL)/ alkali (caustic). It is required to maintain its p H between 6.5 to 8.5.Treated
effluent is then used for gardening purpose in green belt areas.

73
Table 5.1 Data of final treated quality of ETP

Parameter Minimum Avg. GPCB limit

pH 7 8 6.5 – 8.5

Temperature (C) 20 35 40

Suspended solids, ppm 30 70 100

Oil and grease, ppm (emulsified) 5 8 10

TDS, ppm 600 1500 2100

BOD, mg/lit 20 30 50

COD, mg/lit 100 150 250

Ammonia, nitrogen, ppm 15 30 50

Sulfides, ppm 0 0.5 2

5.4 Flare system

5.4.1 Introduction

It is a very important unit. In plant orange color pipelines indicate Flare pipeline. The
height of the flare is 65m.It consists of two Flare units as follows:
(1)8” Diameter Cylinder.
(2)52”Diameter Cylinder.
It also contains Knock out Drum, LPG and Air Supply, LPG storage drum, Spark ignition
chamber.

5.4.2 Working

The lines from various units like Benzene Column etc are taken in Knock out drum. The
main function of knock out drum is to separate condensable and non-condensable gases. The
con-densable gases are sent back to the plant whereas the non-condensable gases like CO2 and
SO2 are sent to the Flare unit. Initially the 8” Flare Unit is started which consists of certain water
level, which is maintained throughout.

74
 When the load on small Flare unit increases or during a sudden trip in the plant the 52”
Flare unit is started. In Flare unit the water drum is maintained where the condensable gases get
absorbed and other gases are sent up and the tube is ignited with the spark, which is generated in
the Spark Ignition Chamber, as the gases sent directly can create pollution.
In Spark ignition chamber, LPG is used as fuel and thermocouple are used to measure
temperature. A spark of 2100 V is given. A pilot Flame is always there at the top for the ignition
of gases. This is the working of the Flare System.

5.5 Tank Farm

The tank farm is situated near the Loading and the Unloading Section. The raw materials
and products are stored in different tanks. Each tank has its own characteristics according to the
storage material.
There are three types of tanks:
(1) Fixed roof tank

The roof is fixed in these types of tanks. They are used for less volatile materials. They are
used for heavy material like Furnace oil, LAB, and HAB.
(2) Floating roof tank

In these types of tanks the roof is movable which is nearer to upper level fluid. They are used
for lighter materials. The liquid like Benzene is stored in this type of tanks. The roof is floating
liquid according to buoyancy force. When the buoyancy force becomes greater than the weight of
roof then the roof will move towards the top of the tank. This type of tank minimizes the vapor
formation.

(3) Pressure storage tank

It is of two types:
(a) Bullet type
(b)Dome Roof type

They are used for highly volatile material. These are used for gas like LPG (Liquefied Petroleum
Gas), which is first, liquefied and then stored.

Here in the tank farm, in all the tanks Nitrogen Blanketing is provided to avoid the
formation of the explosive vapor air mixture in the tanks of Benzene, Normal Paraffin and LAB
storage. Pressure Relief Valves (PRV), Pressure Vacuum Relief valves (PVRV), Pressure
indicators, Tem-perature indicators, Level indicators are provided on each tank. In the furnace oil
tank, steam jack-eting is provided around the tank, which decreases the viscosity and provides
easy transformation of furnace oil. Each tank is provided with water sprinklers system in case of
fire. Each tank is separated by Dyke area in case of overfilling, leakage and collapsing of tank.

75
Table 5.2 Data of tank stored material and its capacity

Sr. No. Identification Capacity m3 No. of Tanks

1 LAB 4400 3

2 LAB 1850 3

3 HAB 300 2

4 LAB 300 2

5 Supply Kerosene 5800 4

6 Return kerosene 5800 4

7 N-Paraffin 4060 2

8 Benzene 1500 3

9 N-Pentane 216 1

10 Iso-octane 260 1

11 Naphtha 200 1

12 HCl 32 1

13 D.M.Water 100 1

14 Drinking Water 15 1

15 Caustic 2 1

16 LPG 46.6 2

17 N2 48.73 4

18 Off-Spec 1050 1

19 Fuel Oil 1675 2

20 Diesel 33 1

21 H2 40 1

76
 Chapter: 6 Material balance

[A] Front end

Plant capacity = 65000 TPA of n-paraffin
Number of working days = 333 days
Plant production for one day = 65000000 / (24*333) = 8133.133 Kg/hr
Kerosene containing 13% N-Paraffin [C10-C13]
Paraffin = 0.13*Kerosene
Kerosene Required = 8133.133 / 0.13 = 62562.56 Kg/hr
Feed to Front end 63013 Kg/hr of Kerosene

6.1 Prefractionation unit [PF]

[1] Stripper Column:

Stripper feed= Raw kerosene = 63013 Kg/hr
Table 6.1 Data for feed composition of stripper column

Component Composition [wt%]

C7 0.41
C8 0.82
C9 1.78
C10 3.53
C11 4.61
C12 4.90
C13 4.78
C14 3.48
C15 1.42
C16 0.17
C17 0.02
NP&NNP 74.13

77
Table 6.2 Data of stripper overhead compositions

Component Composition [wt%]

C7 1.46
C8 2.92
C9 6.16
NP&NNP 42.37

Now, taking C7 component balance

Stripper overhead composition=(0.41/1.46)*63013=17695.43 Kg/hr
Reflux ratio=1.13
Stripper column reflux=9431.33 Kg/hr
Stripper column top to recycle kerosene=8255 Kg/hr

Table 6.3 Data of stripper bottom compositions

Component Composition [wt%]

C10 4.36
C11 5.69
C12 6.05
C13 5.90
C14 4.29
C15 1.75
C16 0.20
C17 0.0247
TNP&TNN 70.1

Taking C10 component balance

Stripper bottom = (3.53/4.36)*63013
=51017.40596 Kg/hr
Stripper overhead (C7– C9) returns back to Kerosene storage. While Stripper bottom is feed to
rerun column.

