CHAPTER - 4

G R O Y N E S T Y P E B U N D S : FUNCTION A N D E F F E C T S ON

SHORELINE

A) Meaning and definition of groynes is usually considered as

follows -

• Groynes are low walls built outwards from the coast into the sea. to prevent
the continuous movement of waves and sediments from other parts of the area.
• Groynes are cross-shore structures designed to reduce longshore transport to
open beaches or to deflect nearshore currents within an estuary.
• Groynes are low walls built on a beach that crosses the shoreline at a right
angle.
• Groyens are a protective structure of stone or concrete; extends from shore
into the water to prevent a beach from washing away.
• Groyne (in the United States) is a rigid hydraulic structure built from an ocean
shore (in coastal engineering) or from a bank (in rivers) that interrupts water
flow and limits the movement of sediment.
• Groyne is usually a narrow structure of concrete, rock or timber built roughly
at right angles to the coast to capture and retain beach material to enable the
development of a beach.
• Groynes are a barrier perpendicular to the shore, which helps arrest longshore
drift. Typically build of timber, consisting of posts (piles) against which are
bolted planks, stepped down the beach profile.
• Groynes are a projecting (often wooden) structure to stop sand shifting along a
beach.
• Groynes are a wooden barrier built out into the sea to stop the longshore drift
of sand and shingle, and so cause the beach to grow. It is used to build beaches
to protect against cliff erosion and provide an important tourist amenity.

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B) Types of groynes
The following types of groynes can be distinguished according to their
construction materials, methods, action on stream flow and appearance.
1) Types of groynes on the basis of the construction materials
There are about 6 types. In structural terms, one can distinguish between
wooden groynes, rock groynes, sheet-pile groynes, concrete groynes and rubble-
mound groynes and sand-filled bag groynes.
a) Wooden groynes
The wooden groynes are most often one or two-row palisade structures.
Effects of influence of the T-shape wooden pile groyne on the shore are local erosion
on the lee side and accumulation on the other. One-row wooden groynes are most
often partly permeable structures (Plate 4.1). This results in reduced erosive lee-side
effects and prevents from appearance of semi-closed nearshore water circulations.
The wooden palisade groynes are cheap but they have low durability (Perdok 2002,
Zbigniew 2012).

Wooden groynes

(After Perdok 2002)

Plate 4.1

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b) Rock groynes
Rock groynes have the advantages of simple construction, long-term durability
and ability to absorb some wave energy due to their semi-permeable nature (Plate
4.2). Use of rock groynes and rock revetments is currently seen as best practice, and
undoubtedly in many places they represent the best way of protecting coasts if we are
to 'Hold the Line' on current beach alignments. They do have advantages over using
timber. They are re-using a waste product as, for instance, most granite is mined for
work tops and other flat surfaces. Rock is durable and lasts a lot longer than timber. If
situations change they can be dismantled and used elsewhere. Rock groynes tend to be
even more expensive than timber groynes. They significantly change the character of
a beach. Rock groynes don't stop shingle movement and indeed sediments pass
through rock structures much more than they do through timber ones (Perdok 2002).

Rock groynes

Hirtrtr-M'f.Trtiiii.fc^T-**.^ .f , r.,

(After Chadwik 2011)

c) Steel groynes
Steel groynes are most often constructed of vertical sheet piling, single or

70
double, of various profiles, located perpendicularly to the shoreline. They are
impermeable structures. The experiments have shown that the groynes made of single
sheet pile walls are not durable. This is due to corrosion of the material and influence
(friction) of the moving sand. Besides, ice load is very harmfiil, causing instability
and failure of the steel sheet pilings. Mixed massive structures, constituted of steel
and concrete, are much more stable and durable (Zbigniew 2012) (Plate 4.3).

Steel groynes

(After Evelyn 2008) Plate 4.3

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d) Concrete groyne
Groynes built of concrete elements in the form of prefabricated boxes or other
reinforced concrete items belong to the most stable and long-lasting coastal structures
(Plate 4.4). Because of considerable unit weight, the elements composing a groyne of
this kind require the existence of suitable soil conditions and the appropriate
foundation (Zbigniew 2012).

