THE RISE AND SPREAD OF ISLAM IN

INDIAN SUBCONTINENT (711-1526 A.D.)

Introduction:

The Indians came to know Islam through the Arabs and the Turks is a very important matter
of discussion in social science. The historical relation between Arab peninsula and India
(Bangladesh, India and Pakistan) started long before the rise of Islam. When Islam came in
the Arab peninsula, its relations got a new dimension. Muslim, whoever or whatever his/her
profession, would involve in preaching Islam generally. Islam came to India by the Arab
traders first in the southern parts of India. Then Turks came to India to spread Islam in the
middle of the 10th century. Then, the continuous and increasing presence of the religious
preachers and teachers with the establishment of political authority made them important
personalities in the society. Their efforts in spreading Islam based on some principles of
tolerance, equality, justice, mutual respect rather than garrison, made the Islamization swiftly.

Rationale:

We have chosen “The Rise and Spread of Islam in Indian Subcontinent (711-1526)” as the
topic of our seminar presentation. We have reviewed books and journals of different
prominent writers to collect information about the selected topic.
We got introduced about the history of this subcontinent as we studied a course in first year
second semester entitled as “Bangladesh History, Society and Culture”. We have chosen this
topic to show how Islam got introduced to the Indian Subcontinent even though it was totally
a non-muslim region. Before the advent of Islam in this subcontinent the socio-cultural and
political condition was different. This concept interests us that how and why a region full of
non-muslim people chose a totally different religion that is Islam.

In our presentation we focused on the time frame from 711-1526 A.D. because at this period
of time Islam was introduced and spread in this subcontinent. As our motive is to show the
advent of Islam, we discussed about the preaching of Islam by the Arabs and Turks. We
discussed about the socio-political and cultural condition of both pre and post Islamic period
to know about the changes which had happened after the arrival of Islam in this subcontinent.
Our main focus is to show the ways of the rise and spread of Islam in Indian subcontinent.

Socio Political and Cultural Condition in Pre-Islamic Periods:

In the pre Islamic period Hinduism was the religion of the people of both the north and south
India. Worship of Hindu gods and the religious verses in the local language were provoked
among the masses. Sanskrit established its influence and Kanchi became the seat of Sanskrit
learning in the South and as sacred a place as Kashi of the North. This introduced a new
common civilization which was Indian with common language and script, common systems
of worship and common social outlook. The construction of gorgeous temples, sculptures and

Page 1 of 10
paintings of the time revitalized the religious thoughts too (Sen, 1988).
After the death of Harsha, the North India broke down into different small empires and the
political leadership was passed to the Rajputs who were an upper class of former princes,
feudal or army officials of the foreign races like Sakas, the Pahlavas and the Huns. The
Rajputs claimed that they were the descent of old Hindu gods Surya, Chandra and Agni etc.
All this clan clashes and religious rivalry opened the path for Muslim invaders to enter the
region (Sen, 1988).

In the pre Islamic period, different gods of the Indian got faces and were portrayed with
religious passion by acquiring new strength and attributes. The practice of dancing at temples
as part of the daily worship developed in the early years of the history and the women, who
dedicated their lives to the Lords of the temples and dance as a ritual of the temples, are
called “Devadasis” (Swarup, 1968). The Bhakti form of worship gave revival to Indian Music
in which the worship by prayers and by songs was stressed which were the sign of real
devotion to the gods (Swarup, 1968).

The emperors of these small dynasties were all the time fighting with each other and gave no
importance to the mutual national outlook and this resulted into drastic changes in the social
as well as religious sphere of the region. The Buddhism merged into Hinduism and Jainism
withdrew into the background. The spirits of sectarianism rise among the different clans and
the rulers to get support of the religious leaders and to win the hearts of the masses, spent
lavishly on temples and religious rituals. The religious texts were written down and all people
have to adhere to it in their daily life. The artists and artisans were also under the full control
of the scholastic theoreticians who even prescribed the smallest details of their work (Sen,
1988).
There were cast systems among the people and it caused social stratification. This system of
social stratification weakened the social and political condition as the people were not
satisfied with their condition. The suppression of the powerful over the weak was massive at
that time.