78
[2] Rerun Column:
Rerun Feed =51017.40596 Kg/hr

Table 6.4 Data of rerun top product compositions

Component Composition [wt%]
C10 6.4
C11 8.35
C12 8.88
C13 8.375
C14 0.39
TNP&TNN 67.6

Taking C10 component balance

Rerun top = (4.36/6.4)*51017.40596
= 34771 Kg/hr

Table 6.5 Data of rerun bottom product compositions

Component Composition [wt%]

C13 0.49
C14 10.277
C15 4.48
C16 0.53
C17 0.063
TNN 84.14

Taking C15 component balance

Rerun bottom = (1.75/4.48)*51017.4059 = 19977 Kg/hr

79
Table 6.6 Pre-Fractionation Material Balance Summary
Inputs Quantity Outputs Quantity
[Kg/hr] [Kg/hr]
1Kerosene feed 63013 1 Stripper overhead 8255
2 Rerun top 34771
3 Rerun bottom 19977
4 Rerun off-gases 10
Total 63013 Total 63013

Figure 6.1 PF material balance sheet

80
6.2 Union fining [UF]

UF feed [C10-C13] = 34921Kg/hr.

H2 fed for reaction = 802 Kg/hr
1000 wt ppm Sulfur
5 wt ppm Nitrogen
Sulfur is removed as H2s and N2 is removed as NH3
Assume 1% cracking of paraffin
The quantity of material cracked = 34921 * 0.01 = 349.21 Kg/hr.
The quantity remaining = 34921- 349.2
= 34571.8 Kg/hr
This is passed through LP & Hp separator then fed to Product stripper
The material obtain from product stripper bottom=34435 Kg/hr
The Overhead from product stripper is sent to Light end stripper column
The material obtain from Light end stripper column=767 Kg/hr
H2 remove from unit = 30 Kg/hr
Off gases = 491 Kg/hr

Table 6.7 Union Fining Material Balance Summary

Inputs Quantity Outputs Quantity
[Kg/hr] [Kg/hr]
1 UF feed 34921 1 Product Stripper bottom 34435
2 H2 fed 802 2 LES bottom 767
3 H2 remove from unit 30
4 Off-gases 491
Total 35723 Total 35723

81
Figure 6.2 UF material balance sheet

82
6.3 Molex

Feed From U.F = 34430 Kg/hr

TNP = 27.22 [wt%]
TNN = 72.78 [wt%]
E+R = 34430 Kg/Hr
TNP Content in Extract bottom =
99.86 TNP Content in raffinate bottom
= 0.2 TNP: 34430*27.22 =
99.86E+0.2R 99.86E+0.2R = 937184.6
TNN content in extract bottom = 0.14
TNN content in raffinate bottom = 99.8
TNN: 34430*72.78 = 0.14E + 99.8R
99.8R + 0.14E=2505815.4
E = 9334.72 Kg/Hr
R = 25095.27 Kg/Hr
Feed for Rotary valve:
Feed = 34430 Kg/Hr
Feed / Desorbent = 0.606
Feed / Zone Flush = 4.57
Feed / Line Flush = 6.14
Desorbent = 56815.18 Kg/hr
60% ic5 = 34089.1 Kg/Hr
40% ic8 = 22726.1 Kg/Hr
Zone Flush =7533.91 Kg/Hr
Line Flush = 5607.49 Kg/Hr
Table 6.8 Molex Material balance summary
Inputs Quantity [Kg/hr] Outputs Quantity [Kg/hr]
1 Molex feed 34430 1 Extract 9334.72
2 Raffinate 25095.27
Total 34430 Total 34430

83
 Extract
= 9334.72 Kg/hr
Feed = 34430 Kg/hr NP = 99.86 [wt%]
NNP = 0.14 [wt%]
Molex
NP = 27.22 [wt%] Raffinate
NNP = 72.78 [wt%] = 25095.27 Kg/hr
NP = 0.2 [wt%], NNP = 99.8[wt%]
Figure 6.3 Molex material balance sheet

Table 6.9 Front end Material balance summary

Inputs Quantity [Kg/hr] Outputs Quantity [Kg/hr]

1 Kerosene feed 63013 1 Stripper overhead 8255
2 H2 feed 802 2 Rerun bottom 19977
3 LES bottom 767
4 Extract 9334.72
5 Raffinate 25095.27
6 Gases 386
To- 63815 Total 63815
tal

6.4 Pacol & Define

LAB capacity = 75000 MTPA

Number of working days = 333 days
Plant production for one day = 75000000 / (24*333) =
9384.38 Kg/hr

