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Organized by:
Geotechnical Engineering Technical Division,
The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
Four Points by Sheraton Puchong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia – March 5, 2019
Harianto Rahardjo
PhD, MSc, PEng
Professor
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
• Total stress - s
• Pore-air pressure - ua
• Pore-water pressure - uw
4
Stress in Soils
• Total stress – s
P
σ = = hi γi 2
units : kN/m , kPa
A
• Pore-air pressure - ua
ua = atmospheric pressure = 0 kPa
• Pore-water pressure - uw
uw = hwρw g = hw γ w units : kPa
5
Stress in Soils
1m
2m 5m
Sand σ A = hi γ i
g = 15 kN/m3
= (3 )(15) + (2)(17)
4m
A Silt
= 45 + 34
g = 17 kN/m3 = 79 kPa
u wA = h w γ w
Stiff Clay = (4 )(10)
g = 19 kN/m3 = 40 kPa
CV2302-LEC 6
Stress in Soils
1m
σ B = hi γ i
Sand
2m g = 15 kN/m3
B Stiff Clay
g = 19 kN/m3
CV2302-LEC 8
Effective Stress Principles
Effective Stress
s '= s − u
effective total pore water
stress stress pressure
10
Effective Stress
1m
Sand
2m 5m g = 15 kN/m3
σ A = 79 kPa
4m u wA = 40 kPa
A Silt
g = 17 kN/m3 σ' A = 79 − 40
= 39 kPa
Stiff Clay
g = 19 kN/m3
CV2302-LEC 11
Effective Stress
1m
Sand
2m g = 15 kN/m3
σ B = 170 kPa
4m
10 m Silt uwB = 90 kPa
g = 17 kN/m3
σ'B = 170 − 90 = 80 kPa
B Stiff Clay
g = 19 kN/m3
CV2302-LEC 12
Shear Strength of Soils
= c + s nf tan
c
sn
13
Shear Strength of Soils
’
c'
sn
14
Lab Test for Shear Strength
•Laboratory Tests
•Direct Shear Test
•Triaxial Tests – UC, UU, CU, CD
15
Lab Test for Shear Strength
16
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Direct Shear Test
17
Lab Test for Shear Strength
S
=
A
S
18
Lab Test for Shear Strength
s’
direct
19
Lab Test for Shear Strength
20
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test
s1
s2
s3
21
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test
s1 – s3
s2 = s3
22
Lab Test for Shear Strength
s1 – s 3 = s1
s2 = s3= 0
23
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test
Test consists of 2
stages:
1.Unconsolidated
or Consolidated
2.Undrained or
Drained
25
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test - UU
'
cu
26
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test - CU
150
100
(kPa)
Du
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
For NC clay, c' 0 kPa s' (kPa)
27
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test - CD
'
28
Drained and Undrained
Governed by:
www.ntu.edu.sg/library/unsaturatedsoil
Natural Condition of Unsaturated Soils –
Soils above Ground Water Table
Subdivisions of unsaturated
soil zone (vadose zone) on
37
local and regional basis.
37
Illustration of The Vadose Zone in Soil Layer
(Modified from Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)
38
Water Contents in an Unsaturated Soil?