The Early History of Islam in the Subcontinent:

Trade relations have existed between Arabia and the Indian subcontinent from ancient times.
Even in the pre-Islamic era, Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region, which linked them
with the ports of South East Asia. Newly Islamised Arabs were Islam‟s first contact with
India. According to Historians Elliot and Dowson in their book “The History of India as told
by its own Historians”, the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast
as early as 630 AD. H.G. Rawlinson, in his book: “Ancient and Medieval History of India”
claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century
AD. Shaykh Zainuddin Makhdum‟s “Tuhfat al-Mujahidin” is also a reliable work.

Pre-Islamic India was entirely based on a caste system in which society was broken into
separate parts, conversion to Islam happened in a step-by-step process. Often, entire castes
would convert to Islam at a time. This would happen for many different reasons. Often,
however, the equality Islam provided was more attractive than the caste system‟s organized

Page 2 of 10
racism. In the caste system, who you are born to determines your position in society. There
was no opportunity for social mobility or to achieve greater than what your parents achieved.
By converting to Islam, people had the opportunity to move up in society, and no longer were
subservient to the Brahman caste.
Arab Role of Arrival of Islam in the Subcontinent:
The Arabs first introduced Islam to the Indian subcontinent. After the advent of Islam in
Mecca it started spreading over different regions. India was among of the regions which came
to know with Islam in the first phase of 8th century. During Omar (R), the 2nd Caliph of
Islam, the first expedition was sent to the region but its target met the goal when Muhammad
bin Qasim captured the Sindh. This event can be regarded as the first step of the
establishment of Muslim Rule in India.

The First Step by Arabian Seafarers:

Inter sea trades was very significant for the Arabs. There was a threat from Indian pirates to
the Arab commerce which led the newly appointed governor to send expedition to protect sea
routes. A prohibition on the expeditions got relaxed after the death of Omar (R.). In 643-44
AD Abdullah bin Amar bin Rabi invaded Kirman and took the control of the capital
compelling the ruler to sue for peace. Then marched towards Sistan and Mekran but khalifa
stood on his way and forbade all further progress. With the permission of Ali (R.) principal
town of Baluchistan was occupied though it was for a short period of time. During the stable
reign of the Umayyad Caliph Mu„awiya ibn Abi Sufyan and his successor, four expeditions
were sent, one after another from 664 to 670, to subdue the region of Baluchistan (known to
the Arabs at that time as Makran), were not successful. Eventually, Sinan ibn Salman al-
Hudhali succeeded in conquering eastern Makran and established himself there in around
670-672. From that time it became a territory of the Umayyad Caliphate. In 697 al-Hajjaj, the
powerful viceroy of Iraq and the eastern part of the Caliphate, appointed Said ibn Aslam al-
Kilabi as the governor of Makran. But the governor was killed by two Arab rebels known as
the Ilafi brothers. One was killed but another took shelter to Dahir, the king in Sindh in Aror.
This event marked the turning point in the history of this region. Al-Hajjaj repeated appeals
to Dahir asking the insurgents to the Caliphate but appeals were refused.

Subsequently, in approximately 709 CE some Muslim men and women with eight vessels full
of valuable presents gifted by King of Ceylon to the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid were
plundered by pirates of Debal while returning to Iraq. This act of piracy angered Al-Hajjaj
and Caliph as well. Al-Hajjaj asked them returned but again refused. Two military
expeditions were sent but failed.

It was at this point that the historic Arab invasion of Sind took place under the commander of
Muhammad bin Qasim ath-Thaqafi with a better organized and equipped than previous‟. He
succeeded on Debal and the fortified city fell to him in October 711. And within some two
and half years it resulted in the fall of the vast kingdom of Sind. Bin Qasim continued to take
control over major city of Brahmanabad, ancient city of Multan and extended up to the
borders of the kingdom of Kashmir, the farthest frontier of Dahir‟s kingdom in north. He was
forwarding for the Kannauj but was recalled by the new Caliph and the expedition was
abandoned. And the Muslim conquest delayed for three centuries in the northern India.