Concrete groyne

(After Zbigniew 2012)

e) Rubble-mound groynes
Rubble-mound groynes belong to frequently applied coastal protective
structures. They are built as either loose mounds of stones or mounds of various
armour units, e.g. tetrapods. These groynes are often mixed structures, strengthened
inside by the sheet piling. They are relatively massive, durable and impermeable. The
rubble-mound groynes are advantageous with respect to the steel, concrete and
wooden ones, as they better dissipate energy of waves and currents (Zbigniew 2012)
(Plate 4.5).

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 Rubble-mound groynes

(After Row2011)

f) Sand-filled bag groynes

Sand-filled bag groynes as a protection measure should rather be considered
as a short-term solution. The bags in a stacked bag groynes can either be sand or
ground-filled (Plate 4.6). Some additional protection measures are necessary,
especially at the groyne head. A special filter cloth should be used under the bags to
reduce settlement in soft bottom. Construction of this type of groynes requires larger
bags (heavier than 50 kg), even though they are more difficult to handle and require
filling on the spot (Zbigniew 2012).
Sand-filled bag groynes

(After Saathoff, Oumeraci, Restall 2007) Plate 4.6

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2) Classification according to the method and materials of construction: -
Groynes may be permeable, allowing the water to flow through at reduced
velocities, or impermeable, blocking and deflecting the current. Permeable groynes
are fabricated fi-om piles, bamboo or timbers, whereas impermeable groynes (also
called solid groynes or rock armour groynes) are constructed using rock, gravel,
gabions, etc. (Anlanger 2008).
3) Classification according to submergence stage: -
Groynes may be designed either as submerged or as non-submerged (emerged)
under normal conditions. Which of the two types will be used is dictated by the design
conditions. Groynes are emerged when their crest is higher than the water surface
level and submerged when the flow is overtopping the crests. In the "natural" case of
varying water levels between low flow and flood events, the degree of submergence
also varies. Emerged groynes are typically realized as impermeable structures
whereas submerged groynes are sometimes permeable to avoid strong acceleration of
the flow over the top which enhances erosion (Anlanger 2008).
4) Classification according to the action on the stream flow: -
Groynes may be classified as attracting, deflecting or repelling. Attracting
groynes point downstream (forward inclined groynes, inclination angle a is bigger
than 90°), they serve to attract the stream flow towards themselves and do not repel
the flow towards the other bank. Deflecting groynes are generally short ones and used
of local protection. They serve to change the direction of the flow without repelling
it. Repelling groynes point upstream (backward inclined groynes, inclination angle a
is smaller than 90°). They serve to force the flow away from themselves (Anlanger
2008).
5) Classification according to their appearance in planview: -
Groynes may be built with different planview shapes. Examples are straight
groynes, T head. L head, hockey stick, inverted hockey stick groynes, slotted groynes,
and straight groynes with pier head, wing, or tail groynes. In the fig. 4.1 (a) shows
forward and backward inclined groynes and (b) shows different plan view shapes of
groynes (Anlanger 2008).

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 Shapes of groynes

Flow direction Flow direction

Backnard Forward Inverted

inclined inclined •T' 'L' Hockey hockey
groyne grojTie beaded headed stick stick
Slotted

1
Gro'\Tie
field %InclinatioB#

(After Anlanger 2008) Figure 4.1

C) Functions of groynes
Groynes are shore perpendicular structures that are emplaced to control sand
movement along a beach by altering processes in the swash and sand zones and
providing a physical barrier to sediment moved as littoral drift (Goudie 2004).
Beaches constantly change as they respond to natural processes including waves,
currents and the wind. These processes can result in material being transported fi-om
the beach, which if not replaced by material from neighboring areas, will result in
erosion. Groynes are constructed more or less perpendicular to the shoreline to restrict
the movement of sediment along the shore. A groyne system is made up of a number
of individual groyne structures, usually of similar length and spaced at regular
intervals along the shore (Perdok 2002).
Groynes usually work in two ways, diverting or intercepting longshore the
movement of the beach material. The shore between the groynes will orient itself
more or less parallel to the approaching wave crests. Beaches already nearly parallel
to the approaching wave crests can be adequately protected by rather widely spaced
groynes, if a longshore transport of sediment is the problem at all (Perdok 2002).
Rock, concrete and timber are the most common used materials for the construction of

75
groynes. Rock groynes have the advantages of simple construction, long-term
durability and ability to absorb some wave energy due to their semi-permeable nature.
Wooden groynes are less durable and tend to reflect, rather than absorb energy.
Gabions can be useful as temporary groynes but have a short life expectancy.
Groynes can be used to best advantage when they are located where :-

> Sedimentary transport diverges from a nodal region.