84
Olefin required = 6245.02 Kg/hr
Molex product = 9334.72 Kg/hr

Recycle paraffin from Detal unit & Paraffin from tank farm = 51975 Kg/hr
Total feed to reactor = 51975 + 9334.72 = 61309.72 Kg/hr
Assuming that in Pacol unit paraffin to olefin conversion is 10%
So, Paraffin converted to olefin = 0.10*61309.72 = 6130.9
Kg/hr Hydrogen to reactor = 117 Kg/hr
Water injection = 216.7 Kg/hr
From separator bottom = 61309.72 * (0.9851 / 0.99)
= 61006.2 Kg/hr is send to the define
unit Stream from Separator to Define reactor = 61006.2 Kg/hr
Amount of H2 to reactor = 8.6 Kg/hr
Assume 90% conversion of diolefin to olefins in Define Reactor
Di-olefins converted into olefins = 0.90 * 61006.2 Kg/hr
= 54905.6 Kg/hr
Output stream for Define reactor = 54905.6 Kg/hr

H2 separated=276

H2 = 117 Kg/hr Kg/hr

Feed to define
Pacol Separator =61006.2 Kg/hr
Paraffin reactor
= 61309.72
Kg/hr

Define reactor

54905.6 Kg/hr to Pep unit

Figure 6.4 Pacol Material balance sheet

85
6.5 Pep & Detal unit:

The Pacolet from Pacol Unit = 54905.6 Kg/hr

Desorbent from Detal Unit = 17842 Kg/hr
De Pentanizer Column Overhead = 16872 Kg/hr
Treated Pacolet from Pep Unit is sent to Detal Unit = 61533 Kg/hr
Detal:
Feed to Detal = 61533 Kg/hr
Amount of benzene to reactor Benzene = 3511 Kg/hr
Amount of LAB from Detal unit = 0.15*61533
= 9229.95 Kg/hr

Desorbent

= 17842 Kg/hr

Pep unit
Pacolet

= 54905.6 Kg/hr Feed to Detal

= 61533 Kg/hr

Detal unit

9229.95

Kg/hr LAB

Figure 6.5 Pep & Detal Material balance sheet

86
 Chapter: 7 Energy balance

[1] Stripper column:

Heat load around reboiler
QReboiler = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [45318*0.6857*(243-236)] + [45318*58.86]
= 2884939.34 Kcal/hr

Energy is supply by Hot oil

So, QReboiler = QHot oil
2884939.34 = m*0.608*(292-
246) m = 103151.43 Kg/hr
Hot oil required 103151.43 Kg/hr

Heat load around fin fan cooler

Qfin = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [17695.40596*0.5*(158-77)] + [17695.4*52.70]
= 1649211.28 Kcal/hr

Qfin= Qair
1649211.28 = m*0.245*(60-
35) m=269258.98 Kg/hr
[2] Rerun Column:

Heat load around reboiler

QReboiler = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [19977*0.68*(249-236)] + [19977*58.14]
= 1338059.46 Kcal/hr

Energy is supply by Hot oil

So, QReboiler = QHot oil
87
 1338059.46 = m*0.608*(292-
246) m = 47842.51 Kg/hr
Hot oil required 47842.51 Kg/hr

Heat load around fin fan cooler

Qfin = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [105840*0.5286*(139.7-55)] + [105840*52.70]
= 5296278.9 Kcal/hr

Qfin = Qair
5296278.9 = m*0.245*(65-
35) m= 720582.16 Kg/hr
[3] Product Stripper:

Heat load around reboiler

QReboiler = [m*CP* T] + [m*]
= [34435*0.70645*(256-251)] + [34435*54.42]
= 1995275.814 Kcal/hr

Energy is supply by Hot oil

So, QReboiler = QHot oil
1995275.814 = m*0.608*(292-
246) m = 71341.38 Kg/hr
Hot oil required 71341.38 Kg/hr

Heat load around fin fan cooler

Qfin = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [6682*0.488*(188-55)] + [6682*46]
= 741060.52 Kcal/hr

Qfin = Qair
741060.52 = m*0.245*(50-35)
88
m = 120989.474 Kg/hr

[4] Extract column:

Heat load around reboiler

QReboiler = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [8574*0.75*(246-243)] + [8574*56.6]
= 504579.9 Kcal/hr

Energy is supply by Hot oil

So, QReboiler = QHot oil
504579.9 = m*0.608*(292-
246) m = 18041.32 Kg/hr
Hot oil required 18041.32 Kg/hr

Heat load around fin fan cooler

Qfin = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [54563*0.5345*(101-54)] + [54563*56.6]
= 4458970.205 Kcal/hr

Qfin = Qair
4458970.205 = m*0.245*(60-
35) m =727995.13 Kg/hr

[5] Raffinate column:

Heat load around reboiler
QReboiler = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [25855*0.68*(246-243)] + [25855*57.3]
= 1534235.7 Kcal/hr

Energy is supply by Hot oil

89
So, QReboiler = QHot oil
1534235.7 = m*0.608*(292-
246) m = 54856.82 Kg/hr
Hot oil required 54856.82 Kg/hr

Heat load around fin fan cooler

Qfin = [m*CP*ΔT] + [m*]
= [54057*0.535*(94-54)] + [54057*58]
= 4292125.8 Kcal/hr

Qfin = Qair
4292125.8 = m*0.245*(50-
33) m=1030522.401 Kg/hr

[6] Desorbent heater:

Q = m*CP*ΔT

= 7.37*103*0.6*[300 – 176]

= 548328 Kcal/hr

[7] Flush heater:

Q = m*CP*ΔT

= 44.57*103*0.6*[300 – 173]

= 3396234Kcal/hr

[8] Light end stripper column:

Q = m*CP*ΔT

= 2.09* 103 *0.6* [300 – 196]

