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B.A 3rd 6th sem (SOCIOLOGY) Method of Social Research

Q.1 Discuss the importance of social research.

Ans.1 Social research is research conducted by social scientists and which follows by the systematic plan. Social research
methods can generally vary along a quantitative/qualitative dimension.[1]

 Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical
analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable
general claims. Related to quantity.
 Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication
with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual subjective accuracy over generality. Related to
quality.

While various methods may sometimes be classified as quantitative or qualitative, most methods contain elements of both.
For example, qualitative data analysis often involves a fairly structured approach to coding the raw data into systematic
information, and quantifying intercoder reliability.[2] Thus, a strong distinction between "qualitative" and "quantitative"
should really be seen as a somewhat more complex relationship, such that many methods may be both qualitative and
quantitative.

Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from census survey
data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agents' social experiences; from monitoring
what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods rooted in
classical sociology and statistics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media
studies, program evaluation and market research.

1. Identifying general patterns and relationships

Significant social phenomena may be significant because they are common or general; they affect many people, either
directly or indirectly. This quality of generality makes knowledge of such phenomena valuable. Thus, one of the major
goals of social research is to identify general patterns and relationships. In some corners, this objective is considered the
primary goal because social research that is directed toward this end resembles research in the hard sciences. This
resemblance gives social research more legitimacy, making it seem more like social physics and less like social
philosophy or political ideology.

2. Testing and Refining Theories

A primary goal of social research is to improve and expand the pool of ideas known as theories by testing their
implications and to refine their power to explain. Testing is carried by deriving hypotheses from theories and the
implications of these theories are then tested with data that bear directly on the hypotheses. Ideas and hypotheses that fail
to receive support gradually lose their appeal, while those that are supported more consistently gain greater stature in the
pool. Testing theories can also serve to refine them. By working through the implications of a theory and then testing this
refinement, it is possible to progressively improve and elaborate a set of ideas.

3. Making Predictions

While social researchers use theories to derive "predications" about what they expect to find in a set of data, they also use
accumulated social scientific knowledge to make predictions about the future. Consider the following example: Research
indicates that ethnic conflict tends to increase when the supply of economic rewards and resources decreases. Thus, a
social scientist would predict increased ethnic tension in an ethnically diverse country that has just experienced a serious
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economic downturn. Prediction is often considered the highest goal of science. We accumulate knowledge so that we can
anticipate things to come.

4. Interpreting Culturally or Historically Significant Phenomena

Knowledge of general patterns is not the only kind of valuable knowledge, however, especially when it comes to
understanding social life. In the social sciences, knowledge of specific situations and events, even if they are atypical is
also highly valued. The significance of most historical phenomena derives from their atypically, the fact that he are
dramatically non-routine, and form their impact on who we are today.

For example, many social researchers address important historical events like the French Revolution. We care about these
events and their interpretation because of the relevance of these events for understanding our current situation - how we
got to where we are. We are fascinated by the Israeli State-formation not because we expect it to be repeated, but because
of its powerful impact on current political structures and behavior.

Q.2 write easy on case study method.

Ans. The case-study method may be new to you. Experience has shown that case studies bring interesting, real-world
situations into the classroom study of agribusiness marketing, finance and management.

As you discuss cases with your fellow students, you will learn that decision making is often a confrontational activity
involving people with different points of view. Most important, you will learn how to work toward consensus while
tolerating legitimate differences of opinion.

Decision making is what managers do. The decisions of managers directly influence revenues, costs, and profits of an
agribusiness firm. If you are to be successful in an agribusiness career, you must learn to be a good decision maker. You
must develop the ability to apply classroom training in business and economics to agribusiness problem solving so that
you can learn how to (1) make decision making easier, (2) improve the analytical quality of decisions, (3) reduce the time
required to make decisions, and (4) increase the frequency of correct decisions.

The Seven Steps of Problem Analysis

Using an organized seven-stem approach in analyzing a case will make the entire process easier and can increase your
learning benefits.

