Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
net/publication/258327515
CITATIONS READS
16 3,571
3 authors, including:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Pedro Bertemes-Filho on 04 June 2014.
Received July 24, 2013; revised August 24, 2013; accepted August 31, 2013
Copyright © 2013 Pedro Bertemes-Filho et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
ABSTRACT
Howland circuits have been widely used as powerful source for exciting tissue over a wide frequency range. When a
Howland source is designed, the components are chosen so that the designed source has the desired characteristics.
However, the operational amplifier limitations and resistor tolerances cause undesired behaviors. This work proposes to
take into account the influence of the random distribution of the resistors in the modified Howland circuit over the fre-
quency range of 10 Hz to 10 MHz. Both output current and impedance of the circuit are deduced either considering or
the operational amplifiers parameters. The probability density function due to small changes in the resistors of the cir-
cuit was calculated by using the analytical modeling. Results showed that both output current and impedance are very
sensitive to the resistors variations. In order to get higher output impedances, high operational amplifier gains are re-
quired. The operational amplifier open-loop gain increases as increasing the sensitivity of the output impedance. The
analysis done in this work can be used as a powerful co-adjuvant tool when projecting this type of circuit in Spice
simulators. This might improve the implementations of practical current sources used in electrical bioimpedance.
Keywords: Howland Current Source; Electrical Bioimpedance; Probability Density Function; Resistors Mismatching
Open Access CS
452 P. BERTEMES-FILHO ET AL.
V3 Vout V1 Vout
I out (4)
R4 R5
Ao
A A j (5)
1 j co
where Ao and ωco are the open-loop gain modulus at zero
frequency and the open-loop gain corner frequency, res-
pectively.
1
Z in j (6)
1 Rin jCin
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the current source with
grounded load [17], where Vd is the differential voltage ac- where Rin and Cin are both input resistance and capaci-
ross the input terminals. tance of the opamp, respectively.
The Norton theorem can be applied to the circuit
shown in Figure 1 then the shunt impedance ZN of the
2. Howland Current Source circuit can be calculated by Equation (7) and the trans-
conductance gain GN can be calculated by Equation (8).
Figure 1 shows the modified Howland current source
(HCS) circuit used for modeling the output characteris- Z N I out Vout V (7)
in 0
tics taking into account the effects of the resistors toler-
ances. If all resistors are perfectly matched and the op- GN I out Vin V (8)
out 0
erational amplifier (opamp) has got a large gain, then the
output current is given by –Vin/r (assuming R2 = R3 = R5 3. Probability Distribution Function
= R, R4 = r and R1 = R + r). This approximation yields a
good result if the Opamp gain is sufficiently high and the The probability distribution functions (PDF) of the
load impedance is small. source parameters are calculated by classifying and
In order to get good Common Mode Rejection Ratio counting the elements falling in each class. It is expected
(CMRR) and high output impedance it is necessary to that any combination of resistors of ±1% tolerance (δ)
trim the resistors and choose FET inputs amplifiers. On may produce either significant reduction in the output
the other hand, the non-ideal characteristics of the opera- impedance or a large variation in the transconductance
tional amplifiers (i.e., input impedance Zin, output resis- gain (Iout/Vin).
tance Ro and open-loop gain A) reduce frequency band- The box below shows the pseudo-code program de-
width of both output current and impedance. veloped in a very high level for the determination of some
statistics of the circuit, which was projected by using re-
sistors whose values distribution are known.
2.1. Circuit Nodal Equations
The circuit can be characterized by the nodal Equations Begin
(1)-(4), where V1 is the voltage at non-inverting input of H = empty list
the Opamp, V2 is the inverting input of the Opamp and V3 for the desired number of samples
is the voltage at the output of the Opamp. After deter- - R1 = random resistor(R + r, tolerance of R1)
mining the voltages the output current is calculated by - R2 = random resistor(R, tolerance of R2)
Equation (4). The transconductance gain is calculated by - R3 = random resistor(R, tolerance of R3)
Iout/Vin with Vout grounded. On the other hand, the output - R4 = random resistor(r, tolerance of R4)
impedance Zout is calculated by Iout/Vout with Vin groun- - R5 = random resistor(R, tolerance of R5)
ded. - H.append(Howland Circuit(R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, selected OPA))
repeat
V1 Vout V1 V1 V2
0 (1) Estimate Zout distribution of H[]
R5 R1 Z in Estimate Iout distribution of H[]
V2 Vin V2 V1 V2 V3 Calculate other parameters of H[]
0 (2) End
R2 Z in R3
This program was implemented in R scripting lan-
V3 V2 V3 Vout V3 V1 V2 A
0 (3) guage, which is a language and environment for statisti-
R3 R4 Ro cal computing and graphics. In this work the resistors
Open Access CS
P. BERTEMES-FILHO ET AL. 453
were distributed uniformly by using the run if R function, 4. Output Impedance Modeling
and the estimation of probability density functions was
made with the density R function. More detailed infor-
4.1. Model 1: Infinite Open-Loop Gain
mation can be seen in the link http://www.r-project.org. By solving Equation (4) and consider a suficiently high
A Howland current source is designed by using R = open-loop gain A, the output impedance can be briefly
100 kΩ, r = 1 kΩ and it is assumed that each resistor has calculated by Equation (9)
a tolerance δ of ±1% with no correlation to each other.