= 130416 Kcal/hr

Heat input by Hot oil heater:

90
 Q = m*CP*ΔT

= 12 *105*0.6* [300 – 250]

= 36000000 Kcal/hr

Heat loss to environment is subtraction between heat input & all Qload
Heat loss to environment = 36000000 - [12332068.21] = 23667931.79 Kcal/hr

Table 7.1 Data of Cp & QReboiler for equipment

Equipment Cp [Kcal/Kg 0C] QReboiler [Kcal/hr]

Stripper column 0.6857 2884939.34

Rerun column 0.68 1338059.46

Product stripper 0.70 1595275.8

Extract column 0.75 504579.9

Raffinate column 0.68 1534235.7

Table 7.2 Data of Cp & Qfin for equipment

Equipment Cp [Kcal/Kg 0C] QReboiler [Kcal/hr]

Stripper column 0.50 1649211.28

Rerun column 0.52 5296278.9

Product stripper 0.48 741060.52

Extract column 0.53 4458970.2

Raffinate column 0.53 4292125.8

91
 Chapter: 8 Equipment design

8.1 Stripper column

For design stripper column here we first assume binary distillation of component C9& C11.
[A] Determination of number of trays using McCabe-Thiele:
Feed = 63013 Kg/hr
Distillate = 17695.43 Kg/hr
Bottom = 51017.40 Kg/hr

Feed is introduced at 1360C, so number of trays are find out at

1360C. Reflux ratio = 1.13
Stripper column reflux = 9431.33 Kg/hr

x = mole fraction of C9 in liquid

y = mole fraction of C9 in vapor
Composition of C9: Feed
Distillate
Bottom

Vapor pressure of C9& C11 at 1360C finds out using Antoine’s equation
Antoine’s equation:

B
log = A − T+C

Antoine’s coefficient:
Component A B C
C9 6.9344 1429.46 201.82
C11 6.9722 1569.57 187.7

By using this equation,

vap
Vapor pressure for C9 P = 504.8322 mmHg

92
 Vapor pressure for C11 Pvap = 132.84 mmHg

Relative volatility α = Pvapof C9/ Pvapof C11

= 504.8322/132.8 = 3.80

Now computing x-y equilibrium data:

x ranging from 0.1 to 1.0

Table 8.1 Equilibrium data of x-y for stripper column

X Y
0.1 0.29
0.2 0.48
0.3 0.61
0.4 0.71
0.5 0.79
0.6 0.85
0.7 0.89
0.8 0.93
0.9 0.97
1.0 1.00

From graph number of tray including reboiler = 8

So, number of theoretical tray = 7
Tray efficiency:
Tray efficiency can be find out using O’Connell’s relation
0.5
EO = (44 α)1/4 = 0.14 or 14%

93
So actual number of tray = Number of theoretical tray/ EO
= 7 / 0.14 = 50

Here sieve tray with cross-flow is use.

Effective tray spacing = 14 inch
ew (weight of liquid entrained/unit weight of vapor = 5%
Flowing in sieve tray column)

From graph of column velocity Vc & effective tray spacing [3]

[Ref. Ernest.Ludvig, Volume 2, Figure 8.121, p-177]

Vc = 2.52 ft/sec = 0.77 m/sec

For top [Tray 1-25]:

Vapor flow rate V = 1.71 m3/sec

Diameter of tower = [(4/π)*(V/Vc)]1/2
= [(4/3.14)*(1.71/0.77)]1/2
= 1.6819m
= 1682 mm
Tower diameter is 1700 mm from design

For bottom [Tray 26-50]:

Vapor flow rate V= 3.13 m3/sec

Diameter of tower = [(4/π)*(V/Vc)]1/2
= [(4/3.14)*(3.13/0.77)]1/2
= 2.276 m
= 2276 mm
Tower diameter is 2800 mm from design

Hole size:
Diameter of hole d0 = 0.0045 m on equilateral triangular pitch of 12 mm

94
 = = 0.907*(do/p’) =0.907*((0.0045/0.012)^2) = 0.12

Weir length = 0.7 of tower diameter & the tray use by one down spot = 8.8%

For top Weir length = 1.190 m

Tower cross sectional area At = 2.26 m2

Down spot cross sectional area Ad = 0.088*2.26 = 0.19 m2.
Active area for perforated sheet Aa = At– 2*(Ad) = 2.26 – 0.39 = 1.86 m2
hw height of liquid over weir = 50 mm

Dry pressure drop hD :

hD={ ρg*(V0^2)*Co *[0.40*(1.25-(A0/An)+((0.032*l)/(d0))+(1-(A0/An))^2)] }/[2*g* ρl]
Where, Co = orifice constant
= 1.09*(do/l) ^ 0.25 = 1.09*(0.0045/0.002)^0.25 =
1.3349 Ao = Hole area = 0.12 Aa = 0.12*1.86=0.2232 m2
An = (1-0.088) * At = 2.06112 m2
V0 = Hole velocity = Vapor flow rate/ A0 = 1.718687/0.2232 = 7.70
m/sec g = Gravitational acceleration = 9.8 m/sec2
ρg= Gas density = 4.998 kg/m3
ρL= Liquid density = 655.14 kg/m3

So by putting all values in equation we get hD = 0.0292 m

Hydraulic head hL:

hL = (6.10 * 10^(-3)) + (0.725*hw) – (0.238*hw*Va* (ρg^(0.5))) +
(1.225*(q/z)) Where, z = average flow width = (T+W)/2 = 1.445 m
Va = velocity in active area = vapor flow rate / Aa = 0.92
m/sec q = rate of liquid flow = 0.0096 m3/sec