Page 3 of 10
The conquest of Sind opened the way for the spread of Islam in the western part of Indian
subcontinent.

The Conquest of Baluchistan and Sindh:

In the year 711 the historic Arab invasion of Sind took place under the commander of
Muhammad bin Qasim ath-Thaqafi. He succeeded on Debal and the fortified city fell to him
in October 711. And within some two and half years it resulted in the fall of the vast kingdom
of Sind. Bin Qasim continued to take control over major city of Brahmanabad, ancient city of
Multan and extended up to the borders of the kingdom of Kashmir, the farthest frontier of
Dahir‟s kingdom in north. He was forwarding for the Kannauj but was recalled by the new
Caliph and the expedition was abandoned. And the Muslim conquest delayed for three
centuries in the northern India.

The conquest of Sind opened the way for the advent of Islam in the western part of Indian
subcontinent. The young and wise commander Muhammad bin Qasim was also a dedicated
and enthusiastic Muslim but not fanatical. His principles helped to spread Islam very swiftly.
Even it is astonishing that he advanced towards Brahmanabad, Aror and Multan with 50,000
cavalry whereas he came from Sind with only 17000 men and many of these were killed
during the numerous battles. It indicates he conquered the heart of the locals too. Some
examples like described by Sayyid Rizwan Ali Nadwi.

A man named Gela the jailor of the Debal was the first to embrace Islam at the hand of bin
Qasim naming „Mawla Islam‟. He learnt Arabic and Islam by the Arab prisoners and
impressed more.At the time of Muhammad bin Qasim‟s siege of Sistan, a spy from the
Channa tribe of Sind was sent to the Muslims. He saw them offering their prayers led by their
generals with humility and discipline. When he reported it to the chief of his tribe, the whole
tribe accepted Islam. General amnesty several influential personalities accepted Islam and
contributed in Muslim administration. Such as, Sayakar,chief minister of Dahir. After the
conquest of Brahmanabad, he stayed there short time in order to organize the territory. He
settled 300 Arab workers with some Arab chiefs in that region. The people may have inspired
by them and they accepted Islam. It is recorded that in every conquered city like Debal,
Nerun, Aror and Multan, the Muslim built Mosques rather than garrison. And the Muslim
soldiers frequent prayers made the local people amazed and optimistic and they accepted
Islam. It must be remembered no forcible conversion to Islam among the people of Sind has
ever been reported even by non-Muslim historians. Since Islam offered equal rights, a good
number of them preferred to embrace Islam. The Muslim rule in Sind continued through
Umayyads, Abbasids and so on with the more or less same principles.

Advent of Islam in the South:

The first companion of the prophet came in the southern cost of Bengal, Chittagong in 62618.
As the Muslim came in Chittagong, they came in the south of India first. Ali bin Uthman
reached at Malabar in 782 according to the inscription of a tomb and within hundred years
they established themselves on the Malabar cost. According to Tara Chand, „Naturally, the
minds of the people were perturbed and they were prone to accept new ideas from whatever

Page 4 of 10
quarter they came. Islam appeared upon the scene with a simple formula of faith, well-
defined dogmas and rites, and democratic theories of social organization. It produced a
tremendous effect, and, before the first quarter of the ninth century was over, the last of the
Cheraman Perumal Kings of Malabar who reigned at Kodungallur had become a convert to
the new religion.‟ (TaraChand, 1979, p. 32)

The king was named as Abdur Rahman. Performing Pilgrimage he felt ill while he was in
Yemen and died there. He sent from there Malik bin Dinar, Sharf bin Malik, Malik bin Habit
and their family to Malabar with a letter of instructions regarding the government of his
dominions and the reception of the Muslims. They were treated hospitably and were
permitted to build mosques. As a consequence mosques were erected at eleven places on the
Malabar Coast.