1. Read the case thoroughly. To understand fully what is happening in a case, it is necessary to read the case
carefully and thoroughly. You may want to read the case rather quickly the first time to get an overview of the
industry, the company, the people, and the situation. Read the case again more slowly, making notes as you go.
2. Define the central issue. Many cases will involve several issues or problems. Identify the most important
problems and separate them from the more trivial issues. After identifying what appears to be a major underlying
issue, examine related problems in the functional areas (for example, marketing, finance, personnel, and so on).
Functional area problems may help you identify deep-rooted problems that are the responsibility of top
management.
3. Define the firm's goals. Inconsistencies between a firm's goals and its performance may further highlight the
problems discovered in step 2. At the very least, identifying the firm's goals will provide a guide for the remaining
analysis.
4. Identify the constraints to the problem. The constraints may limit the solutions available to the firm. Typical
constraints include limited finances, lack of additional production capacity, personnel limitations, strong
competitors, relationships with suppliers and customers, and so on. Constraints have to be considered when
suggesting a solution.
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5. Identify all the relevant alternatives. The list should all the relevant alternatives that could solve the problem(s)
that were identified in step 2. Use your creativity in coming up with alternative solutions. Even when solutions are
suggested in the case, you may be able to suggest better solutions.
6. Select the best alternative. Evaluate each alternative in light of the available information. If you have carefully
taken the proceeding five steps, a good solution to the case should be apparent. Resist the temptation to jump to
this step early in the case analysis. You will probably miss important facts, misunderstand the problem, or skip
what may be the best alternative solution. You will also need to explain the logic you used to choose one
alternative and reject the others.
7. Develop an implementation plan. The final step in the analysis is to develop a plan for effective implementation
of your decision. Lack of an implementation plan even for a very good decision can lead to disaster for a firm and
for you. Don't overlook this step. Your teacher will surely ask you or someone in the class to explain how to
implement the decision.

The Report

The course instructor may require a written or an oral report describing your solution to the case. The high quality of your
analysis or the brilliance of your insights will do you little good if your solution is not expressed clearly. The teacher is
more likely to accept your solution even if he or she does not agree with it, if you are able to identify the issues, explain
the analysis and logic that led you to choose a particular alternative, and lay out a good plan for implementing the
decision.

Written Reports

You probably will be asked to write reports for at least some cases. The following guidelines will help you write an
effective case analysis. First, in business communications a short report is usually considered better than a long report.
This does not mean that in your report you can skip key points, but rather that you state relevant points clearly and
concisely. Do not include trivial matters.

Second, the report should be well written. It should be typed and not contain spelling or grammatical errors. The report
you hand in for class should be equivalent in quality to a report you would write for your boss, a senior manager of an
agribusiness company. In the early years of your career, particularly in a large firm, you are likely to become known for
the quality of your written reports.

1. Description of the case situation. Present a brief overview of the situation in the case. Sometimes a teacher will
ask a student to start off the classroom discussion with this overview.
2. Problem statement. Describe the major issue(s) or problem(s) in the case.
3. Analysis of the key alternatives. Present the results of your analysis of relevant alternatives in a concise manner.
Depending on the type of analysis, this is sometimes called "running the numbers."
4. Conclusion. Briefly describe the logic that led you to choose the alternative. Summarize why the other
alternatives were not chosen.
5. Implementation. Present your implementation plan.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis of case studies may be among the most challenging assignments given to a student. Cases are not just "busy
work" given to fill up a student's time. Approached properly, case analysis can be extremely beneficial in preparing you
for a career in agribusiness management by giving you a chance to develop decision-making skills in the classroom so that
you will be better prepared to meet the challenges of your after-graduation job.

Q.3 explain major steps of Interview.

Ans. 5 Steps of Interview Preparation

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1. Analyze the Job Description

Print out the job description, grab a highlighter, and identify the key duties and responsibilities related to the position. Try
to identify the parts that will be most important to the position.

2. Clarify Your Strengths and Values

Take some time to identify what skills, attributes, experiences, and strengths you possess that are relevant to the position.
Start to put them into words and create a list for yourself that you can reference later.

3. Research the Employer

Soak up as much information as you can about the organization. Become familiar with their history, mission, and culture
as well as their products/services, competitors, geographic locations, etc, etc. It's also helpful to be knowledgeable about
industry trends, recent press releases and any awards or recognition the organization has received. This information can
be obtained in the following ways:

4. Anticipate Questions and Prepare Answers Ahead of Time

The idea here is to try to do as much thinking ahead of your interview as possible, rather than having to come up with
answers on the spot. Don't memorize your answers word-for-word, instead identify the core components of your answer.
You can then work these core components into your answers giving them a natural, spontaneous tone.

Part 1: Grab a list of basic interview questions and start working out your responses. How would you respond to "Tell me
about yourself?" or "What are your greatest strengths?" You can craft your answers based on your analysis of the job
description to ensure your answers will be a match.