R2 R4 R5 R1 R2 R4
It was investigated the effect of the tolerance of the re- Z out (9)
sistors in the transconductance gain when designing a
A
R2 R5 R2 R4 R1 R3
Howland current source, Equation (4) was used by as- It can be seen in Equation (9) that the relative error of
suming a tolerance of ±1% for each discrete frequency the numerator is approximately theree times larger than
over the range 10 Hz to 1 MHz. It was used the opera- the resistor tolerances. The denominator of the equation
tional amplifier OPA655 from Texas Instruments, where would be zero if the resistors were perfectly matched.
the technical specifications are shown in Table 1. Therefore, the output would be very dependent on their
The result is shown in Figure 2, where the probability values. By assuming equal tolerances for all resistors
density is represented by a gray scale. The white points with a fraction nominal value of each resitor, and also
represent the values where the transconductance might using an operational amplifier with high open-loop gain
not be achieved at that frequency. It can also be seen that A, the minimum ouput impedance can be calculated by
the frequency dependency mater is much more relevant Equation (10).
than the tolerance of the resistors.
rR
The transconductance gain GN can be approximately Z out,min (10)
calculated by the ratio –R3/(R2R4), thus if the tolerance of 2 R r
the resistors are equal to δ, the tolerance of the transcon-
where R = R2 = R3 = R5, r = R4 and R + r = R1.
ductance gain will have a tolerance of approximately 3δ.
It can be seen in Equation (10) that if R is much
It implies that the use of a wideband operational ampli-
greater than r and assuming equal tolerances for all resis-
fier will produce a very stable transconductance gain. On
tors, then variations on the resistor R4 (=r) become much
the other hand, the output impedance Zout will be signifi-
less signicant for the output impedance compared to the
cantly changed by the tolerance of the resistors.
variations on other resistors.
Open Access CS
454 P. BERTEMES-FILHO ET AL.
R2 R5 R4 R1 R3 Re a0 A 0 (17)
By considering negligible variations in the denomina-
tor of Equation (12) and also assuming only real values
for the coefficient a0 (see Equation 13), the Zout phase can
be given by “θ(a1 + a0/A)” and the modulus by “rR(2R
+ r)/|a1 + a0|”. The term “a1 + a0/A” represents a hori-
zontal line in the complex plane, so that the product be-
tween “|a1 + a0/A|” and “sin[θ(a1 + a0/A)]” is always con-
stant. Therefore, Zout can be approximated by a circum-
ference of radius |Zout,max|/2 according to Equation (18).
Z out Z out,max sin Z out (18)
Open Access CS
P. BERTEMES-FILHO ET AL. 455
Figure 4. The real and imaginary part of the output impedance by using resistor tolerance of 0.1%.
Figure 5. Changes in the output impedance at 10 kHz by using different resistor tolerances.
Open Access CS
456 P. BERTEMES-FILHO ET AL.
6. Discussions
6.1. Output Impedance
It is predicted by Equation (12) that if the open-loop gain
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the mirrored modified
A is large, then it is very difficult to set the output im-
Howland current source.
pedance to its optimal value. It was showed that as de-
creasing the gain A the size of the impedance circle is
also decreased and then the region away from the origin
become more statistically populated, as shown in Figure
3.
