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EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Educational Administration: Meaning, Nature and Other Details
Meaning:
Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material resources
that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a programme of an educational institution.
The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella encompassing a
number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the
performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The concept of educational
administration is applicable in case of an educational organisation which has certain purposes or goals to fulfill.
In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organisation plans carefully various
programmes and activities. Here the educational organisation may be a school, college or university. The head of the
school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents
and students. He/She motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control
over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme.
He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the school or
college or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes
or goals of the school/college/university is called educational administration.
Nature of Educational Administration:
The Educational Administration has the following nature:
1.Educational administration doesn’t refer to any single process rather different processes or aspects constitute
administration. These are planning, organizing, directing, Coordinating and evaluation.
2.Educational administration is a non-profit making task.
3.Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more concerned with human resources than with
material resources.
4.Educational administration is more an art than a science. The reason is that human relationship prevailed here can’t
be maintained by any set of formulae.
5.Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways, but it is also dissimilar to general
administration in many more ways.
6.Educational administration is a complex affair.
Objectives of Educational Administration:
As we know the very fact that educational administration needs integration and co-ordination of all the physical and
human resources and educational elements. Besides this it requires a great efficiency with it based on human
sympathy, understanding, knowledge and skill. The physical resources mainly contribute building equipment’s and
instructional materials.
The human resources include pupils, teachers, supervisors, administrators and parents. The additional elements
comprise the various aspects of educational theory and practice including philosophy of education, objectives of
education, curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, role of the teacher, rules and regulations etc.
These elements are “parts, made into whole” and are components brought into harmonious relationship. So the
purpose of doing such vital task is to fulfill different purposes which are known as the objectives of educational
administration.
These are:
1. To provide proper education to students:
This objective seeks to mention the fact that good education doesn’t mean education at a very high cost as is
practiced in modern public schools. Rather it means the right type of education from the right type of teachers within
reasonable cost. This objective also implies quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education.
2. To Ensure Adequate Utilization Of All Resources:
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For adequate realization of the various purposes of educational programme there is the need of ensuring adequate
utilization of all available resources-human, material and financial.
3. To Ensure Professional Ethics And Professional Development Among Teachers:
As teachers are the senior and mature human elements to accelerate the programme in time their role is highly felt in
this regard. They are to be encouraged and given the facility to devise and try out innovative ideas on instruction and
to participate in service education programmes. In this context, it can be visualized that educational administration
should aim at developing a desire for hard work, dedication and commitment for their job among teachers.
4.To organize educational programmes for acquainting students with the art of democratic living and giving them
excellent training in democratic citizenship.
5. To mobilize the community:
Like general administration, educational administration seeks to maintain and improve the relations with the
community. For this it should seek community support and co-operation for quantitative expansion, qualitative
improvements, smooth and fair examination in the educational system.
6.To organize co-curricular activities effectively for developing talents of students and work efficiency of educational
teachers.
7. To get the work done:
The most important objective of administration is to get the work done effectively, efficiently and with satisfaction to
the individuals and benefits to the society.
8.To prepare students for taking their places in various vocations and avenues of life.
9.To train the students in developing scientific attitude and objective outlook among them towards all aspects and
activities of life.
10. To ensure qualitative improvement of education:
Good education can be provided to students by bringing qualitative improvement in instruction. Regular supervision
of teaching and guidance of teachers help to ensure quality teaching in schools.
Scope of Educational Administration:
1.The educational administration encompasses all the levels of education in its jurisdiction.
These are:
1.Pre-primary or pre-school Education.
2.Elementary or primary Education.
3.Secondary Education.
4.Higher Secondary or Post secondary Education and,
5.Higher or tertiary Education.
It is educational administration that determines what should be the nature and system of administration for all the
above levels of education.
2. It covers all forms of education such as:
3.Formal Education
4.Non-formal Education and Adult Education
5.General Education
6.Vocational Education
7.Special Education
8.Teacher Education
9.Integrated Education and
10.Technical and professional Education including Engineering, Medical, MBA, and Computer Education.
Here the educational administration sets the systems of administration in accordance to the objectives and nature of
all the levels of education.
3. It includes all types and strategies of management that encompasses the following:
 Democratic Administration
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 Autocratic Administration
 Nominal Administration
 Real Administration
8. Educational administration covers the following aspects relating to management in its jurisdiction:
 Planning
 Organizing
 Directing
 Coordinating
 Supervising
 Controlling and
 Evaluating
16. Educational Administration takes place at various levels such as:
 Central level
 State level
 District level
 Block level and
 Institutional level
Out of these above levels, educational administration has its ground reality and importance at the institutional level.
Because it is the practical ground to test the significance of educational administration in practice.
For this, the following activities and programmes come under the scope of educational administration at the
institutional level:
1.Deciding the purposes of the institution or school.
2.Planning for academic or curricular and co-curricular activities.
3.Preparing the time table and the time schedules for various activities.
4.Assigning duties and responsibilities to the staff members.
5.Organizing curricular and co-curricular programmes.
6.Directing and motivating the staff of the institution.
7.Coordinating by efforts of people to achieve the purpose.
8.Exercising control over the staff.
9.Conducting periodical reviews about the progress, achievements and failures of the institution.
10.Taking measures for staff development.
11.Maintaining order and discipline.
12.Management of materials.
13.Management of finance.
14.Maintaining records and registers up to date.
15.Maintaining human relationships.
16.Supervision of the work of teachers and other employees.
17.Giving feedback to the teachers performing well and taking remedial measures for teachers not performing well.
Basic Principles of Educational Administration:
The prime concern of administration of any programme is proper accomplishment of the pre-fixed purposes and
goals. This becomes possible through adequate utilization of both human and material resources with the purpose of
bringing qualitative improvement of the programme. For this there is the necessity of different aspects of
management which are accepted as the functions of administration. In order to simplify it we can be said here that
proper management of a programme needs various aspects that are regarded as the functions of administration.
These are:
1.Planning
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2.Organizing
3.Directing
4.Coordinating
5.Supervising
6.Controlling and
7.Evaluating
In the field of educational administration, the educational authority as the administrative authority exercises its
functions in relation to the above mentioned aspects. But it is essential to mention that the functions of educational
administration can be studied under two major perspectives. One is in general perspective and the other is in
contextual perspective. Let us discuss these functions one by one.
THE ISLAMIC CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATION
The concept of a system of administration in Islam is quite different from that in the Western world.
Islam is a complete code of life and encircles all human activities. Life according to Islam is a
constant struggle to overcome satanic propensities running in human blood. Islam is not a utopia of
unrealizable ideas and it firmly expounds that an administration should keep a strict watch over his
thoughts and actions. It emphasizes inner purity of soul because it provides social harmony in
society and engenders self-discipline.
Islam, in fact, laid down the foundation of a sound system of administration. Islam emphasizes
certain intrinsic qualities which an administrator must possess. These are also regarded as the
cohesive characteristic features which Islam has put forward for a perfect and excellent
administrative system. First among them is “HONESTY” a moral quality which is influences the
individuals to refrain from inflicting injuries on others by cheating. Dishonestly breeds aversion,
pollutes social life, degenerates politics and corrupts administration. The impact of dishonestly is
particularly ruinous if a dishonest person occupies a position of authority.
According to Islam, corruption is a sin for which there is no atonement. The Holy Quran has clearly
pointed out that the corrupt will be subjected to divine chastisement. It enjoins Muslims from
usurpation of each other’s wealth and from offering bribes to judges so that through their aid
someone’s property might not be seized dishonestly.