From the time Islam became an emerging religion of the regions. A good number of
influential personalities accepted Islam and their acceptance of Islam influenced the general
people obviously. The impact of the spread of Islam in the south by the Arab traders and
Sufis can still be seen on the west and east costs of India. Thus, in the states of Kerala,
Karnataka and Madras, Muslims are prosperous and they live in peace and security.

Islam in Chittagong:

Islam reaches in Bengal at the early time of the advent of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. It is
well known that there was a business relation between Indians and Arabians with a contact of
Malay and Chinese. According to the description of Muhaddis Imam Abadan Marawaji some
of companions of Prophet (PBUH) reaced Canton 7th years (617) of Nabuwat. Abu wakkas
Malik bin Wahaib (R) with Kais bin Hujaifa (R) , Urwah bin Achacha (R) , Abu kais bin
Haris (R) and other Habshi Muslims were in the group. And according to the Chinese
documents, Abu wakkas Malik bin Wahaib (R) with others Muslims reached in China in
62623. As Chittagong was the famous and strategic port in the region for the business, the
presence of Arabians were common there at that time. As in 626, the companions of Prophet
(PBUH) came in the region first, definitely they were involved in spreading Islam24. Later on
war between Muslims and local leaders indicates to the strength and the growing position of
the Muslim.

Arab and Rajput (711-1000 A.D.):

The Arab Muslims entered India in 711, the same year their religious compatriots in the West
entered Spain. They conquered the area known as Sind in the Indus River valley (modern
Pakistan). It is hard to imagine two religions and civilizations so different in their outlooks as
Islam and Hinduism. Whereas Islam saw all people as equal before God, India‟s rigid caste
system presented a highly stratified social structure sanctioned by religion. On the other hand,
while Hinduism was incredibly tolerant of a multitude of gods, Islam was strictly
monotheistic. For better or worse, the two cultures have co-existed, though not always

Page 5 of 10
peacefully, since the Arabs arrived until the present day. Arab expansion was stopped by
various feudal Indian princes known as the Rajputs who themselves may have been
descended from invading Huns two centuries earlier. While theoretically loyal to a king, they
functioned as virtually independent rulers. As trade increased, so did competition for the
control of that trade. As a result, the Rajputs often spent as much time fighting each other as
they did resisting foreign invaders. Their warfare was highly ritualized and regulated by an
elaborate code of behavior, much like the codes of chivalry and Buhsido regulated the
fighting of elite nobles in medieval Europe and Japan. Our modern game of chess, originating
in India, reflects this ceremonial way of fighting wars (Singh, Y.P., 2015). Unfortunately for
the Rajputs, this also kept them from adapting to changes in warfare and hampering the
Muslim advance across Northern India.

Arab rule was fairly tolerant of Hinduism. They even preserved the temple of a Hindu sun
god in Multan, (Singh, Y.P., 2015) which also prevented Hindu attacks on the city that might
damage this holy spot. Although the Arabs only conquered the northwestern part of India,
their tolerant rule won many converts to Islam in that region which remains Muslim to this
day. This provided a solid base for further Muslim expansion into India. Muhammad bin
Qasim promised security and religious freedom to all Hindus and Buddhists under his
control. For example, the Brahman caste continued their jobs as tax collectors and Buddhists
monks continued to maintain their monasteries.

Islamization and the Turks (1000-1526 A.D.):

Compared to the Arabs, Turkish raids into India were much more ruthless and
destructive. The first of these raiders, Mahmud of Ghazni, earned the title of "the Idol
Smasher" for the damage he did to Hindu Temples, while the ruler, Ala al-Din, similarly
came to be called "the World Burner." These raids and invasions especially hurt Buddhism,
as kings in East India were no longer able or willing to patronize Buddhist monasteries. This
led many Buddhists either to convert to Islam or flee to Tibet and Southeast Asia. As a
result, Buddhism virtually died out as a religion in India although its influence elsewhere
continued to spread. (Y.P. Singh, 2015, p.4)