Equilibrium Equilibrium
negative pore- negative pore- Water content
water pressure water pressure or degree of
Ground surface line
Ground surface line Water content
saturation Water content
Permeability
Soil-Water Permeability
Vadose or Vadose
Unsaturated
or Vadose or Soil-water
Characteristic Soil-water
Permeability
Two-phase zone Two-phase zone function
unsaturated
Soil Zone soil zone
unsaturated soil zone characteristic
Curve, SWCC characteristic
function
curve, SWCC curve, SWCC
AEV
Capillary zone Capillary zone decrease
Phreatic surface Phreatic surface
S% -13 kw(m/s)
0% 010
100 % % ks
100 %
39
Relationship between SWCC and Permeability
Function and Shear Strength
40
Man made Unsaturated Soils - Compacted Soil
41
Standard and Modified Proctor Compaction
Curves for Crosby B Till
42
Separation of Saturated and Unsaturated Soil
Mechanics
43
Theory of Unsaturated Shear Strength
44
Shear Strength for Saturated Soils
where:
45
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope
Saturated Soil
Saturated soil:
= c + (s − uw ) tan
Unsaturated soil:
= c + ua − uw tan + (s − ua ) tan
( ) b
c = c + (u a − u w ) tan
b
47
Linear Shear Strength Envelope
48
Linear Shear Strength Envelope
49
Extended Mohr-Coulomb Failure
51
Extended Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope for
Unsaturated Soil
52
Triaxial Cell for Unsaturated Soil Testing
53
Triaxial Cell for Unsaturated Soil Testing
54
Deviator stress versus axial strain curve for residual soil from the
sedimentary Jurong formation obtained from multistage CD triaxial tests
at constant net confining pressure and various matric suctions
55
Interpretation of angle of internal friction with respect to matric suction,
b, from the results of multistage triaxial tests at a constant net confining
pressure
56
Cohesion intercept at versus (ua−uw) plane (where (s−ua) = 0) for fine
grained residual soils from the Jurong sedimentary formation
57
Experimental
Values
Measured for b
58
58
Experimental Values Measured for b of Residual
Soils in Singapore
Location Formation c’ (kPa) ’ (o) b (o)
Bukit Merah JF 5 30 22
Jalan Kukoh JF 15 33 25
Havelock Road JF 14 34 15
Depot Road JF 12 35 20
Ang Mo Kio BTG 8 30 18
Thomson Road BTG 15 33 25
Marsiling Road BTG 9 30 21
Bukit Batok BTG 12 37 28
Joo Seng Road OA 8 35 21
Bedok OA 3 34 26
Tampines OA 5 37 20
Note: JF = Jurong Formation; BTG = Bukit Timah Granite; OA = Old Alluvium
59
Direct Shear Tests
60
Direct shear for testing unsaturated soils 61
Cross-sectional view of the shear box and the pressure chamber
62
Line of Intercepts along Failure Plane
63
Line of intercepts along failure plane on τ versus ua – uw plane
63
Two Components of Cohesion
c = c'+(ua − uw )f tan b
64
Shear Strength with Two Components of Cohesion
= c + (s f − u ) tan '
ff a f
65
Horizontal Projection of Failure Envelope
h2
h1
gwh1
67
Equivalent increase in cohesion for various matric
suction profiles for the residual soil from Jurong
Formation and Bukit Timah Granite
69
Soil-water Characteristic Curve
(Fredlund, 2005)
Tempe Pressure Cell for SWCC test
ua ua
ua
Uw=0
Software for
real-time Electronic
monitoring balance
HYPROP (Evaporation method)
Drying / evaporation
uw (-)
Soil
uw (-)
Bottom of HYPROP
Small-Scale Centrifuge as Alternative Drying SWCC
test up to 250 kPa
(b)
Soil
specimen
inside a
steel ring
Mould
Steel
rods Specimen
holder
WP4C (Dew point method) for drying SWCC test
(500 kPa – 200,000 kPa)
(a)
Plotting Data of SWCC Test
25.00
Matric Suction
Water volume change (cm3)
20.00 5 kPa
10 kPa
15.00 20 kPa
50 kPa
10.00 100 kPa
200 kPa
5.00
400 kPa
0.00
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Elapsed time (hours)
Best Fitting of SWCC Laboratory Data
100
Degree of saturation, S r(%)
Matric suction at
80 inflection point
Air-entry value = = 35 kPa
7 kPa
60
Fredlund & Xing
40 parameters Residual
a = 36 suction = 200
n = 1.05 kPa
20 m = 2.45
r = 1500
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Matric Suction (kPa)
Fredlund – Xing Equation (1994) for Best Fitting
SWCC Laboratory Data
where:
= volumetric water content corresponding to a selected matric
suction
s = saturated volumetric water content
= matric suction (kPa)
a, n, m= three fitting parameters
r = fitting parameter related to residual suction
e = irrational constant equal to 2.71828
Statistical Model
and 0.30
Permeability 0.20
where:
kw(θw)i = predicted water coefficient of permeability for a
volumetric water content, (θw)i, corresponding to the ith interval
(m/s)
SWCC of Compacted Soil
(50%sand-50%kaolin)
0.5
Laboratory Data
Best fitted using Fredlund and Xing(1994)
Volumetric water content, w
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
Suction, (kPa)
Permeability Function of Compacted Soil
(50%sand-50%kaolin)
1e-6
Coeficient of permeability, kw (m/s)
1e-8
1e-9
1e-10
1e-11
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
Suction, (kPa)
Triaxial Permeameter for Direct Measurement of
Unsaturated Permeability
Low uw
Soil
High uw
Unsaturated Permeability Tests
8
Open Cut with Steep Slope (Almost
Vertical Cut)
8
Po Shan Road Landslide in Hongkong
91
Slope Failure at Bukit Batok, Singapore (2006)
92
Rainfall-induced Slope Failure
93
Water Contents in an Unsaturated Soil?