Islam also takes into consideration the evil consequences of force and fraud and for this it
emphasizes complete justice in administration. Hazrat Abu Saeed reported that The Holy Prophet
said, “Verily the dearest of men near Allah Almighty on the Resurrection Day and the nearest before
Him for company will be the just ruler.”
The concept of veracity in the Islamic system of administration is also of great importance. Actually,
in no other institution there is a great need for veracity than in administration because decision
taken in this field has deep and far-reaching repercussions. If veracity is adopted as an integral part
of administrative behavior, decision-makers constantly insist on truthful assessment of every
situation, there is hope that the climate in administrative agency could be free from suspicions or
providing some information should not be motivated by selfishness. Veracity, in order to be
effective, has to be spontaneous. It should also be a deeply ingrained habit rather than an act of
expediency resulting from some kind of fear or injury.
The Holy Quran says, “When you speak a word or pronounce a judgment, be true and just, though
the person concerned be your relative speak not falsely, although the declaration might be against
your parents or your near relatives”.
Many evils in society stem from hasty and miscalculated decisions. Errors of judgment and
fault in policy-making can be reduced considerably if the decision-maker has the habit of patiently
investing the issues in hand. Administrative system in Islam has applauded patience as one of the
noble qualities of the administrator. A tradition of the Holy Prophet narrated by Abdullah Bin Abbas
says, “When Allah wishes the welfare of a community, He blesses it with officers who are patient
and large-hearted.”
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Islam has focused special attention on the general complaints against bureaucracy i-e its members
tend to isolate themselves from people. If this attitude exists among the civil servants, they can
hardly become aware of the needs of the masses. Accessibility, thus, is an important feature of
the Islamic administrative system. A close and constant contact between the commoners and the
officialdom can breed an atmosphere of truth and confidence which is very essential for the success
of governmental policies.
Last, but not least, came accountability. Islam lays greater emphasis on this point. An official is not
only accountable to Allah Almighty on the Day of Judgment but also to the people in this world.
Islam has maintained a balance between administrative powers and administrative responsibilities.
An officer in an Islamic state is expected to perform a constructive role in the political, economic,
social and cultural life of the people. Therefore he is grand wide powers to exercise in these fields.
He is not only the executor of public policy but is very largely its initiator and formulator as well. On
the other hand, strict supervision is exercised by the people and several other independent
institutions in order to control the activities of the public officials so that they may not become
dictatorial in their behavior. If we adopt such a system of administration, we can be the most
developed nation of the world.
Henry Foyal’s Principles
Henri Fayol, the father of the school of Systematic Management, was motivated to create a
theoretical foundation for a managerial educational program based on his experience as a
successful managing director of a mining company. In his day, managers had no formal training and
he observed that the increasing complexity of organisations would require more professional
management.
Fayol's legacy is his generic Principles of Management. Of Fayol's six generic activities for industrial
undertakings (technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting, managerial), the most
important were The Five Functions of Management that focused on the key relationships between
personnel and its management.
The Five Functions are:
1. PLANNING
drawing up plans of actions that combine unity, continuity, flexibility and precision given the
organisation's resources, type and significance of work and future trends. Creating a plan of action
is the most difficult of the five tasks and requires the active participation of the entire organisation.
Planning must be coordinated on different levels and with different time horizons;
2. ORGANISING
providing capital, personnel and raw materials for the day-to-day running of the business, and
building a structure to match the work. Organisational structure depends entirely on the number of
employees. An increase in the number of functions expands the organisation horizontally and
promotes additional layers of supervision;
3. COMMANDING
optimising return from all employees in the interest of the entire enterprise. Successful managers
have personal integrity, communicate clearly and base their judgments on regular audits. Their
thorough knowledge of personnel creates unity, energy, initiative and loyalty and eliminates
incompetence;
4. COORDINATING
unifying and harmonizing activities and efforts to maintain the balance between the activities of the
organisation as in sales to production and procurement to production. Fayol recommended weekly
conferences for department heads to solve problems of common interest;
5. CONTROLLING
identifying weaknesses and errors by controlling feedback, and conforming activities with plans,
policies and instructions. Fayol's management process went further than Taylor's basic hierarchical
model by allowing command functions to operate efficiently and effectively through co-ordination
and control methods. For Fayol, the managing director overlooked a living organism that requires
liaison officers and joint committees.
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The American Luther Gulick and Brit Lydnall Urwick expanded Fayol's list to seven executive
management activities summarised by the acronym POSDCORB:
 planning: determine objectives in advance and the methods to achieve them;
 organising: establish a structure of authority for all work;
 staffing: recruit, hire and train workers; maintain favourable working conditions;
 directing: make decisions, issue orders and directives;
 coordinating: interrelate all sectors of the organisation;
 reporting: inform hierarchy through reports, records and inspections;
 budgeting: depend on fiscal planning, accounting and control.
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Serial No. 2
Concepts of management in education
Management can mean different things to different people at different times, and a variety of
definitions have been offered. The term 'management' itself, derives from the verb 'to manage',
which can mean:
• to handle
• to control
• to make and keep submissive
• to organise
• to alter by manipulation
• to carry out for a purpose.
The functions of managers
We will briefly examine five main functions of managers, namely: planning, organising, directing,
supervising and evaluating. These may be seen to form a management cycle as in Fig 1:

Fig 1 A cycle of management functions

Planning
If you have studied Module 1, Self-Development for School Managers, you will have learned that
the first action of a school manager is to identify the mission of the school and to set the objectives.
The head will then need to identify different strategies by which to achieve the agreed mission and
objectives. Through the planning process the head aims to manage an efficient and an effective
school. Efficient means using minimum resources to get maximum results on time. Effective means
to achieve the set of objectives. The third part of the planning stage is thus to decide on an
appropriate strategy.
Organising
Organising involves putting in order of priority and preference the resources which are available. An
Action Plan is needed in which actions and activities are scheduled. In order to give the plan 'teeth',
targets are set. These targets should be quite easily attainable within a short period of time.
Directing
The manager needs to direct the implementation of the plan. He or she should provide leadership
by delegating duties and responsibilities to staff, and by motivating them. The directing process also
involves co-ordinating and controlling the supply and use of resources.
Supervising
The manager will need to supervise the work which is being done, ensuring that activities are
carried out in line with agreed standards, and taking steps to correct problems.
Evaluating
The final part of the management cycle is to assess the results and compare them with the set
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targets and objectives. The performance of all the staff including the managers should be assessed.
The feedback is needed in the adjustment of future plans.
Planning and Policy
Implementation
Although such a categorization is essentially arbitrary and broad and these aspects of
management are closely tied, inseparable and inductive, it is possible to separate the functions of
administration from that of planning and policy–making in education. For example the administrator
is concerned with formulating general plans and policies for education.
Functions of School Administrators
Obemeata (1984) referred to a school head as an administrator who is responsible for running a
school and also responsible for policy decisions, and determining the direction and objectives of the
school. The function of a school head, according to Obemeata, is more than mere controlling the
staff of the school, its finances and curriculum; it also includes the management of resources
towards the achievement of educational goal. Fadipe (1990) however, highlighted the major
functions of the school head as: interpretation of policy, execution of instructional programs and the
selection, induction and retention of personnel, and in Cranston (2002), the duties of the school
administrators include: the demonstration of a variety of management and leadership abilities and,
making complex decisions in collaboration with other staff in the school.
The function of the school administrators could be summarized as follows:
 production and management of resources (human and materials) needed to support
organizations and its program
 supervision of instructional activities in the school system
 obtaining and training personnel
 providing leadership for curriculum
 maintaining peaceful co-existence between the school, the community and the external
agencies
 influencing staff behavior
 discerning and influencing the development of goals and policies
 evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency or otherwise of the school
 initiating work activities
 grouping the tasks into activities
 defining the task to be done
 taking remedial action if the objectives are not being met
 Supplying incentives to stimulate productivity.
Many writers have used the term administration to mean management. According to
Remasay (1999), administration is a generalized type of human behavior found in an organization.
Administration is a process through which decisions are reached. Administration is the process of
directing and controlling life in any social organization such as schools or in an industry.
Some differences between administration and management
1) The difference between administration and management is rather very thin. However while
management is the process of working with and through groups or individuals to accomplish
organizational goals, administration is concerned with directing and controlling life in a social
system.
2) The second difference is that administration deals with establishing a policy that guides decision-
making laws and regulations. Management deals with implementation of laws and regulations.
Educational administration and educational management
From the above definition, it is quite clear that educational administration and educational
management are applied fields of study. Educational management is an applied field of
management. One can therefore deduce that educational management refers to the application of
theory and practice of management to the field of education or educational institutions. The same
concept applies to education administration.
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According to Okumbe (1999), educational administration is a process of acquiring and

allocating resources for the achievement of predetermined educational goals. Educational
administration is the operation and management of learning institutions such as public schools,
child care centers, colleges and universities. From small preschools to prestigious universities,
educational administrators manage organizational structure, administrative processes and
educational programming. Because it involves children, educational administration contains a wide
range of ethical standards and customary practices.
Concluding statements
The following are some of the things that we could learn from the report:
1. “Educational administration as a process of management”, means, among others, that one of
educational administration's key to success is practicing at least the basic processes and principles
in management like operating through functions such as planning, organizing, staffing,
leading/directing, controlling/monitoring and motivation.
2. How.com defines ‘educational administration’ as “the operation and management of learning
institutions such as public schools, child care centers, colleges and universities. From small
preschools to prestigious universities, educational administrators manage organizational structure,
administrative processes and educational programming... educational administration contains a
wide range of ethical standards and customary practices.”
Subscribing to this definition, educational administrators therefore are
necessarily managers, though having broader and more complex roles and responsibilities.
3. As de facto managers, educational administrators must perform the manager’s three (3) basic
roles:
Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees.
Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information.
Decisional: roles that require decision-making.
4. To do well as educational administrator, one has to acquire and demonstrate the management
skills:
Technical: used for specialized knowledge required for work.
Political: used to build a power base and establish connections.
Conceptual: used to analyze complex situations.
Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate.
Diagnostic: ability to visualize most appropriate response to a situation.
5. Some scholars explain that administration and management are terms that connote stability
through the exercise of control and supervision. However, the concept of leadership, scholars say,
is now favored because it conveys dynamism and pro-activity. Applied to education, school
leadership is submitted as the process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of
teachers, pupils, and parents toward achieving common educational aims.
Conclusion: From this, we could learn that for school administrators and managers to become
successful, striving to become dynamic leaders is a must.
Warren Bennis (1925 - ), an American educationalist and writer, once said that, “Managers do
right things. Leaders do things right.” Now, imagine that all school administrators and other persons
holding key positions in a school are all leaders, and dynamic ones for that matter. Chances are,
that academic institution will be filled with people who “do right things right dynamically.”
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Serial No. 3

MODERN EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION

Supervision is the process of democratic human science is designed to provide multi-technical

services include the teacher and the learner and the learning environment; in order to improve
educational conditions, and increase the effectiveness of education and the achievement of its
objectives in terms of the development of students in various fields. Given the important role played
by supervisors educators have established the Ministries of Education in various countries
directorates and departments competent to oversee education, and who are selected from teachers
talented, and experienced and highly qualified as teachers of teachers, and entrusted with the
responsibility of follow-up to teachers and to identify their needs, and work on their development
various means available. Also gave supervisors the full terms of the care, rehabilitation and training
on the various supervisory and specialized areas. And this article only for the scientific building
block of work on the development of teachers; belief in the importance of educational supervision,
because the situations that face the teacher and the material with which it deals are constantly
changing in the light of the development of science and life every day.
The modern definition of educational supervision:
Evolution of the concept of educational supervision of the inspection system which is based on
monitoring the work of teachers and catches their mistakes, to the mentoring process which is
based on cooperation between supervisors and teachers to raise educational suffice. And then to
the oversight process, which aims to help teachers in the face of problems of educational and
scientific manner addressed systematically.
Can be determined by the modern concept of educational supervision that: "an effort organized,
and affirmative action, aimed at improving the learning processes and education and training; to
coordinate and guide the self-growth for teachers to increase their understanding of educational and
faith in the objectives of education, thus performing their role more effectively" (Abdel-Hadi, 2002)
He also knows that: "the process of leading a democratic cooperative organization,
concerned with the position of all elements of the educational curricula and the means, methods
and environment, teacher and student, to work to improve the organization and achieving the goals
of learning and teaching" (Carl, 1990).
The above definition represents a quantum leap very far from the concept of inspection and practice
of those who support it, as it abolished once and arrogance on teachers and Tjeriham and catch
their mistakes. And beyond the technical guidance that may be just a follow-up work of teachers in
schools and try to correct the practices in the light of experience and advice Allowed from outside
the school , related to technical guidance distinction made in the educational material specific
Educational supervision is no longer a modern sense only one task which is to help the teacher to
develop methods and means in the classroom; but now has many tasks based on the development
of the educational situation in all its aspects and elements of
The functions of educational supervision:
A / administrative functions, including:
1 -Take responsibility for leadership in educational work
2 - Cooperation with the school administration.
3 - Protect the interests of students.
4 - Prepare a comprehensive report at the end of each academic year.
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B / Jobs refresher, including:

1 - Urged teachers to scientific production and education.
2 - Participation in solving educational problems existing in the school and the Department of
Education
3 - Help teachers to self-growth and understanding of the nature of their work.
4 - Follow-up to any new matters of educational and educational.
C / Jobs and training can be achieved by:
1 - School workshops.
2 - Seminars.
3 - Handouts.
D / and research functions, including:
1 - A sense of problems and issues that hinder the process of the educational process.
2 - The Quest to identify problems and think of a solution according to a program prepared for this
purpose.
E / calendar functions, including:
1 Measuring the extent of the work of teachers agrees with the objectives of the educational
institution and curricula and guidance.
2. Identify the centers of power in teacher performance and promotion.
3 the discovery of weaknesses in the performance of the teacher and work on treatment and
recovery.
F / analytical functions, including:
1.Analysis of the curriculum.
2. Analysis of test questions during the technical specifications specified.
G / innovative functions, including:
1 - new ideas and methods used to develop the educational process.
2 - Put these ideas and methods to the test and experimentation.
3 - Present ideas and methods after testing, they were proven.
Skills of the modern educational supervision:
There are several administrative and supervisory skills to contribute to the achievement of the
objectives of the institution, including:
I- First - the creation of new teachers for their work:
Are preparing teachers for teaching assignments in universities and teacher training colleges, and
are trained on the demands of work in the field during the study. But in terms of the problems facing
the fact that when engaged in actual work in schools that are recruited to work there. It is located on
the Educational Supervision in collaboration with the school administration is responsible for
preparing new teachers for their work.
II - Course for teachers during the service:
Related to the educational supervisor in the field every day this school or that, and keep on aspects
of the work and the problems faced by teachers, and deficiencies in the educational services
provided to students. In light of this, administrators can educators, a collaborative effort to suggest
some courses that address the weaknesses which they observe, and these courses include:
1 cycle for the use of computers in education, in the design of electronic modules (Intel).
2 are for the education of primary school teachers’ use of groups in education.
3 Workshop in Educational Measurement and Evaluation of improved teacher performance in the
tests, and the measurement of educational outcomes.
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4 and a workshop to train teachers on the use of raw materials available in the environment in
making teaching aids.
5-training course for teachers to raise student interest activities.
6 course for teachers on the school library supervisors to familiarize them with the appropriate
methods to activate the role and attract the pioneer.
7 training course for teachers on a new way of teaching.
III. contract management meetings with teachers:
The meetings came at the beginning of the new academic year, where he will meet the educational
supervisor my tutor one of the articles and discuss with them the curriculum for this article, the
authors of the decision, and the adequacy of teacher's guide. It would be the fruits of this meeting to
raise the attention of teachers to some important aspects of the curriculum, and time of the
semester to deal with this attractive. It may also meeting comes on the occasion of the approaching
date of final examinations. It may also meeting comes after the end of exams; the meeting may take
the form of a workshop to analyze the questions that teachers use it.
IV. to work on curriculum development:
The process of developing the displaced are not important the General Administration of the
Ministry of Education curriculum and education, but this administration is regulating the process of
development, and curriculum development is not an individual act carried out by the competent
education. But come the fruit of development contributes to a joint effort to achieve educational
supervisor as a leader in collaboration with teachers, who carried out the directives of the
curriculum in the field.
V. presentation of models for simulation in classroom management:
The success of the work of teachers in the classroom is heavily influenced by its success in
classroom management, not enough to be a teacher in-depth in the subject of specialization, and
that the curriculum recently developed, and not enough to adopt distinct ways of teaching and the
use of a useful, if not find the teacher a way to manage grade effective manner. Can educational
supervisor, and during his field visit to recognize the teachers who are role models in this matter,
and each share held after the workshop to discuss the strategies adopted by the teacher and
provide an explanation of each strategy would help to generate convictions introduction of such
strategies in the work
VI. Participation in the selection of teachers and distribution in the schools:
The supervisor as a liaison between management at the center and the field can contribute
effectively to provide a picture of the needs of school teachers in one or more of the disciplines, and
assists in recommending the selection of teachers who Enables the needs of this school or those in
a particular specialty.
VII. Training teachers to manage the time:
The process of regulation time in the classroom is of great importance in effective classroom
management, and includes the functions of the teacher in the light of his training in time
management:
1 - determine the appropriate time for each unit of study in line with the content and the importance
of unity.
2 - Determine the time for each activity, so as not to neglect the specific activities.
3 - Determine the time needed to give guidance and take attendance and absenteeism, etc.
VIII .Effective Communication:
The investment for the supervisor position as a liaison between management and field work in the
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importance of language in the provision of feedback to employees in the various activities in the
field of education, at the level of planning and organization, leadership, development and
evaluation, relations with the local environment.
IX. Writing technical reports:
The process of writing technical reports of the most important administrative processes at all levels,
contributing in the communication process and codified, as they contribute to saving time and
providing nutrition retro needed to evaluate teacher performance.
X. Management of Work Stress:
Of the things that go unnoticed or unattended to teachers about their situations, emotional stress
suffered by them during the school year, both in the classroom or outside. For these stress markers,
including:
1. Ballinger sense of teaching and the boredom of class and students.
2. Low motivation to participate in school activities.
3. Lack of attention to preparing for the lesson, and performance with minimal effort and time.
4. Delay in going to separate and not to follow the duties of the students.
5. A lot of students vilified and accused of laziness and lack of understanding (This may be true!).
6. Many complain about the conditions of the school and the state of education in general.
Psychological pressure situation where the teacher feels that the effort is wasted in vain and has no
fruit and that it was doing everything he has and no one appreciates or benefit. This situation if not
rush to treat it might have an adverse impact on students and the atmosphere of the school year.
May even exceed the impact to the future of teacher education itself, so take hold this view to affect
the look of the students and teacher education in general. And cannot remove the pressures of
work in any educational institution entirely, but it can alleviate the pressure of work or managed
through several methods, among them, for example, the following:
The first method: Preparing for the pressure: to give teachers a realistic view on the work they will
do, and tell them at a rate which Sibzlouna effort to complete the work they need performed, and by
organizing a series of preparatory programs that illustrate the difficulties they may face.
The second method: the division of labor: If the teacher loaded with many workloads, the division of
labor between him and the others may help relieve the workload.
The third method: social support: this Pthamis team to support the teacher, signed by the pressure
in his work. If the pressure must be collectively instigation of all teachers, and focus Alyaydah the
following statement: "The pressure will not disappear, however, if the Panel's work Kalid one."
Method IV: The right choice for teachers on appointment: that of reconciling the properties of the
individual on the one hand, and the requirements of teaching and working environment on the other
hand.
Method V: Raising the skills and abilities: With the help of teachers to learn to exercise their
functions more effectively and less pressure, and through training courses and motivate teachers
for excellence in their provision of rewards or prizes to them.
Atheist tenth - the basics of planning and implementing daily lessons:
These include job training of teachers on the following issues:
• the formulation of behavioral objectives:
The purpose of the formulation of behavioral objectives are:
1 - The teacher recognizes the elements of the target behavior.
2 - The teacher recognizes the importance of setting goals to improve education.
3 - To apply the method the teacher set goals before you start teaching a unit and includes the
 14