The Turkic attacks began in the first half of the 11th century starting with Sabuktkin. The
process of the establishment of their kingdoms in the North and West of Hindustan started
from late 12th century. Mahmud of Gaznevi attacked India for 17 times though he did not
stay in the region but opened the door for the Muslims. Then the slave of Qutubuddin Aybek,
named Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji with 18 armies captured the Palace
of Lakkhon Sen of Bengal (i.e. Lakhnauti) and bound him to flee in 1205 (Akhtaruzzaman,
2005, p. 249). By this capture the Muslim rule in Bengal started. This event could be
considered as the beginning of the 800years‟ Muslim rule in Bengal, an indispensible part of
India. After that Ali Mordan Khalji, named Alauddin Khalji started ruling the region in 1210
and Iltutmish took control over the regions and established himself strong in Delhi in 1212.
And since the time this region was ruled by the Muslims for centuries. Bengal was ruled by
the representatives of the Delhi Sultanate. It includes five dynasties such as, Mamluks (1206-
1290), Khaljis (1290-1320), Tughloks (1320-1416), Sayyeds (1414-1451) and Lodis (1451-
1526). And later on it was ruled under the Mughal Empire until 1858 when British Raj started
to rule the whole India directly. It is to be noted that three of the five dynasties of Delhi
Sultanate and Mughal Empire‟s Emperors were from the Turkish origin.

Page 6 of 10
On the other side, a good number of Turk including central Asian Turks, saints, preacher and
Alim started coming to the regions for the cause of religious duty to spread Islam by 10-12th
centuries. Among them, Shah Muhammad Balkhi, Shah Muhammad Sultan Rumi, Shah
Makhdum are famous. Hazrat Shah Jalal (r.) (1246-1346), a famous preacher from Turkish
origin (born in Konya, famous city of Turkey), also came in Bengal. Actually Islam was
spread more by the religious personalities than political authority. And sometimes the
Muslim preacher had to follow the political manners or tactics because of ensuring security of
newcomers who accepted Islam.

Another important matter helped to spread Islam more in the Indian subcontinent was the
advent of the central Asian Turk Muslim to India when they were attacked by the Mongols or
to get free from Mongol‟s fear. This group included religious leader, saint, teacher etc. Later
it helped to preach Islam by the preachers and to achieve a good position politically as well.

Actually the Islamization processes of India started by the establishment of Delhi Sultanate
which was based on fundamental principles on their administration system, justice, socio-
cultural arena. During these three centuries (Delhi Sultanate), various Sultans achieved
renowned for their administration of justice, development of resources, religious tolerance
and patronage of learning, art and architecture. These made them rival to the Bagdad, Cairo,
Cordova and Bukhara.

Though the Mughal Empire was founded by the descendant of the Chugtai Turks, it is also to
be beard in mind that the characteristics of their system were not bloodshed and paganism,
but a high degree of Muslim civilization. From the beginning of the advent of Turks, they,
definitely tried to spread Islam but based some principles. Although middle age‟s policies of
power of influence were followed more or less, they have been able to protect their sole
different identity in the world history.

We see religious teachers, saints and other preachers played more important role obviously
with the political support. The Indians they accepted Islam to get free from the taxation but
they were impressed more observing Muslims behave, attitudes, respect for the all, equal
rights, simple life etc. made them encourage to accept Islam.

Did Islam spread by force or by peace:

Many writers told that “Muhammad Bin Quasim began his invasion in India in A.D. 711 by
forcibly circumcising the Brahman‟s of Debul and when they objected to the treatment he put
all of the males over seventeen to death”. Even the mild Akbar makes a confession to having
forced by fear of his power to adopt the religion of his ancestors. (Murray T. Titus, 1959,
p.28)

In contrast, the caste system, which originated from Hindu belief, divided society up into
very strictly controlled social classes. Buddhists were generally oppressed by the Hindu
princes throughout the country. Many Buddhists and lower castes welcomed the Muslim
armies, who carried the promise of an equal society. In fact, the first Muslims of Indian origin
were probably from the lower castes, as Islam offered them an escape from the oppressive
social system they were accustomed to.