Equilibrium Equilibrium
negative pore- negative pore- Water content
water pressure water pressure or degree of
Ground surface line
Ground surface line Water content
saturation Water content
Permeability
Soil-Water Permeability
Vadose or Vadose
Unsaturated
or Vadose or Soil-water
Characteristic Soil-water
Permeability
Two-phase zone Two-phase zone function
unsaturated
Soil Zone soil zone
unsaturated soil zone characteristic
Curve, SWCC characteristic
function
curve, SWCC curve, SWCC
AEV
Capillary zone Capillary zone decrease
Phreatic surface Phreatic surface
S% -13 kw(m/s)
0% 010
100 % % ks
100 %
94
Ground Surface Moisture Flux
Evaporative fluxes
Evaporative fluxes Precipitation fluxes
Precipitation
95
Slope Stability
96
Steep Slope with Deep Groundwater Table
97
97
Forces Acting on One Slice
99
Total and Pore-Water Pressures on Base of Slice
100
Shearing Resistance at Base of Slice
101
Shear Force Mobilized as Two Components
102
Application of Slope Stability Analyses
gH
To simplify the problem,
consider soil above GWT to
have same c and ’ with the
conversion of c=c’+ghtanb.
( )
c = c' + u a − u w tan
b
c, ’
10
Total Cohesion Method: using Uniform Total
Cohesion for Slope Stability Analysis
O
c, ’
(sn-ua)
( )
c = c' + u a − u w tan
b
=c+(sn-ua)tan’
=c’+ ghtanb +(sn-ua)tan’
When running the slope stability analysis, take one slice, the normal
stress on the base of the slice is sn, then based on Mohr–Coulomb failure
envelop, the shear resistance on the base of this slice is: = c+(sn-
ua)tan’.
It is noted that c= c’+ghtanb, then = c’+ ghtanb +(sn-ua)tan’.
Higher results in higher factor of safety (FoS), therefore, the FoS
computed using principle of unsaturated soil mechanics is higher than
that computed using classic saturated soil mechanics.
10
Total Cohesion Method: using Layering with
Different Total Cohesions
-gh4
-gh3 Assume the pore-water
-gh2 h4 pressure follows hydrostatic,
h3 below ground water table
-gh1 h2
h1 c’, ’ (GWT) has positive pore-water
pressure (PWP) while above
H the GWT has negative PWP
gH
gH
10
Total Cohesion Method: using Layering with
Different Total Cohesions
-gh4 c4=c’+gh4tanb
-gh3 c3=c’+gh3tanb Assume the pore-water
-gh2 h4 c2=c’+gh2tanb pressure follows hydrostatic,
h below ground water table
-gh1 h2 3
h1 c’, ’ c1=c’+gh1tanb (GWT) has positive pore-water
pressure (PWP) while above
H the GWT has negative PWP
gH
gH
With assistance of computer,
use varying suction profile
-gh with the conversion of
h cohesion c using equation
c’, ’ c=c’+(ua-uw)tanb
gH
10
Total Cohesion Method: using Varying Total
Cohesion based on Hydrostatic Condition for
Slope Stability Analysis
O
c, ’
(sn-ua)
( )
c = c' + u a − u w tan
b
=c+(sn-ua)tan’
=c’+ (ua-uw)tanb +(sn-ua)tan’
When runnig the slope stability analysis, take one slice, the normal stress
on the base of the slice is sN, then based on Mohr–Coulomb failure
envelop, the shear resistance on the base of this slice is: = c+(sn-
ua)tan’.
c= c’+(ua-uw)tanb, then = c’+ (ua-uw)tanb +(sn-ua)tan’.
It is noted that on the base of the slide is not constant, it varies with
respect to suction in the soil.