target behavior:
1 - performance is expected to do after the learning process.
2 - Terms and conditions that exhibit this behavior from.
3 - Achieving the level of acceptable performance
• The use of teaching aids:
The most important roles played by the educational supervisor is to train teachers to use
educational methods, studies have shown that research and educational methods play an essential
role in the enrichment of education through the addition of the dimensions and special effects and
distinct programs. This means the role of the educational re-emphasis on research findings about
the importance of teaching aids in expanding the learner’s experiences and facilitates the building
concepts, and overcome geographical boundaries and natural resources. There is no doubt that this
role has now doubled because of the rapid technical developments that have made the environment
around the school is a challenge to the methods of teaching and learning of school, because of the
wealth of this environment and offers a variety of means of communication messages in ways
exciting and bright and attractive. The involvement of all senses in learning processes lead to
consolidate and deepen the learning and teaching aids to help the participation of all senses of the
learner, thereby helping to create a strong and established relationships between what students
learn, and the consequent survival of the impact of learning.
• Training on different teaching methods:
Method of teaching is how it deals with the teacher teaching method during its process of teaching,
while in the process of teaching, or is the way the teacher in the implementation of the teaching
method are distinguished from other teachers who use denying way, and then linked to the
essential characteristics personal to the teacher.
Among the most famous teaching methods: the way the dumping, and how to ask questions, and
discussion method, the method of dialogue, and way of teaching through projects, and teaching
style Owaltalm through cooperative groups, the method of exploration, and learning by solving
problems.
• To achieve effective classroom management:
Identify classroom management as: "All what the teacher in the classroom behaviors, whether
verbal or process, directly or indirectly, so as to achieve educational goals set to happen in the end
change desirable in the behaviors of students (Betty, 2001) .
And play educational supervisor important role teacher training on classroom management, through
training on the overall operations, direction and interaction exchanged by the teacher with students
and patterns of behavior related to them, so as to make the process of teaching and learning in the
classroom is possible, meaningful and interesting, to get the best results with minimal effort and
time as possible.
• Calendar of the progress and final reports:
Calendar is an essential element of any structured educational and meaningful. The educational
evaluation is a planned process for the collection of structured information standards in the light of
specific scientific objective view to issuing a ruling on the value of educational work.
The educational supervisor teacher training on evaluation methods in different levels, including:
1 - tribal Calendar: This is the lesson before beginning the implementation of the evaluation of the
Action Plan itself, and the methods and tools for it.
2 - Calendar progress: it is an ongoing process, you are at the end of each module, and are used in
the treatment of early results and provide continuous feedback to achieve better learning.
 15

3 - Calendar Final overall: This is the end of the chapter or the school year, and could be used the
results to identify the level of students and their progress, and measure the goals derived from the
education process, also learn from the results in the evaluation of the effectiveness of teaching
(Abdel-Hadi, 2002) .
• Teacher training in the preparation of the disengagement plan, daily:
The purpose of the preparation of the plan is to organize the process of classroom education in
accordance with the set objectives. The plan includes daily: development of general objectives and
behavioral unit, as well as population means, activities and teaching methods used by the teacher /
teacher, as well as determine the approximate time to achieve each of the goals set, as well as
methods of evaluating students to verify the achievement of goals.
Planning for teaching is one of the teaching competencies of teachers, so there are good grounds
for the planning of teaching can enumerate the most important:
1 - that the teacher should develop an integrated plan of teaching in the light of the specific
educational objectives.
2 - It should be linked to educational experiences covered by the plan specific educational
objectives.
3 - It should be linked to procedures and methods and means of education covered by the plan
specific educational objectives.
4 - It should take into account individual differences among students in the development of teaching
plan.
5 - It should develop a plan of teaching in the light of the potential physical and temporal.
6 - It should be flexible teaching plan are subject to change and modification during its
implementation, and be achievable is far from ideal and improvised
 16

Serial No. 4
Planning and the educational administrator
DEFINITION
Educational planning is the exercising of foresight in determining the policy, priorities and costs of
an educational system, potential for growth, and for the needs of the country and of the pupils
served by the system.
This is obviously a much wider definition of planning than is often given, and reflects the
administrator’s inability to draw demarcations in a process that, in practice, seems to him to be
continuous. It differs from some other recent definitions in several respects: (a) while stressing the
importance of the new economic dimension to planning, it still covers processes that went on long
before the economists became actively interested in the planning of education;
(b) It draws no sharp line of distinction between the making of a plan, the adoption of a plan, and its
implementation;
(c) It lays stress on the political realities, on the balance of forces affecting the adoption of a plan;
(d) It mentions the needs both of the country and of the children;
(e) It gives special consideration to an educational system’s capacity for growth.

PROCESS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

a. Re-planning: This is the preparation for planning. It begins with:
- The creation of a suitable planning organization.
- The establishment of planning procedures
- The structural reorganization of the educational administration machinery.
- Setting up the procedures for the collection and analysis of statistical data required for
planning.
b. The planning stage: These comprises five principal steps;
(i) Diagnosis: Once the national objectives are defined, the first step to be taken by the education
planner is to ascertain whether the current educational effort of the country is adequate, relevant
and conducive to their achievement.
(ii) Formulation of policy, the diagnosis of the existing education situation would highlight defects
and deficiencies which are to be corrected so as to ensure relevance, effectiveness and efficiently.
(iii) Costing of future needs: This gives an indication of the total financial outlay which should be
available if the policy needs are to be satisfied.
(iv) Establishment of priorities and target testing: Any educational planner should take stock of
resources available to educational development from various sources.
(v) Feasibility testing: The target are set according to needs that have been identified and the
priorities assigned. But another serious look is necessary to ensure whether they are consistent and
feasible.
c. Plan formulation stage: The purpose of planning is primarily two fold:
 17

(i) To present a set of decision to the appropriate national authorities for approval.
(ii) To provide a line point for action by the various agencies responsible for implementing these
decision. For both purposes, the authority and the agencies concerned require to be informed as to:
what is proposed, why it is proposed and how the proposals are going to be implemented.
D.PLAN ELABORATION STAGE:
before the implementation starts ,the educational plan has to be elaborated so that individual action
units becomes more clearly identified.