So by putting all values in equation we get hL = 0.025 m

95
Residual pressure drop hR:
hR= (6*σ) /( ρl*d0*g) = 0.0083 m
Total gas pressure drop hG:
hG = hD + hL + hR
= 0.0625 m

Weir length = 0.7 of tower diameter & the tray use by one down spot = 8.8%
For bottom Weir length = 1.96 m

Tower cross sectional area At = 3.015 m2

Down spot cross sectional area Ad = 0.088*3.015 = 0.26 m2
Active area for perforated sheet Aa = At– 2*(Ad) = 3.015 – 0.53 = 2.48 m2
hw height of liquid over weir = 50 mm

Dry pressure drop hD:

hD={ ρg*(V0^2)*Co *[0.40*(1.25-(A0/An)+((0.032*l)/(d0))+(1-(A0/An))^2)] }/[2*g* ρl]
Where, Co = orifice constant
= 1.09*(do/l)^0.25 = 1.09*(0.0045/0.002)^0.25 = 1.3349

Ao = Hole area = 0.12 Aa = 0.12*2.48 = 0.2981 m2

An = (1-0.088) * At = 2.74968 m2
V0 = Hole velocity = Vapor flow rate/ A 0= 3.13/0.2981 = 10.49 m/sec

g = Gravitational acceleration = 9.8 m/sec2

ρg= Gas density = 6.984 kg/m3
ρL= Liquid density = 630.31 kg/m3

So by putting all values in equation we get hD = 0.10 m

Hydraulic head hL:

hL = (6.10 * 10^(-3)) + (0.725*hw) – (0.238*hw*Va* (ρg^(0.5))) +
(1.225*(q/z)) Where, z = average flow width = (T+W)/2 = 2.38 m
Va = velocity in active area = vapor flow rate / Aa = 1.26 m/sec

96
 q = rate of liquid flow = 0.058 m3/sec

So by putting all values in equation we get hL = 0.032 m

Residual pressure drop hR:

hR= (6*σ) /( ρl*d0*g) = 0.0086 m
Total gas pressure drop hG:
hG = hD + hL + hR
= 0.14 m

[B] Shell:
Top Diameter di = 1700 mm
Bottom Diameter di = 2800 mm

Working pressure P = 0.557 N/mm2

Design pressure Pd = 1.1*Working pressure = 0.612 N/mm2
Design temperature T = 3500C
Joint efficiency J = 0.85
Material of construction = Carbon steel

Permissible stress f = 95 N/mm2

Density ρ = 7.70 Kg/mm3
Corrosion allowance C = 2 mm

Shell thickness:
Top
t = [Pd * di]/[(2*f*J)-Pd] + C
= [0.612*1700]/[(2*95*0.85)-0.612] + 2
= 8.5 mm
Fabrication thickness tf =14 mm

Bottom
t = [Pd * di]/[(2*f*J)-Pd] + C

97
 = [0.612*2800]/[(2*95*0.85)-0.612] + 2
= 12.7 mm
Fabrication thickness tf =14 mm

[C] Head:
Elliptical head welded to shell (a:b = 2:1)
Material of construction = Carbon steel
Top:
Thickness t = [Pd*di*V]/[(2*f*J)-(0.2*Pd)] + C
= 8.44 mm
Fabrication thickness tf = 10 mm
Where, V = [1/6]*[2+((k)^2)] = 1

Bottom:
Thickness t = [Pd*di*V]/[(2*f*J)-(0.2*Pd)] + C
= 12.6 mm
Fabrication thickness tf = 14 mm
Where, V = [1/6]*[2 + ((k)^2)] = 1

Height of tower H= no. of tray*tray spacing + 4*top + 10*bottom + Manhole

= (50*14*25.4) + 4*0.3048 + 10*0.3048 + 5*12*25.4
= 19308.27 mm
= 19.31 m
So, height of tower is 20 m.

8.2 Centrifugal pump:

Table 8.2 Data for centrifugal pump
Ps 10.07 Kgf/cm2
Pd 15.82 Kgf/cm2
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 2.7
Temperature (T) 400 C

98
 Density (ρ) 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity (μ) 0.000653 kg/(m*s)
Efficiency (ȵ) 58%
RPM 2700

Volumetric Flow rate (QV) 10 m3/ hr

Assume typical velocity for liquid is 2 m/sec.

Mass flow rate (G) = QV* ρ

= 10m3/hr * 1000 kg/ m3

= 8600 kg/hr
= 2.778 kg/sec
Area of pipe (AP) = (QV / velocity)
= 10 / 7200

= 0.001388m2

AP= (П/4) * d2
d = 0.04206m =
42.06 mm

Take optimum diameter of pipe (d) = 50

mm So, C/S area of pipe = (П/4) * d2
= 1.962 * 10-3 m2

Fluid velocity = (Q / A)

= 10 / 1.962 * 10-3
=1.415 m/sec

From Fanning equation,

ΔP = 4.07 * 1010 * G1.84 * μ 0.16 * ρ (-1) *D (-4.84)

Where,

99
 ΔP = pressure Drop
KN/m2(Kpa)G = flow rate Kg
/sec

ρ = density, Kg/m3
D = Pipe diameter, m

ΔP = 4.07 * 1010* (2.778)1.84* (0.000653)0.16* 1000(-1)*50(-4.84)