> There is no source of sand, such as downdraft of a breakwater or Jetty.
> Transport of sand downdraft is undesirable.
> The longevity of beach nourishment must be increased.
> Current are especially strong at inlets (Goudie 2004).

Groynes primarily influence the morphological development of a beach and

are not the coastal defense itself. The objective of a groyne system is to stabilize a
stretch of beach against erosion.

The main function of a groyne system is to:-

• Manage or control sediment flux of beaches.

• Prevent or slow down the along shore drift of material.
• Build-up material in the groyne bays.
• Intercepting wave induced currents.
• Deflecting strong tidal currents away from the shoreline.
• Serving as a barrier, to enable a beach section to reorientation itself.
• Hold artificially nourished material on a beach that has no natural supply.
• Control seasonal shifts of material long shore and hence swings in shoreline
within a bay.
• Accumulate beach material in front of hard heads such as sea walls,
revetments, bulkheads and cliffs.
• Improve the extent and beach quality of an amenity beach.

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 • Increase the depth of beach material cover to an otherwise erodible seabed
soil.
• Change pattern of wave-refraction, wave-breaking and surf-zone circulation,
generate rip currents, trap sediments on the uplift beach, reduce sediment
inputs to the down drift beach and redirect sediment offshore (Perdok 2002).

D) Effects of groynes on the shoreline

Intensity and character of groynes influence on shore behaviour depend on sea
water level, parameters of waves, currents and sediment supply in the surf zone, as
well as a shape and inclination of the cross-shore profile. Protection of the shore by
use of one groyne only is most often inefficient. Therefore, shore protection by
groynes is designed as a group comprising from a few to tens of individual structures.
A single groyne, besides its positive influence on the shore, causes numerous side
effects, mainly in the form of coastal erosion on the lee side of the structure. In the
case of a group of groynes, the above effect appears on the lee side of the whole
system. The erosion is also observed in direct vicinity of the structures, particularly
when waves approaching the shore perpendicularly predominate. Between the
groynes, huge mass of water is accumulated which in turn leads to appearance of
compensating flows along the structures, causing local erosion of the seabed. With
respect to the surf zone width, during severe storms the groynes are '"short" structures,
with frequently occurring erosion around them; while under weak wave conditions
they become "long", thus helping in sand accumulation and widening of the beach.
Loss of contact between a groyne and the shore in an unfavorable effect. In such a
case, longshore flows are generated between the shoreline and the groyne root. These
flows are the reason for washing out of the beach (Zbigniew 2012).

E) Functional design of groynes

Functional design refers to determining whether groynes can provide an
acceptable solution to a beach erosion control problem. It involves determining the
limits of a project area as well as the layout and dimensions of a groyne or groyne
system to meet project objectives that may be to provide a protective beach or

77
recreational beach with specified dimensions. It involves evaluating preproject
conditions along a beach, estimating the effect of groyne construction, and
determining whether the amount of sand in longshore transport is sufficient to
maintain project dimensions or whether it must be supplemented by beach fill. The
frequency of nourishment must also be established. In the functional design length,
height, spacing, permeability, orientation is important (USAGE 1992).
1) Length
Most longshore transport takes place in the surf zone near shore between the
outermost breaking waves and the shoreline and also on the beach face below the
limit of wave run-up. Consequently, groyne length should be established based on the
expected surf zone width with the shoreline at its desired post - construction location.
The length of a groyne determines the trapping effectiveness of the system, depending
on how far across the surf zone it reaches. Groynes that initially reach through the surf
zone will trap more sand and the shoreline will accrete until sand eventually begins to
pass around its seaward end. Shorter groynes will allow sediment to bypass the
groyne immediately after construction, which may be desirable to minimize erosion
along downdrift beaches. The location of the surf zone varies with wave height and
tidal stage, therefore the relative groyne length also changes with wave and tide
conditions. Nearshore wave breaking occurs when a shoaling waves height increases
until the wave-height to water-depth ratio exceeds. Thus higher incident waves break
in deeper water farther from shore, the surf zone is wider and the relative groyne
length is shorter. Similarly, at high tide incident waves of a given height will break
closer to shore. Thus, at high tide the groyne will be relatively longer (Perdok 2002,
USAGE 1992).
2) Height
The height of a groyne controls the sand movement over the groyne and
determines the amount of sheltering from waves to the nearby beach. Factors such as
the amount of construction material to be used and wave reflections from the groyne
are influenced by the height. The height of a groyne, above beach level, may vary
over the groyne's length, and differs for the summer and winter beach profiles.