Educational leadership
School leadership is the process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies
of teachers, pupils, and parents toward achieving common educational aims. This term is often
used synonymously with educational leadership in the United States and has
supplanted educational management in the United Kingdom. Several universities in the United
States offer graduate degrees in educational leadership.
History
The term school leadership came into currency in the late 20th century for several reasons.
Demands were made on schools for higher levels of pupil achievement, and schools were expected
to improve and reform. These expectations were accompanied by calls for accountability at the
school level. Maintenance of the status quo was no longer considered
acceptable. Administration and management are terms that connote stability through the exercise of
control and supervision. The concept of leadership was favored because it conveys dynamism and
pro-activity. The principal or school head is commonly thought to be the school leader; however,
school leadership may include other persons, such as members of a formal leadership team and
other persons who contribute toward the aims of the school.
While school leadership or educational leadership have become popular as replacements
for educational administration in recent years, leadership arguably presents only a partial picture of
the work of school, division or district, and ministerial or state education agency personnel, not to
mention the areas of research explored by university faculty in departments concerned with the
operations of schools and educational institutions. For this reason, there may be grounds to
question the merits of the term as a catch-all for the field. Rather, the etiology of its use may be
found in more generally and con-temporarily experienced neo-liberal social and economic
governance models, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom. On this view, the term
is understood as having been borrowed from business.
In the United States, the superintendence, or role of the chief school administrator, has undergone
many changes since the creation of the position which is often attributed to the Buffalo Common
Council that approved a superintendent on June 9, 1837. If history serves us correctly, the
superintendence is about 170 years old with four major role changes from the early 19th century
through the first half of the 20th century and into the early years of the 21st century. Initially, the
superintendent's main function was clerical in nature and focused on assisting the board of
education with day-to-day details of running the school. At the turn of the 20th century, states began
to develop common curriculum for public schools with superintendents fulfilling the role of teacher-
scholar or master educator who had added an emphasis on curricular and instructional matters to
school operations. In the early 20th century, the Revolution affected the superintendent's role by
shifting the emphasis to expert manager with efficiency in handling non-instructional tasks such as
budget, facility, and transportation. The release of A Nation at Risk in 1983 directly impacted public
school accountability and, ultimately, the superintendence. The early 1980s initiated the change that
has continued through today with the superintendent viewed as chief executive officer, including the
 18

roles of professional adviser to the board, leader of reforms, manager of resources and
communicator to the public.
The term "educational leadership" is also used to describe programs beyond schools. Leaders in
community colleges, proprietary colleges, community-based programs, and universities are
also educational leaders.
Some United States university graduate masters and doctoral programs are organized with higher
education and education programs as a part of an educational leadership department. In these cases,
the entire department is charged with educating educational leaders with specific specialization
areas such as university leadership, community college leadership, and community-based
leadership (as well as school leadership). Some United States graduate programs with a tradition of
graduate education in these areas of specialization have separate departments for them. The area
of higher education may include areas such as student affairs leadership, academic affairs
leadership, community college leadership, community college and university
teaching, vocational and adult education and university administration.
Educational leadership draws upon interdisciplinary literature, generally, but ideally distinguishes
itself through its focus on pedagogy, epistemology and human development. In contemporary
practice it borrows from political science and business. Debate within the field relates to this
tension.
A number of publications and foundations are devoted to studying the particular requirements of
leadership in these settings, and educational leadership is taught as an academic discipline at a
number of universities. Several countries now have explicit policies on school leadership, including
policies and budgets for the training and development of school leaders.
In the USA, formal "Curriculum Audits" are becoming common, which allow recognized educational
leaders and trained auditors to evaluate school leadership and the alignment of the curriculum with
the goals and objectives of the school district. Curriculum audits and curriculum mapping were
developed by Fenwick W. English in the late 1970s. The educational leaders and auditors who
conduct the audits are certified by Phi Delta Kappa.
Education economics
Education economics or the economics of education is the study of economic issues relating
to education, including the demand for education and the financing and provision of education.
From early works on the relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes for individuals,
the field of the economics of education has grown rapidly to cover virtually all areas with linkages to
education. An initial introduction into decisions within the educational sector itself by Eric
Hanushek led to a dramatic expansion of economists into study of the operation and performance of
educational institutions. It has become a very vibrant area for research by young researchers, and it
has led to four separate Handbook volumes covering both theoretical and empirical issues.
Liberal approaches
The dominant model of the demand for education is based on human capital theory. The central
idea is that undertaking education is investment in the acquisition of skills and knowledge which will
increase earnings, or provide long-term benefits such as an appreciation of literature (sometimes
referred to as cultural capital). An increase in human capital can follow technological progress as
knowledgeable employees are in demand due to the need for their skills, whether it be in
understanding the production process or in operating machines. Studies from 1958 attempted to
calculate the returns from additional schooling (the percent increase in income acquired through an
additional year of schooling). Later results attempted to allow for different returns across persons or
by level of education.
Statistics have shown that countries with high enrollment/graduation rates have grown faster than
countries without. The United States has been the world leader in educational advances, beginning
 19

with the high school movement (1910–1950). There also seems to be a correlation between gender
differences in education with the level of growth; more development is observed in countries which
have an equal distribution of the percentage of women versus men who graduated from high
school. When looking at correlations in the data, education seems to generate economic growth;
however, it could be that we have this causality relationship backwards. For example, if education is
seen as a luxury good, it may be that richer households are seeking out educational attainment as a
symbol of status, rather than the relationship of education leading to wealth.
Educational advance is not the only variable for economic growth, though, as it only explains about
14% of the average annual increase in labor productivity over the period 1915-2005. From lack of a
more significant correlation between formal educational achievement and productivity growth, some
economists see reason to believe that in today’s world many skills and capabilities come by way of
learning outside of tradition education, or outside of schooling altogether.
An alternative model of the demand for education, commonly referred to as screening, is based on
the economic theory of signalling. The central idea is that the successful completion of education is
a signal of ability.
Marxist critique
Although Marx and Engels did not write widely about education the social functions of education,
their concepts and methods are theorized and criticized by the influence of Marx as education being
used in reproduction of capitalist societies. Marx and Engels approached scholarship as
"revolutionary scholarship" where education should serve as propaganda for the struggle of the
working class. The classical Marxian paradigm sees education as serving the interest of capital and
is seeking alternative modes of education that would prepare students and citizens for more
progressive socialist mode of social organizations. Marx and Engels understood education and free
time as essential to developing free individuals and creating many-sided human beings, thus for
them education should become a more essential part of the life of people unlike capitalist society
which is organized mainly around work and the production of commodities.
Financing and provision
In most countries school education is predominantly financed and provided by governments. Public
funding and provision also plays a major role in higher education. Although there is wide agreement
on the principle that education, at least at school level, should be financed mainly by governments,
there is considerable debate over the desirable extent of public provision of education. Supporters
of public argue that universal public provision promotes equality of opportunity and social cohesion.
Opponents of public provision advocate alternatives such as vouchers.
Education production function
An education production function is an application of the economic concept of a production
function to the field of education. It relates various inputs affecting a student’s learning (schools,
families, peers, neighborhoods, etc.) to measured outputs including subsequent labor market
success, college attendance, graduation rates, and, most frequently, standardized test scores. The
original study that eventually prompted interest in the idea of education production functions was by
a sociologist, James S. Coleman. The Coleman Report, published in 1966, concluded that the
marginal effect of various school inputs on student achievement was small compared to the impact
of families and friends. Later work, by Eric A. Hanushek, Richard Murnane, and other economists
introduced the structure of "production" to the consideration of student learning outcomes.
A large number of successive studies, increasingly involving economists, produced inconsistent
results about the impact of school resources on student performance, leading to considerable
controversy in policy discussions. The interpretation of the various studies has been very
controversial, in part because the findings have directly influenced policy debates. Two separate
lines of study have been particularly widely debated. The overall question of whether added funds
 20