= 0.493 Kpa / m

Reynolds’s Number (Re) = (4G / П μ D)

= ((4* 2.778) / (3.14 * 0.000653 *50 * 10-3))

= 108332.00

Head calculation:
Assuming suction head = 2 ft = 1.129 m
discharge head = 10 ft = 2.82 m

2 4
P g 10.97 10 9.81
Ha =
ρ + (gc × Za) + 2g == 1000 + ( 32.7 × 1.129) + 0.6555
= 37.16 m
2 4
P + ( g × Za) + == 15.82 × 10 + (9.81 × 2.82) + 0.6555
Hb =
ρ gc 2g 1000 32.7

= 135.32 m

Differential head
∆H = Hb-Ha = 135.32– 37.16 = 98.16 m

Roughness parameter
e / D = 9.2E-4

(R/ ρu2) = 0.0019 (approximately)

Friction loss / meter = 4*(R/ ρu2)*

(ρu2/D2)= 2.62 Kpa
100
 All the bends will be taken as 90 elbow std. radius
Equivalent length = 30 *D
Valve as plug valves, fully open
Equivalent length = 18*D

Length of pipe = (Z1-Z2) + (Eq.dia.of band * pipe dia.) +

(No of valve * (Eq.dia of bend * pipe diameter)) +
(No of band * (Eq.dia of bend * pipe dia.))
= 77.52 + (200 * .05) + (4*18 * 0.04) + (4*30 * 0.04)
= 95.2 m

Head Loss =4* (R/ ρu2) * (l/d) *(v2 /g)

= 4 * 0.095 (95.2 / 0.05) * (1.4152 /9.81)
= 2.95 m

Head H = hf+ (ΔP / ρ * g) + (Z1-Z2) + (v2 /2g)

= 2.95 + (320 / (1000 * 9.8)) + 77.52 + (1.4152 / (2* 9.81))
= 80.60 m

Power require for pumping,

Power = (H* ρ* Qv)/(3.67*105*η)

= (80.60*1000*10)/(212860)
= 3.78 KW
Power = 3.78*1000/745
= 5.07 hp

101
8.3 Storage tank
Table 8.3 Data for Storage tank

Capacity of storage tank 5800 m3

Material of construction Mild Steel

F 85 N/mm2
Corrosion allowance C 3 mm

N2 blanketing pressure 1.25 Kgf/cm2

Density of kerosene ρm 800 kg/m3
Density of Mild Steel 805 kg/m3
Material to be stored Kerosene
Available plate size 1.8 m X 3 m
Type Fixed conical roof cylindrical tank

[A] Optimization using Langrage method

r = radius of tank
h = height of tank

Area = (2*π*r*h) + (2*π*r2)

Volume = (π*r2*h) = 5800 m3
f (r, h) = area + g{(π*r2*h) -5800}
f (r, h) = {(2*π*r*h) + (2*π*r2)} + g{(π*r2*h) - 5800} ……..1
δf / δf = 2πh + 4πr + 2πrhλ =0 ……..2

δf / δh = 2πr + πr2λ =0 ……..3

δf / δλ = πr2h– 5800 = 0 ……..4

From equation (2)

λ = (-2)/r
From equation (1)
2πh + 4πr-4πh = 0
2hπr-2πh =0
h=2rh
From equation (3)

102
 r2h=5800
(Π*D2h)/4=5800
Π*D3=5800*4
D=19.4769 m
After adding corrosion allowance
D=19.48 m
D=19.5 m
So, h=19.5 m

[B] Design of cylindrical shell

Pressure at any height in the tank,

P = [{ρm(h– 0.3)}/(104)] +1.25

P = [{800*(h – 0.3)}/ (104)] + 1.25

No. of courses for total height = 19.5/1.8

= 10.8
= 11
Table 8.4 Data of height-thickness for storage tank

Height h,m Pressure,kg/m2 Thickness t,mm=(P*D)/{(2*f*j) –P}

19.2 2.786 3.6
17.4 2.642 3.4
15.6 2.498 3.4
13.8 2.354 3.2
12.0 2.21 3.0
10.2 2.066 2.8
8.4 1.922 2.6
6.6 1.778 2.4
4.8 1.634 2.4
3.0 1.49 2.2
1.2 1.346 2.0

103
 Outside diameter Do=D + (2*t)
Bottom plate diameter, Db = Do + (2*0.065)
Db=19.572 + (2*0.065) = 19.702 m
Mean diameter of tank, Dm =19.536 m
No. of plates for each course = n
3n+ (0.002 *n) =
(π*Dm)n = 20.43 plates
Total no. of plates required for the tank = 225

[C] Design of conical roof

Slope=tan
θ=1/5θ=11.3
Total pressure=super imposed pressure + pressure due to dead load
Super imposed load=1250 N/m2
= 0.013 Kg/cm2
Let thickness of roof plate is tf
Weight per unit area = tf*density of MOC
= tf*(8.05*10^- 4)
Total pressure = 0.013+ (tf*8.05*10^- 4)
Thickness of roof = (D/sinθ)*{[P/(0.204*E)]^1/2}

E = 2.04*10^6 Kg/cm2
Putting all values and solving the above equation,
tf =1.8 cm

104
 Chapter: 9 Fire & Safety

Safety is the state of being "safe" , the condition of being protected against physical, social,
spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types
or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be
consid-ered non-desirable. This can take the form of being protected from the event or from
exposure to something that causes health or economical losses. It can include protection of
people or of pos-sessions.
No industry can afford to neglect the fundamentals of safety in design and operation of its
plant and machinery. It is important that all the people responsible for management and
operation of any industry should have a good knowledge of industrial safety.
Safety:
Safe use of man, material and machine by safe system method of work is to achieve zero
accidents which results in higher productivity.
Accident:
An accident is unplanned and unexpected events which interfere or interrupts the planned
process of work and results in personal injury.
List of safety equipments
Helmet, Ear muff and ear plugs, Goggles, Face shield, Hand gloves, Aprons, safety shoes.
Gas Leakage Protection Installation
Safety showers, Manual water sprinklers, Communication systems.