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Generally, a groyne profile should have three sections. 1) A high landward end with a
horizontal crest at about the elevation of the existing or desired beach berm. 2) A
seaward sloping section that connects the high landward end with an outer or seaward
seaward section at about the slope of the beach face. 3) Seaward section generally
with a lower elevation (USAGE 1992).
The groyne profile is built to approximately the desired post-project beach
profile. High groynes are likely to create rip currents, and flows at the head of the
structure, sometimes leading to erosion channels, which will transport beach material
out of the groyne bays. Deep channels might even threaten the stability of the groyne
structure. The importance of the height on the effectiveness of a groyne differs for
different beach types because the amount of scour depends on the size of beach
material. Sand beaches are most sensitive to the height of a groyne and can best be
adjusted to protrude only 0.5 m or two plank widths above the seasonal beach profile.
However, this requires a considerable degree of maintenance. On shingle beaches,
greater groyne heights are permissible and practical. In the figure 4.2 shows typical
groyne profile showing inshore (berm) section, sloping intermediate section, and
horizontal seaward section (Perdok 2002, USAGE 1992).

Typical groyne profile

r Inshore (berm) section

Sloping intermediate section

^ Horozontal seaward
section
555!15!W^ILL\V

Beach profile

(USAGE 1992) Figure 4.2

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3) Spacing
The spacing of groynes is usually given in terms relative to the length of
individual groynes, generally in the order of two to three groyne lengths. The groyne
length is specified as the distance from the beach berm crest to the groynes seaward
end. Steeper beaches or a small tidal range require shorter groynes and therefore the
spacing is smaller too. When designing a groyne system, the spacing is determined by
an analysis of the shoreline alignment that is expected to result following groyne
construction. This alignment will approximately correspond to the crest of the
dominant incoming waves. The shoreline alignment is a function of the wave, and
longshore transport environment at a site. When waves approach the shore nearly
under a right angle, larger groyne spacing can be used. When the waves make an
angle with the shoreline, closer groyne spacing is required. In case of varying wave
direction and transport rates, the shoreline alignment near groynes will also vary, and
the spacing is generally chosen to be relatively small (Perdok 2002).

Spacing of groynes

Too small Correct Too large

£9

^CJ

%'
jpt'

^^_—*<^^
\ ^¥^^7^

(After Perdok 2002) Figure 4.3

4) Permeability
Groynes are either permeable or impermeable, depending on whether sediment

80
can be transported through the groyne. To obtain an absolute barrier for sediment, a
groyne must be constructed completely impermeable, requiring very precise
assembling. The idea of permeable groynes is that they reduce alongshore currents,
and thus reduce sediment transport. Permeable groynes have several advantages such
as their relatively low cost and a smaller tendency to produce rip currents and currents
round the end of the groyne. Another advantage is that permeable pile screens don't
create such severe erosion downdrift. as sediment is transported through the groyne.
Several studies have been carried out for permeable groynes; however opinions about
their functioning differ. Bakker (1984) believes permeable pile screens deserve
serious consideration as a first flexible and cheap phase in combating coastal erosion.
They reduce longshore currents but provide much less of a barrier to the movement of
beach material, and therefore are less effective at retaining beaches (Perdok 2002).
5) Orientation
Generally groynes are constructed perpendicular to the coastline. To minimize
wave impacts, groynes could be aligned into the predominant wave direction.
However, to provide the most effective control of littoral movement they should be
angled slightly downdrift. Because wave and drift directions may vary, the most
practical solution is chosen aligning groynes transverse to the coastline (Perdok
2002).
F) Loads on groynes
1) Wave forces
Waves and the longshore currents they cause are the dominant sediment
moving forces in the nearshore zone. Waves often also cause the critical forces that
act on coastal structures. Thus, wave data are needed to establish cause and effect
relationships involved in the performance of beach erosion control projects.
Waves can be divided into wind waves and swell waves. Wind waves are
generated by winds blowing over the sea and are of greatest interest in coastal
engineering. The size of the waves is dependent on the fetch, duration of the wind
blowing over the surface and the speed of the wind. Swell waves are waves that don't
receive energy from the wind anymore and just propagate away from the area in