Part 2: Work out your responses to more advanced questions like behavioral interview questions. Perhaps choose some
questions that you really hope you don't get. This will help you feel more confident going in.

5. Prepare Questions for the Employer

At the end of the interview it's common for the interviewer to ask "Do you have any questions for me?" The worst
possible answer to this question is "No." This is also not the time to ask questions about compensation or benefits, save
those for after you are offered the position.

This is the time to ask questions to learn more about organization, department culture, management style, or you can show
off some the knowledge you gained in researching the employer by asking question related to what you learned:

Example: "I understand your company is planning to expand to the East Coast over the next few years. What role will the
marketing department play in helping to accomplish that?"

Q.4 Write a note on content analysis method.

Ans. Content analysis is "a wide and heterogeneous set of manual or computer-assisted techniques for contextualized
interpretations of documents produced by communication processes strictiore sensu (any kind of text, written, iconic,
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multimedia, etc.) or signification processes (traces and artifacts), having as ultimate goal the production of valid and
trustworthy inferences."[1]

Though the locution "content analysis" has come to be a sort of "umbrella term" referring to an almost boundless set of
quite diverse research approaches and techniques, it is still today in use in the Social and Computer Science Domains and
in the Humanities to identify methods for studying and/or retrieving meaningful information from documents.[1] In a more
focused way, "content analysis" refers to a family of techniques oriented to the study of "mute evidence", that are texts
and artifacts.[2] Texts come from communication processes strictiore sensu (i.e. types of communication intentionally
activated by a sender, using a code sufficiently shared with the receiver). There are 4 types of texts in content analysis: 1.
written t. (books, papers, etc.), 2. oral t. (speech, theatre plays, etc.), 3. iconic t. (drawings, paintings, icons, etc), 3. audio-
visual t. (tv programs, movies, videos, etc.), 4. hypertexts (can be one or more of the texts above, on the Internet).

On the other side, Content Analysis can also study traces (documents from past times) and artifacts (non linguistic
documents), which come from communication processes "latiore sensu" - commonly referred to as "signification" in
Semiotics (absence of an intentional sender, semiosis is developed by abduction).[1]

Despite the wide variety of options, generally speaking every "content analysis" method implies «a series of
transformation procedures, equipped with a different degree of formalisation depending on the type of technique used, but
which share the scientific re-elaboration of the object examined. This means, in short, guaranteeing the repeatability of the
method, i.e.: that pre-set itinerary which, following pre-established procedures (techniques), has led to those results. This
path changes consistently depending on the direction imprinted by the interpretative key of the researcher who, at the end
of the day, is responsible for the operational decisions made». [3]

Over the years, content analysis has been applied to a variety of scopes. Hermeneutics and Philology have been using
content analysis since the dawn of time to interpret sacred and profane texts and, in not a few cases, to attribuite texts'
authorship and authenticity.[1][4]

In recent times, particularly with the advent of mass communication, content analysis has known an increasing use to
deeply analyse and understand media content and media logic. The political scientist Harold Lasswell formulated the core
questions of content analysis in its early-mid 19th-century mainstream version: "Who says what, to whom, why, to what
extent and with what effect?".[5] The strong emphasis for a quantitative approach started up by Lasswell was finally
carried out by another "father" of content analysis, Bernard Berelson, who proposed a definition of content analysis
which, from this point of view, is emblematic: «a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative
description of the manifest content of communication».[6] This was the product of a positivist epistemological context
which is quite close the naïve realism that has long since become obsolete.[1] Approaches of this type are rising again due
to the tremendous fertility of the most recent technologies and application within mass and personal communications.
Content analysis has indeed come across huge amount of textual big data as a consequence of the recent spread of new
media, particularly social media and mobile devices. Threats are represented by the fact that the complexity of the process
of semiosis is not rarely underestimated and made banal whenever statistics is uncritically applied to large amount of
analogic-native data. In such a case, the main problem stems from a naive use of measures and numbers as an always
valid certificate of "objectivity" and "systematicity", though moving from the sharable principle to contain bad, offhand
evidence-detached analyses spoiled by the «human tendency to read textual material selectively, in support of
expectations rather than against them».[1][4]

Q.5 Write short notes on any two of the following:

Ans.(ii)Use of computer :

Education :

Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information to make sense. College students spend
an average of 5-6 hours a week on the internet.Research shows that computers can significantly enhance performance in
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learning. Students exposed to the internet say they think the web has helped them improve the quality of their academic
research and of their written work. One revolution in education is the advent of distance learning. This offers a variety of
internet and video-based online courses.