Fire hazards:
The general types of fire are encountered in the process plants. One involves common com-
bustible material such as wood, rags, paper, etc. (Class ‘A’ fires), the next flammable liquids and
gases such as lubrication oils and solvents, ammonia vapors etc. (Class ‘B’ fires) and the third
involve electrical equipment (Class ‘C’ fires).
In general three things are required to make a fire
(1) Something which will burn eg. A combustible material
(2) Oxygen-air

105
(3) A source of ignition

Principles of Fire Extinguishing:

Fire may be extinguished by withdrawing of flammable contents, interrupting flammable
flow, isolating fuel from air, heat removal to below reaction temperature or by dispersal. In the
event of fire on electrical mains or apparatus, the affected part shall be immediately isolated from
its source of supply of electrical energy.

Carbon tetrachloride extinguishers and Carbon dioxide extinguishers are intended mostly for
use on electrical fires and may be used on energized electrical equipment without danger to oper-
ator provides. They are properly maintaining no moisture. It is dangerous to throw a stream of
water, a wet blanket or a stream from an ordinary soda acid or foam type fire extinguishers on
line main apparatus. When found necessary to use them, have all neighboring mains or apparatus
made dead.
In case of fire, it is the duty of the operating personnel to protect life and property and to
extinguish the fire as quickly as possible. The greatest cause of fire is welding which may be
required during plant operation. It should be a stringent rule of the plant that no welding without
permission of the supervisor.
Fire and safety equipment, under conditions of extreme exertion provide protection only for
a few minutes. Equipment must be cleaned, replenished and inspected for damage before being
re-turned to service. Equipment should be maintained in excellent condition and inspected
frequently so that they are available in case of emergency.

Principle of protection & prevention:

Industrial accidents are caused by negligence of employer, the worker or the both. Employers’
efforts to reduce the accidents are generally motivated by four considerations.
(1) To reduce human suffering
(2) To prevent damage to plant and machinery
(3) To reduce the amount of time lost as a result
(4) To hold the expenses of workman’s compensation to a minimum.

106
The basic reasons for preventing industrial accidents are human and economic. The most
important of these should be to avoid human suffering. Pain, suffering and wrecked lives are not
to be the byproducts of any industry.

Table 9.1 Fire extinguisher

Type of extin- Class A Class B Class C
guisher
Carbon dioxide Suitable for surface Suitable. Does not Suitable. Non-conductor
fires only leave residue or af- and does not damage
fect equipment or equipment.
food stuff.
Dry chemical Suitable for small Suitable. Chemical Suitable. Chemical is
Fire releases smothering non-conductor or dry
gas and shields op- chemical shields operator
erator from heat. from heat.
Foam Suitable. Has both Suitable. Smother- Unsuitable. Foam being a
smothering effect ing blanket does conductor should not be
and wetting action. not dissipate, floats used on live equipment.
on top of spilled
liquid.
Water Suitable. Water sat- Unsuitable. Water Unsuitable. Water being
urates material a will spread and not conductor

107
 Chapter: 10 Plant layout & Plant location

10.1 Plant location

10.1.1 Introduction

The geographical location of the plant can have a strong influence on the success of an
industrial venture. Preliminary, the plant should be located where the minimum cost of
production and distribution can be obtained easily and than other factors, such as space for
expansion and general living condition are also important.

10.1.2 Raw material

The sources of raw materials are one of most important factors influencing the selection ofa
plant site. In our case, IOCL & IPCL is located just 20 km away, so raw materials are easily obtained.

10.1.3 Transportation facilities

Western railways network covers all western parts of the country. Plant is located near to
the National highway No 8, so transportation of material is easy.

10.1.4 Water supply

Water is required in many plants. The plant, therefore must be located where dependable
supply of is available. A large river or lake is preferable, although deep wells or attend sub well
may be satisfactory, if the amount of water required is not too great. In our case Mahi River is
also passing nearby, so raw water is easily available.

10.1.5 Labor supply

Skilled & unskilled labor availability with suitable labour rates is important factor. Atten-
tion must be given in labour studies as kind, diversity, intelligence, wage scale, regulation, effi-
ciency, cost, stability in work and rates. In our case, Vadodara city is also nearby, so qualified
personsare available.