81
which they were generated. Only the large period waves can travel great distances, as
their rate of decay is small. The swell waves reaching the shore thus have larger
periods than the wind waves.
As the waves reach the shore they will undergo transformations as they
dissipate their energy. When the waves travel into shallower water, the friction with
the seabed reduces their velocity. The decelerating of the wave transforms kinetic
energy into potential energy, thus leading to an increase of the wave height (and a
decrease of wavelength). This process of modification of the waveform is known as
shoaling. The height of the wave cannot increase to infinity as there are two
limitations, the wave steepness and the wave height to water depth ratio. Waves will
break at a certain depth, dissipating some of its energy in turbulence. Remaining
energy is reflected back or generates currents, other waves, sound and heat.
Depending on the beach slope and nature and the wave characteristics the waves will
break in a different way.
Because groynes are generally oriented nearly perpendicular to the shoreline,
waves propagate along the groynes axis so that their crests almost make a 90 degree
angle with the groyne. For sheet-pile groyne, lateral wave forces arise because a wave
crest acts on one side of the groyne whereas a lower water level acts on the other.
either the still-water level or a wave trough. The incoming wave crest aligns itself
perpendicular to the groynes axis, and the resulting wave height acting on the groyne
is higher than, but not twice as high as, the incoming wave. Wave heights on the
leeward side of the groyne may be lower. However, the groyne should be designed for
waves approaching from either direction. The maximum lateral force acts only over a
portion of the structure at once, and forces are distributed longitudinally along the
groyne by the horizontal walers. Most rubble-mound groynes are designed with
quarry stone armor heavy enough to be stable under a selected wave height (USAGE
1992).
When breaking or broken waves strike the vertical face of a structure at an
oblique angle, the dynamic component will be less than for breaking or broken waves
that strike perpendicular to the structure face. Waves breaking directly against

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vertical-face structures exert high, short duration, dynamic pressures on the structure.
The moment of impact only lasts for an extreme short period, so the pressure can't be
very representative for the stability of the structure but certainly is important for its
strength. The maximum dynamic pressure acts at the still water line and decreases
parabolically to zero at a distance of half the breaking wave height above and below
the still water line. When the top of a structure is lower than the crest of the design
breaker, the dynamic and hydrostatic components of wave force and overturning
moment are obviously reduced (Perdok 2002).
2) Current forces
Currents can exert forces on both sheet-pile and rubble-mound groynes;
current caused forces, however, are usually small when compared with the forces due
to waves. On sheet-pile groynes, forces may result from the longshore current's
impingement on the groyne or from seaward flowing rip currents along the groyne
itself. Rip currents can cause an additional lateral force (along the axis of the groyne)
on a groyne lateral support piling. Current forces also act on rubble-mound groynes
both as longshore currents flowing over low groynes and as seaward flowing rip
currents along a groynes flank. Normally the stone weight necessary for stability
against currents will be much less than the stone weight necessary for stability against
wave action (USACE 1992).
(3) Earth forces
In addition to wave forces, forces due to the buildup of sediment and
difference in sand elevation from one side of a sheet-pile groyne to the other are
important. The resulting earth forces coupled with wave forces establish maximum
lateral forces and maximum bending stresses in cantilevered sheet-pile groynes.
Generally, the maximum sand elevation difference results in the maximum lateral
force per unit groyne length. The lateral earth force is due to a combination of both
active and passive earth pressures acting on the updrift and downdrift sides of a
groyne. Active earth pressure occurs when there is a rotation or deflection of the pile
groyne. Active earth pressure acts in the direction of the deflection. Passive earth
pressure develops to resist deflection of the groyne and acts opposite to the direction