to schools are likely to produce higher achievement (the “money doesn’t matter” debate) has
entered into legislative debates and court consideration of school finance systems. Additionally,
policy discussions about class size reduction heightened academic study of the relationship of class
size and achievement.
Education policy
Education policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation
of education systems.
Education occurs in many forms for many purposes through many institutions. Examples
include education, kindergarten through to 12th grade, two and four year colleges or universities,
graduate and professional education, adult education and job training. Therefore, education policy
can directly affect the education people engage in at all ages.
Examples of areas subject to debate in education policy, specifically from the field of schools,
include school size, class size, school choice, school privatization, tracking, teacher education and
certification, teacher pay, teaching methods, curricular content, graduation requirements, school
infrastructure investment, and the values that schools are expected to uphold and model.
Education policy analysis is the scholarly study of education policy. It seeks to answer questions
about the purpose of education, the objectives (societal and personal) that it is designed to attain,
the methods for attaining them and the tools for measuring their success or failure. Research
intended to inform education policy is carried out in a wide variety of institutions and in many
academic disciplines. Important researchers are affiliated with departments
of psychology, economics, sociology, and human development, in addition to schools and
departments of education or public policy. Examples of education policy analysis may be found in
such academic journals as Education Policy Analysis Archives.
 21

Serial No. 5

School discipline

School discipline is the system of rules, punishments and behavioral strategies appropriate to the
regulation of children or adolescences and the maintenance of order in schools. Its aim is to control
the students' actions and behavior.
An obedient student is in compliance with the school rules and codes of conduct. These rules may,
for example, define the expected standards of clothing, timekeeping, social behaviour and work
ethic. The term discipline is also applied to the punishment that is the consequence of breaking the
rules. The aim of discipline is to set limits restricting certain behaviors or attitudes that are seen as
harmful or going against school policies, educational norms, school traditions, et cetera.
Theory
School discipline practices are generally informed by theory from psychologists and educators.
There are a number of theories to form a comprehensive discipline strategy for an entire school or a
particular class.

 Positive approach is grounded in teachers' respect for students. Instills in students a sense of
responsibility by using youth/adult partnerships to develop and share clear rules, provide daily
opportunities for success, and administer in-school suspension for noncompliant students. Based
on Glasser's Reality Therapy. Research (e.g., Allen) is generally supportive of the PAD program.

 Teacher effectiveness training differentiates between teacher-owned and student-owned

problems, and proposes different strategies for dealing with each. Students are taught problem-
solving and negotiation techniques. Researchers (e.g., Emmer and Aussiker) find that teachers like
the programme and that their behaviour is influenced by it, but effects on student behaviour are
unclear.

 Adlerian approaches is an umbrella term for a variety of methods which emphasize understanding
the individual's reasons for maladaptive behavior and helping misbehaving students to alter their
behavior, while at the same time finding ways to get their needs met. Named for psychiatrist Alfred
Adler. These approaches have shown some positive effects on self-concept, attitudes, and locus of
control, but effects on behavior are inconclusive (Emmer and Aussiker). Not only were the statistics
on suspensions and vandalism significant, but also the recorded interview of teachers demonstrates
the improvement in student attitude and behaviour, school atmosphere, academic performance, and
beyond that, personal and professional growth.

 Appropriate school learning theory and educational philosophy is a strategy for preventing
violence and promoting order and discipline in schools, put forward by educational
philosopher Daniel Greenberg and practiced by Sudbury Valley
Throughout the history of education the most common means of maintaining discipline in schools
was corporal punishment. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute
parent, with many forms of parental discipline or rewards open to them. This often meant that
students were commonly chastised with the birch, cane, paddle, strap or yardstick if they did
something wrong.
Corporal punishment in schools has now disappeared from most Western countries, including all
European countries. Thirty U.S. states have banned it; the others (mostly in the South) have not.
Paddling is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools
 22

in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private
schools in these and most other states may also use it, though many choose not to do so. Official
corporal punishment, often by caning, remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and
Caribbean countries. Most mainstream schools in most other countries retain punishment for
misbehaviour, but it usually takes non-corporal forms such as detention and suspension.

Detention
Detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, Britain, Ireland,
Singapore, Canada, Australia and some other countries. It requires the pupil to go to a certain area
of the school during a specified time on a school day (either break or after school), but also may
require a pupil to attend school at a certain time on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" at
some US, UK and Irish schools. Students can do work, stand against the wall or just sit at the desk
in a convenient and quiet manner. In the UK, the Education Act 1997 obliges a (state) school to give
parents or guardians at least 24 hours' notice of a detention outside school hours so arrangements
for transport and/or childcare can be made. This should say why it was given and, more importantly,
how long it will last (Detentions usually last from as short as 10 minutes or less to as long as 5
hours or more). Typically, in schools in the UK and Singapore, if one misses a detention, then
another four are added or the student gets a more serious punishment. In UK schools, for offences
too serious for a normal detention but not serious enough for a detention requiring the pupil to
return to school at a certain time on a non-school day, a detention can require a pupil to return to
school 1-2 hours after school ends on a school day, e.g. "Friday Night Detention".
Suspension
Suspension or temporary exclusion is mandatory leave assigned to a student as a form of
punishment that can last anywhere from one day to several weeks, during which time the student is
not allowed to attend regular lessons. In some US and Canadian schools, there are two types of
suspension: In-School Suspension (ISS) and Out-of-School Suspension (OSS). In-school
suspension requires the student to report to school as usual but sit in a special room all day. Out-of-
school suspension bars the student from being on school grounds. The student's parents/guardians
are notified of the reason for and duration of the out-of-school suspension, and usually also for in-
school suspensions. Sometimes students have to complete work during their suspensions, for
which they receive no credit in some UK schools, there is Reverse Suspension as well as normal
suspension. A pupil suspended is sent home for a period of time set. A pupil reverse suspended is
required to be at school during the holidays. Some pupils often have to complete work while reverse
suspended.
Expulsion
Expulsion, exclusion, withdrawing or permanent exclusion is the removal of a student permanently
from the school. This is the ultimate last resort, when all other methods of discipline have failed.
However, in extreme situations, it may also be used for a single offense. Some education authorities
have a nominated school in which all excluded students are collected; this typically has a much
higher staffing level than mainstream schools. In some US public schools, expulsions and
exclusions are so serious that they require an appearance before the Board of Education. In the
UK, head teachers may make the decision to exclude, but the student's parents have the right of
appeal to the local education authority. This has proved controversial in cases where the head
teacher's decision has been overturned (and his or her authority thereby undermined), and there
are proposals to abolish the right of appeal.
Expulsion from a private school is a more straightforward matter, since the school can merely
terminate its contract with the parents if the pupil does not have siblings in the same school.
Head teacher
 23