108
10.2 PLANT LAYOUT :-

The plant is divided into two main sections:

1. Inside Battery Limit

2. Outside Battery Limit

(1) Inside Battery Limit:

  
Front End
  
Back End
 
Hydrogen


(2) Outside Battery Limit:

  
Utility Section
  
Effluent Treatment Plant
  
D.M Water plant
  
Steam Generation plant
  
Tank Farm
  
Loading / Unloading-Bay
  
Cooling Tower
  
Nitrogen Plant
  
Flare
 
Pump House

109
INSIDE BATTERY LIMIT:

110
OUTSIDE BATTERY LIMIT:

111
10.3 Colour coding of plant

Table 10.1 Colour coding of plant

Component Colour

Air Light Green

N2 Yellow

Water Aqua Blue

Benzene Parrot Green

Aromatics Mud Brown

N-PARAFFIN White

N-PENTANE Peach

LAB Purple

Hydrogen/LPG Maroon

Hydrogen Sulphide Sea Green

Flare Orange

Hot Oil Persian Blue

Diesel Dark Green

HCL Blue

Slope Oil Mehandi Green

NaOH Pale yellow

Off-Spec Skin Colour

Kerosene Cream

Waste Water Navy Blue

112
 Chapter: 11 Cost estimation

11.1 Total Capital Investment (TCI)

11.1.1 Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)

a. Direct Costs
 
 Purchased Equipment Cost
 
 Installation Cost
 
 Instrumentation And Controls Installation
 
 Piping
 
 Electrical Installation
 
 Building Process And Auxiliary
 
 Service Facilities
 
 Yard Improvement
 
 Land.

b. Indirect Costs
 
 Engineering supervision
 
 Construction expenses
 
 Contractor fee
 
Contingency plan

Table 11.1 Direct Costs of Fixed Capital Investment

Particulars Basis Chosen Cost (Crores)
Purchased Equipment (P) 92.769
Purchased Equipment Installation 40 % P 37.1076
Instrumentation And Controls Installation 13 % P 12.0599
Piping 45 % P 41.746
Electrical Installation 15 % P 13.915
Building Process And Auxiliary 40 % P 37.1076
113
 Service Facilities 50 % P 46.3845
Yard Improvement 12 % P 11.132
Land. 06 % P 5.566

Total Direct Costs (D) = Rs.297.7876 Crores

Table 11.2 Indirect Costs of Fixed Capital Investment
Particulars Basis Chosen Cost (Crores)

Engineering supervision 15 % D 44.668

Construction expenses 10 % D 29.7787
Contractor fee 04 % D 11.9115
Contingency plan 12 % D 35.7345

Total Indirect Costs (I) = Rs.122.0927Crores

Fixed Capital Investments (FCI) = Direct + Indirect costs
= Rs.297.7876 + Rs. 122.0927
= Rs.419.8803 Crores
11.1.2 Working Capital Investment
Working Capital Investment (WCI) =15% of Fixed Capital Investment = 0.15* 419.8803
= Rs.62.982 Crores

Total Capital Investment (TCI) = FCI + WCI

= Rs.482.8623 Crores
11.2 Total Production Cost (TP)
11.2.1 Manufacturing Costs
 
 Fixed Cost
 
 Direct Production Costs
 
Plant Overhead Costs

Fixed Costs
- Depreciation
- Local taxes
- Insurances
114
Table 11.3 Fixed Costs
Particulars Basis Chosen Cost
(Crores)
Depreciation 10.3 % F 43.238
Local taxes 04 % F 16.791
Insurances 0.6 % F 2.5187

Fixed Charges = Rs. 62.5477 Crores

Direct Production
- Raw materials
- Operating labor
- Direct Supervisory and Electrical Labor
- Utilities
- Maintenance and repairs
- Operating supplies
- Laboratory charges

Table 11.4 Direct Production Costs

Particulars Basis Chosen Cost (Crores)
Raw Materials 40%FCI 167.952
Operating Labor (OL) 15 % P 13.91
Direct Supervisory and Electrical Labor 12 % OL 1.66
Utilities 13 % P 12.05
Maintenance and Repairs (M&R) 08 % F 33.590
Operating Supplies 15 % M&R 5.038
Laboratory Charges 15 % OL 2.08
Direct Production Cost = Rs.236.28 Crores

Plant overhead costs

Considering 60% of Operating labor + direct supervisory + Maintenance Cost.

115
Overhead Plant Cost = Rs.43.596 Crores
Manufacturing Cost = Rs.342.4237 Crores
11.2.2 General Expenses
General Expenses include
- Administration Expenses
- Distribution Prices
- R&D costs
Table 11.5 General Expenses
Particulars Cost (Crores)
Administration Expenses 25
Distribution Prices 15
R&D costs 10

Total General Expenses = Rs.50 Crores

Total Production Cost = Manufacturing cost + general expenses
= Rs.392.42 Crores

11.3 Profitability
Selling Price
Cost of LAB = Rs. 78 / kg
Total selling price per annum = 78 * 75000000 = 585 Crores per year.
Gross Earnings
Gross Earnings =Total Selling Price – Total Product Cost
= 192.58 Crores
Tax
Assume,
The local tax rate 20%,
Tax = 0.2 *192.58 = 38.51 Crores
Net Profit
Net Profit = Gross Earning – Tax
= 154.064 Crores

116
 CHAPTER 12 REFERENCES

1. M V. Joshi & V V. Mahajani, Process Equipment Design, 3rd Edition,

MACMILLAN. Page-168 to 180.

2. Robert H. Perry, Don W. Green, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th

Edition, Mc Graw Hill, Page- 2-170 to 2-185 & 9-5 to 9-63.
3. Ernest E. Ludwig, Applied process design for chemical and petrochemical plant, Volume-2,
3rd edition, Gulf Professional.Page-176 to 180.
4. S B.Thakore & B I. Bhatt, Introduction to Process Engineering and Design, Mc Graw Hill,
Page- 83 to 87.

5. Robert E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd Edition, Mc Graw Hill.Page-165 to 174.

117