Researches have been using the differential (mirrored)
output current sources for getting a more stable circuit
and higher output impedance. The output impedance of
this type of current source can be calculated by sum of
the output impedances from both single-ended circuits
(i.e. ZN1 + ZN2). It is thought having only advantage rea-
sons for doing that but it also suffers from high
open-loop gain of the operational amplifiers. The real
part of Zout can be either positive or negative and its
imaginary part very small, then leading to a differential
Figure 7. Equivalent Norton circuit for the mirrored modi- Zout even smaller than the single-ended output imped-
fied Howland current source. ances.
Open Access CS
P. BERTEMES-FILHO ET AL. 457
6.2. Operational Amplifier Limitations output of the Howland current source have not consid-
ered any stray capacitances which might be found in
As discussed before, from (22) it can be seen that small
practical circuits. Also, the numerical solutions for both
current differences at each side of the mirrored current
output current and impedance of the circuit have not
source can increase the common mode voltage at the load
terminals. In order to preserve those differences in the considered the common-mode input impedance of the
output current, the operational amplifiers have to supply operational amplifiers, as well as the common-mode re-
the differential voltage as well as the common mode jection ratio (CMRR). It has to be pointed out that the
voltage. probability density function was used by assuming that
The output impedance of the current source must be the resistor variations behave as a normal distribution.
high otherwise the load current varies as varying the load Therefore, care should be taken when analyzing the re-
impedance. By designing a high output impedance cur- sults obtained in this work, especially when they are re-
rent source, the transconductance gains have to be pre- lated to practical circuits.
cisely matched for preventing the operational amplifiers
to work one against each other. This might be explained 7. Conclusions
by the fact that they are connected in series, and then It was fully described the modeling of both output cur-
both circuits are designed to reject any variation in its rent and impedance of the Howland current source by
output current. considering the operational amplifier parameters and the
mismatching between electrodes. It was shown that the
6.3. Tuning the Mirrored Current Source output resistance of the operational amplifier does not
Tuning the mirrored Howland current source is not a play a role in the output characteristic of the Howland
simple task as it has to be done in both side of the circuit circuit whereas the open-loop gain causes a great impact
at the same time. on it.
It was shown that the transconductance gain can be It was also shown that the higher the gain, the most
approximately given by the ratio between the resistor -R3 sensitive is the output impedance in respect to the resis-
and the product “R2R4”. Consequently, it can be inter- tors tolerances, as illustrated in Figures 4 and 5. In order
preted as a current gain, where instead of having an input to operate at high frequency, the open-loop gain of the
voltage it has an input current (=Vin/R2). As a result, both opamp has to be very high. This explain why the resistors
branches of the circuit which contains the resistors R2 have to be precisely matched in order to obtain a
(see Figure 6) should be connected in series in order to MMHCS circuit which can deliver a constant differential
prevent input current differences at each side of the cur- output current into the load over a wide frequency range.
rent source. Therefore, it can be used only one resistor R2 It can be concluded from this work that both side of
for both source sides. the MMHCS should be very symmetrical if high output
In order to have equal output characteristics at both
impedance from this type of circuit is desired. This is a
sides of the mirrored modified Howland current source,
very significant achievement found in this work for the
both sides have to have an equal ratio of R3/R4. This
design of high output impedance Howland current sources
might be solved by adding a potentiometer in series with
one of R4 for tuning the differential output current. In used in bioimpedance measurements. This may lead to
practice, this can be done by short-circuiting the output empirical distribution of important characteristics of the
and measuring the output voltage while tuning the poten- MMCHS during the design and it might save time and
tiometer to have a null output voltage. It might be neces- money when this type of circuit is put in production scale.
sary to connect a resistor at each side of the short-circuit Furthermore, the error estimation provided here can
in order to prevent saturation by the operational amplifi- guide researchers, who have no previous knowledge in
ers. Howland current source, to design a high quality circuit
By the fact that the resistor R4 has a very small influ- in terms of both output current and impedance spectra
ence in the output impedance, this last can be tuned by according to the application requirements.
varying either the resistor R5 or R1. The resistor R1 of
both sides can also be connected in series in order to re- 8. Acknowledgements
duce imbalances from these circuit sides, thus one of the
This work was supported by the State University of Santa
resistors R5 becomes the natural tuning element for con-
Catarina and the National Council for Scientific and
trolling the output impedance of the mirrored modified
Technological Development (grant 237931/2012-5).
Howland current source.