83
of the deflection (Perdok 2002, USAGE 1992).
4) Impact forces
A groyne might experience impact forces due to wave-carried debris or vessel
collisions. The size of these forces is difficult to predict because the cause of the
impact and mass of the impacting body are not known beforehand. If debris is
expected to be a problem, appropriate levels of conservatism should be included in the
design. Experience has learnt that groynes are often damaged by loose parts of the
groyne itself, as loose planking or waling will act as a battering ram. Regular
maintenance is an important issue, to ensure a long service life of the structure. Other
measures that can be taken may include improving the visibility of the groyne for
vessels, by placing marker beacons at the outer end of the groyne (Perdok 2002).
5) Other forces
Other forces a groyne might experience include impact forces due to wave-
carried debris and small craft collisions. The magnitude of these forces is difficult to
predict because the cause of the impact and the mass of the impacting body are not
known a priori. If debris is suspected to be a problem, appropriate levels of
conservatism should be included in the design. A groyne may have to be designed to
withstand forces that might occur only during construction; e.g., the groyne may have
to carry construction equipment or there may be surcharge due to temporary fill.
These forces may be critical and exceed forces due to other more routine causes such
as waves and currents (USAGE 1992).

G) Impacts of groynes

" Groynes have a significant impact on the landscape and can create barriers to
the recreational use of the upper beach. They often cause downdrifl erosion
unless there is a long term management commitment to beach recycling or
nourishment.
• Groynes reduce longshore transport by trapping beach material and causing
the beach orientation to change relative to the dominant wave direction. They
mainly influence bed load transport and are most effective on shingle or gravel

84
beaches. Sand is carried in temporary suspension during higher energy wave
or current conditions and will therefore tend to be carried over or around any
cross-shore structures.
Groyne construction should normally be accompanied by an ongoing
programmed of beach recycling or nourishment. Regular monitoring and
management is required to establish a successful scheme. Monitoring must
include adjacent shoreline as well as those immediately within the groyne
scheme.
Groyne heights, lengths and profiles can be modified if monitoring indicates
that the inifial layout is not achieving the required objectives. Modificafion is
easier to achieve with rock structures than with timber. Any observed storm
damage, such as displaced rocks, should be rectified during maintenance
operations.
Where possible fencing and transplanting should be undertaken to establish a
new line of fore dunes along the stabilized upper beach. There dunes will
enhance the coastal landscape, provide additional erosion protection and re-
establish a natural succession of dune habitats from the shoreline to the
backshore.
Work should not be undertaken unless the beach-dune system and nearshore
coastal processes have been monitored over several years and a reasonable
understanding of the physical and natural environment has been established.
Hasty responses to erosion may prove to be either unnecessary or damaging.
Local interest groups, such as landowners, nature trusts, tlshing associations
and recreational users, should be consulted early to ensure that a broad view of
the shoreline and nearshore zone is considered prior to implementing any
particular management approach.
Consideration must be given to the consequences of failure, such as
construction debris spread along the beach, public safety hazards, loss of
amenity access, deterioration of the landscape etc.
To reduce future disturbance of the shoreline environment.

85
 Low maintenance and little money are spending to build it.
It traps sediment from longshore drift, forming a beach which attracts tourist.
Creates a positive effect on the local economy.
Coastal erosion on beach is significantly reduced, as the water can only reach
the cliff during high tide.

Negative impacts:

They prevent beaches down the coast from having sediments deposited there,
which can lead to soil erosion. This could also destroy buildings and private
land, which will cause property prices to plummet.
Causes the coast to be ugly and unnatural.
They can lead to cliff collapse.
Does not protect coasts from storm-driven waves approaching the shore
perpendicularly.
Protection of the shore by use of one groyne only is most often inefficient.
Therefore, shore protection by groynes is designed as a group comprising from
a few to tens of individual structures.
On the other side of the groyne, the beach will not be replenished by materials
carried by the longshore drift. As a result, the beach further down the coast
may be eroded away. While a series of groynes can help reduce this effect,
they spoil the natural beauty of the coastal environment.

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