10
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Use A Typical Slope of 15 m Slope Height,
35 Slope Angle as An Example).
15m
35
5m
11
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method with Uniform Total Cohesion
200 kPa
15m
35
5m
2.01
11
Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction for
Residual Soil from Sedimentary Jurong Formation
(5 m High Slope)
Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Bukit Timah Granite
with different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction for
Residual Soil from Bukit Timah Granite
(15 m High Slope)
Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Bukit Timah Granite
with different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction
for Residual Soil from Old Alluvium
(5 m High Slope)
Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Old Alluvium with
different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction
for Residual Soil from Old Alluvium
(15 m High Slope)
Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Old Alluvium with
different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Using Layering with Different Total
Cohesions)
200 kPa
Average suction = 175 kPa, c4=65.9 kPa
Average suction = 125 kPa, c3=49.6 kPa
35 Average suction = 75 kPa, c2=33.4 kPa
Average suction = 25 kPa, c1=17.1 kPa
2.02
12
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Using Varying Total Cohesion following
Hydrostatic Condition)
Based on
hydrostatic
condition, the
suction profile in
the slope soil is
computed.
12
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Using Varying Total Cohesion following
Hydrostatic Condition)
1.94
12
Extended Shear Strength Method
hw
Saturated soil: vw = −k s
y
uw
hw = y +
w g
hw
v w = − k w (u a − u w )
Unsaturated soil:
y
uw
hw = y +
w g
124
Designation of Amount of Water in a Soil
Gravimetric water content
Degree of Saturation, S
SWCC With Distinct Zones of Desaturation
m2w
Soil-water Characteristic Curves
for Different Soil Types
0.7
Volumetric Water Content, w
0.6
0.5
0.4
Sandy soil Clayey soil
0.3
0.2 Silty soil
0.1
0.0
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Matric Suction, ua-uw (kPa) 127
Role of SWCC in
Governing
Permeability of
Unsaturated Soils
128
Unsteady State Seepage
Saturated Soil:
Unsaturated Soil:
129
Parameters Required for Seepage Analyses
• Slope geometry
130
Sequences in Finite Element Seepage Analyses
No flow
(Q=0) Slope width = 7.6 m No flow
(Q=0)
No flow
(Q=0)
Example of SWCC used in Seepage Analyses
0.6
0.5
Volumetric water content, w
0.4 1
m2w
Residual soil from
0.3
Old Alluvium:
Air-entry value = 8 KPa
0.2
0.1
0.0
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Example of Permeability Function used in Seepage
Analyses
1e-4
Coeficient of permeability, kw (m/s)
1e-5
1e-8
1e-9
1e-10
1e-11
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Matric suction, ua-uw (kPa)
hw hw hw
+ kw = mw w g
2
kw
x x y y t
kw (coefficient of permeability) is a function of the pore-
water pressure:
uw = -90 kPa
uw = 0 kPa
uw at t = 5 h
uw at t = 8 h
- uw
uw at t = 13 h
uw at t = 15 h
Groundwater table
Pore-water Pressure Profiles during Rainfall
uw = -88 kPa
0 kPa
0 kPa
Slope Stability Involving Saturated and Unsaturated
Soil
140
Parameters Required for Slope Stability Analyses
• Slope geometry
• Soil properties
141
Shear Strength
Saturated soil:
= c + (s − uw ) tan
Unsaturated soil:
c = c + (u a − u w ) tan b
142
Extended Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope
143
Slope Stability Analysis
b b
R tan '
− u 1 −
tan tan
c ' R + N − u
w tan ' a
tan '
(2)
Fs =
Aa + Wx − Nf
144
Sequences in Stability Analysis
Radius Grid
g = 20 kN/m3
c’ = 5 kPa
’ = 300
Factor of Safety of Slope before Rain Started
uw at t = 0 h
FS = 2.91
Factor of Safety of Slope at the End of Rainfall
FS = 1.84
uw at t = 24 h
Factor of Safety Variations with Time
3.0
Rain stopped
2.8 at 24 hour
2.6
Factor of Safety, FoS
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
Minimum FoS = 1.84
1.6 Rainfall = 22 mm/h
1.4
1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (Hour)
Factors Controlling Stability of Slopes during
Rainfall