Health and Medicine :

Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical information can now be digitized. Software
is now able to computer the risk of a disease. Mental health researchers are using computers to screen troubled teenagers
in need of psychotherapy. A patient paralyzed by a stroke has received an implant that allows communication between his
brain and a computer; as a result, he can move a cursor across a screen by brainpower and convey simple messages.

Science :

Scientists have long been users of it. A new adventure among scientists is the idea of a “collaboratory”, an internet based
collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over the world can work easily together even at a distance. An example
is space physics where space physicists are allowed to band together to measure the earth’s ionosphere from instruments
on four parts of the world.

Business :

Business clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness. Some areas of business that are
undergoing rapid changes are sales and marketing, retailing, banking, stock trading, etc. Sales representatives not only
need to be better educated and more knowledgeable about their customer’s businesses, but also must be comfortable with
computer technology. The internet has become a popular marketing tool. The world of cybercash has come to banking –
not only smart cards but internet banking, electronic deposit, bill paying, online stock and bond trading, etc.

Recreation and Entertainment:

Our entertainment and pleasure-time have also been affected by computerization. For example:

i) In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so that special effects and even imaginary characters
can play a part in making movies, videos, and commercials.

ii) In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets for athletes, and suggest game
plan strategies based on the competitor’s past performance.

iii) In restaurants, almost every one has eaten food where the clerk enters an order by indicating choices on a rather
unusual looking cash register; the device directly enters the actual data into a computer, and calculates the cost and then
prints a receipt.

Government:

Various departments of the Government use computer for their planning, control and law enforcement activities. To name
a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting, Education, Aviation and many others.

Defence:

There are many uses computers in Defence such as:

1) Controlling UAV or unmanned air-crafts an example is Predator. If you have cable I would recommend watching the
shows “Future Weapons" and “Modern Marvels". The show future weapon gives an entire hour to the predator.
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2) They are also used on Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that uses GPS and Computers to help the missile get
to the target.

3) Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the incoming target to destroy
them.

4) Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational Awareness) and in
Communications/Battle Management Systems.

5) Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of getting equipments to and around the battlefield.

6) Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run the platform and more recently to
help diagnose any problems with the platforms.

7) Computers help design and test new systems.

Sports:

In today's technologically growing society, computers are being used in nearly every activity.

Recording Information

Official statistics keepers and some scouts use computers to record statistics, take notes and chat online while attending
and working at a sports event.

(ii) co-Relation:

DefinitionAdd to FlashcardsSave to FavoritesSee Examples

Degree and type of relationship between any two or more quantities (variables) in which they vary together over a period;
for example, variation in the level of expenditure or savings with variation in the level of income. A positive correlation
exists where the high values of one variable are associated with the high values of the other variable(s). A 'negative
correlation' means association of high values of one with the low values of the other(s). Correlation can vary from +1 to -
1. Values close to +1 indicate a high-degree of positive correlation, and values close to -1 indicate a high degree of
negative correlation. Values close to zero indicate poor correlation of either kind, and 0 indicates no correlation at all.
While correlation is useful in discovering possible connections between variables, it does not prove or disprove any cause-
and-effect (causal) relationships between them. See also regression

In statistics, dependence is any statistical relationship between two random variables or two sets of data. Correlation
refers to any of a broad class of statistical relationships involving dependence.

Familiar examples of dependent phenomena include the correlation between the physical statures of parents and their
offspring, and the correlation between the demand for a product and its price. Correlations are useful because they can
indicate a predictive relationship that can be exploited in practice. For example, an electrical utility may produce less
power on a mild day based on the correlation between electricity demand and weather. In this example there is a causal
relationship, because extreme weather causes people to use more electricity for heating or cooling; however, statistical
dependence is not sufficient to demonstrate the presence of such a causal relationship (i.e., correlation does not imply
causation).

Formally, dependence refers to any situation in which random variables do not satisfy a mathematical condition of
probabilistic independence. In loose usage, correlation can refer to any departure of two or more random variables from
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independence, but technically it refers to any of several more specialized types of relationship between mean values.
There are several correlation coefficients, often denoted ρ or r, measuring the degree of correlation. The most common
of these is the Pearson correlation coefficient, which is sensitive only to a linear relationship between two variables
(which may exist even if one is a nonlinear function of the other). Other correlation coefficients have been developed to
be more robust than the Pearson correlation – that is, more sensitive to nonlinear relationships.[1][2][3] Mutual information
can also be applied to measure dependence between two variables.