A head teacher or school principal (also known as head teacher, headmaster, headmistress or
the head, sometimes informally in Scots, the heidie or heedie) is the most
senior teacher, leader and manager of a school. In the past, the headmaster or headmistress of a
British private school was often the owner of the school or a member of the owning family, and the
position often remained in the family for many generations.
In Scotland, such officials are sometimes known as the "rector", most commonly in independent
schools. In North America, Australia and Ireland (including Northern Ireland), such officials are
usually known as the "school principal", but some schools, primarily independent schools, use the
term "headmaster" or "head master". As in Scotland, the term "rector" is still in use in the United
States in independent, religious schools as by tradition, the Head of School was also a priest. Some
American state schools, such as Boston Latin School, Brooklyn Latin School and Milpitas High
School, also use the term "headmaster", either because of its history or historical connections.
In Britain, the terms "headmaster" and "headmistress" used to be the official title throughout both
state and private schools, with "head teacher" only being used as a term to refer to them
collectively. In recent years, however, most state schools have switched to the gender-neutral "head
teacher" as the official title. Nevertheless, the gender-specific terms are still in common use, and
are still the official title at some of the remaining state grammar schools and most private schools.
Some use other terms, such as "high master". Private schools frequently use other titles for officials
under the head teacher
The official term for the third most senior teacher in British state schools and many private schools
was "second master" or "second mistress", but these terms have generally gone out of use in the
state sector. Some schools use terms such as "Head of the Upper School" or "Head of the Middle
School" to identify those people who are in charge of a particular division of the school, but who are
under the direction of the school headmaster "Principal" or "Head of School" is used as the title of
the head administrator of an elementary school, middle school, or high school in some English-
speaking countries, including the United States, India and Australia. Public schools in the United
States generally use the title principal whereas private schools in the United States sometimes use
the title Head of School Books and documents relating to the early days of public education in the
United States show that the title was originally Principal Teacher.
Role
While some head teachers still retain some teaching responsibility, other than in very small schools,
most of their duties are managerial and pastoral.
In Australia, the head teacher is in charge of one (in the case of a major subject) or multiple (often
in smaller schools) specific departments, such as English, Mathematics, Science, etc., but
maintains full teaching duties and status. They are considered part of the school executive, and
often a head teacher position is a stepping-stone into administration.
In larger schools, the principal is assisted by one or more "vice-principals", "assistant principals",
"associate principals", or "deputy principals". Their position is secondary to the principal with regard
to school governance. Assistant principals generally perform specific duties such as handling
student discipline, curriculum, student council or student activities whereas the principal has the
ultimate responsibility for the school as a whole (including faculty and staff, physical plant, etc.).
Six importance of maintaining proper School Records

(i) Schools keep an account of each pupil on its roll and submit periodic reports, which contain all
the necessary information about the pupils.

(ii) The school records help to submit to the Department of Education (his budgetary statement of
financial needs in the beginning of the session.
 24

(iii) School records help to judge the progress of the pupil on rolls, their strength and weakness and
help the teachers and parents to bring about desirable changes.

(iv) The records also help to know the educational achievements of a particular locality and even of
the stale.

(v) School records help for the development of healthy relationship between the school and home.
From the progress report, both the teachers and parents evaluate the pupil's achievement and
progress.

(vi) School records help for undertaking educational research. Research scholars get a complete
picture on pupil progress, instructional materials, physical development, promotion practices,
different tests etc. The research findings also help the school authorities to introduce new
educational reforms.

SCHOOL RECORDS AND CONFIDENTIALITY

Fact sheet

What information is contained in school records?

School records are any information kept by a school about an individual student. These records
can include the student’s address, telephone number, birthday and age, parents’ names, important
medical information, grades, discipline reports, special education records, achievements, previous
schools attended and information from teachers.
Who has access to school records?
School information can be given in four circumstances:
• Any school staff member with a legitimate educational need for the information can look in a
student’s file. This means there must be a good reason, related to the student’s education.
• The student’s parents may ask to see the file for any reason.
• Directory information, which includes the student’s name, address, telephone number, date and
place of birth, participation in activities and sports, and recent schools attended, may be given
upon request. An example of this would be if a local newspaper is writing an article about the
school.
• Under the federal No Child Left Behind act, military recruiters may receive information about a
student if the student has not told the school that he or she does not want their information to be
given to the military.
What if the information in the records is incorrect?
Parents may challenge the contents of the record. The correction will be made and a written
explanation of the parents’ reason for the change included in the record.
Can the school release student records?
With the permission of a student’s parent or guardian, the school may release records. They may
also release records without parental permission to other school officials who have a reason to
need the records, officials in other school districts at which the student wishes to enroll, certain
members of the state and federal government, in connection with financial aid applications or
receipts, in connection with any juvenile justice proceedings if the officials receiving the
information certify in writing that they will not share the information, organizations doing a study on
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the school or accrediting the school, in emergency situations to individuals who need the
information to help the student, upon being served with a subpoena. These rights transfer to the
student once the student turns eighteen, unless a court has ordered otherwise.
If a student tells a teacher something that is private, does the teacher have to report what the
student tells her?
Under the Code of Professional Ethics for Educators that all teachers must follow, teachers must
keep confidential any information they have about a student unless the student is in danger.
This means that if a student tells a teacher something that might be private but is not dangerous
to the student, the teacher is not allowed to say anything to anyone else about it. But, if
information is disclosed to a teacher that the student is being hurt or is scared of someone, the
teacher may be required to tell someone else about it so that the student can get help to get out
of the dangerous situation. A teacher must report any suspected dependency, neglect or abuse.
For example, if a student tells a teacher she is being abused, it must be reported.
What must a counselor report?
Counselors and principals have to follow the same rules as teachers. If a student tells them
something private that is not dangerous, they cannot tell anyone else. If the student tells them
about something that is dangerous, they have to tell someone else.