Open Access CS
458 P. BERTEMES-FILHO ET AL.
“Practical Considerations for the Use of a Howland Cur- 2003, pp. 3211-3214.
rent Source for Neuron-Stimulation,” Proceedings of the http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2003.1280826
IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference, Bal- [11] P. Åberg, I. Nicander, J. Hansson, P. Geladi, U. Holm-
timore, 20-22 November 2008, pp. 33-36. gren and S. Ollmar, “Skin Cancer Identification Using
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/BIOCAS.2008.4696867 Multifrequency Electrical Impedance-A Potential Screen-
[2] E. Basham, Z. Yang and W. Liu, “Circuit and Coil DE- ing Tool,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering,
SIGN for in-Vitro Magnetic Neural Stimulation Systems,” Vol. 51, No. 12, 2004, pp. 2097-2102.
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2004.836523
Vol. 3, No. 5, 2009, pp. 321-331. [12] D. H. Sheingold, “Impedance & Admittance Transforma-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TBCAS.2009.2024927 tions Using Operational Amplifiers,” Lightning Empiri-
[3] K. Sooksood, T. Stieglitz and M. Ortmanns, “An Active cist, Vol. 12, No. 1, 1964, pp. 1-8.
Approach for Charge Balancing in Functional Electrical http://www.philbrickar-
Stimulation,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits chive.org/1964-1_v12_no1_the_lightning_empiricist.htm
and Systems, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2010, pp. 162-170. [13] P. Bertemes-Filho, R. G. Lima, M. B. P. Amato and H.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TBCAS.2010.2040277 Tanaka, “Performance of an Adaptative Multiplexed Cur-
[4] D. X. Chen, X. Deng and W. Q. Yang, “Comparison of rent Source Used in Electrical Impedance Tomography,”
Three Current Sources for Single-Electrode Capacitance Proceeding of the 20th Brazilian Congress on Biomedical
Measurement,” Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 81, Engineering, São Pedro, 22-26 October 2006, pp. 1167-
No. 3, 2010, pp. 1-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3367879 1170.
[5] R. A. Pease, “A Comprehensive Study of the Howland [14] F. Seoane, R. Bragós and K. Lindecranz, “Current Source
Current Pump,” 2008. for Multifrequency Broadband Electrical Bioimpedance
http://www.ti.com/lit/an/snoa474a/snoa474a.pdf Spectroscopy Systems. A Novel Approach,” Proceedings
[6] J. Frounchi, F. Dehkhoda and M. H. Zarifi, “A Low-Dis- of the 28th Annual International Conference of the IEEE
tortion Wideband Integrated Current Source for Tomogra- Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, New York,
phy Applications,” European Journal of Scientific Research, 31 August-3 September 2006, pp. 5121-5125.
Vol. 27, No. 1, 2009, pp. 56-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2006.259566
[7] P. Bertemes-Filho, “Tissue Characterization Using an Im- [15] F Seoane, R Macías, R Bragos and K Lindecrantz, “Sim-
pedance Spectroscopy Probe,” Ph.D. Thesis, University ple Voltage-Controlled Current Source for Wideband Ele-
of Sheffield, Sheffield, 2002. ctrical Bioimpedance Spectroscopy: Circuit Dependences
and Limitations,” Measurement Science and Technology,
[8] S. Grimnes and O. G. Martinsen, “Bioimpedance and Bio- Vol. 22, No. 11, 2011, pp. 1-11.
electricity Basics,” 2nd Edition, Elsevier Ltd, Amster- http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/22/11/115801
dam, 2008.
[16] P. Bertemes-Filho, B. H. Brown and A. J. Wilson, “A
[9] A. Keshtkar, Z. Salehnia and B. Shokouhi, “Bladder Can- Comparison of Modified Howland Circuits as Current
cer Detection Using Electrical Impedance Technique (Ta- Generators with Current Mirror Type Circuits,” Physio-
briz Mark 1),” Pathology Research International, Vol. logical Measurement, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2000, pp. 1-6.
2012, 2012, pp. 1-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/21/1/301
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/470101
[17] P. Bertemes-Filho, L. H. Negri, A. Felipe and V. C. Vin-
[10] P. Aberg, I. Nicander and S. Ollmar, “Minimally Invasive cence, “Mirrored Modified Howland Circuit for Bioim-
Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy of Skin Exemplified pedance Applications: Analytical Analysis,” Journal of
by Skin Cancer Assessments,” Proceeding of the 25th An- Physics: Conference Series, Vol. 407, No. 1, 2012, pp. 1-
nual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/407/1/012030
Medicine and Biology Society, Cancun, 17-21 September
Open Access CS