Page 7 of 10
With the conquest of Sindh, Muhammad bin Qasim showed that Islamic law‟s protection of
religious minorities was for the Christians, Jews, Buddhists and Hindus in the subcontinent.
They were given religious freedom and were not forced to convert. It is seen as a clear and
indisputable fact that the religion of Islam was not spread through violence, coercion, fear, or
bloodshed. (Aboul-Enein, H. Yousuf and Zuhur, Sherifa, Islamic Rulings on Warfare, p. 22)

Impact of Islam on Indian Subcontinent:

The most emphatic claim Muslims make in India is that it brought egalitarianism. In Islam,
everybody is equal: no high or low, no high-caste or outcaste. Seeing this liberty and equality,
large numbers of low-caste Hindus eagerly converted to Islam; this saved them from the
oppressed and ignominious life offered by the Hindu society.

The religious nature of Muslims conquest impacted the most in India. Buddhism died.
Jainism almost died. Hinduism had a resurgent time in a cruel and autocratic way leading to
an idolatrous religion away from the Vedic origin of the religion. Islam flourished in the
cruelest ways and led to rise of concentrated communities of Muslims (UP-Bihar, Hyderbad
etc.) The Hindu temples were destroyed over and over for the sake of religious war. Somnath
Temple on the coast of high business value Gujarat was destroyed 7 times after Hindu kings
remade it every time. Several ruins of temples are there in Andhra Pradesh in India which is
the fourth most populated region in terms of Muslims in the subcontinent after Pakistan,
Bangladesh, UP/Bihar belt. The religious fanaticism rose in this era to highest extremes.

The culture was significantly impacted. Cooking was heavily influenced from the Turks and
Persians. Paneer was introduced to Indians by the Turks. Architecture was influenced heavily
as existing structures were destroyed in battles and new structures did not live long unless
they looked like Muslim architecture. Language was significantly changed. Hindustani
evolved from the combination of Hindi which was Sanskrit focused and Urdu which has
Persian influence. Persian words still echo in the courts of India today. It is now said that
Hindi loses it sweetness and taste if you remove Urdu words from it. Gazals and Shayaris
came up in this era from the new language that came up. Sufi music mixed with Indian
classical music gave mind blowing musical ecstasies, even though Muslim religion now calls
music illegal as it creates fantasies. Clothing attire was developed commonly where the
invaders adopted parts of Indian styles into their own. Clothing was also changed to cope the
weather. Ornaments and jewelry evolved into a total new variety.
(https://sunketh.wordpress.com/2012/12/30/impact-of-islam-in-indian-subcontinent/)

Mughals era:

Page 8 of 10
The Mughal (or Mogul) Empire ruled most of India and Pakistan in the 16th and 17th
centuries. It consolidated Islam in South Asia, and spread Muslim (and particularly Persian)
arts and culture as well as the faith. The Mughals were Muslims who ruled a country with a
large Hindu majority. However for much of their empire they allowed Hindus to reach senior
government or military positions.

Mughal entered in the Indian subcontinent not to spread Islam. A major Mughal
contribution to the Indian Subcontinent was their unique architecture. The Muslim Mughal
Dynasty built splendid palaces, tombs, minars and forts that stand today in Delhi, Agra,
Jaipur, Lahore, Sheikhupura and many other cities of India and Pakistan.

Conclusion:

Islam came in India by the Arab traders and established by the Turks. This advent changed
the history and civilization of India. From the above discussion it is clear that both of Arab
and Turk Muslim‟s advent to the regions and their principles for spreading Islam was based
on religious orders generally. By which they had been able to convince the people to accept
Islam and to ensure peace and justice at the same time. It is very easy to understand that
today‟s India a Hindu majority country would not be possible if there was force conversion.
Even Delhi today‟s capital of India was the capital of Muslim Rule for centuries.

Sufis played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. Their success in spreading
Islam has been attributed to the parallels in Sufi belief systems and practices with Indian
philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' unorthodox
approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to accept the faith. Hazrat Khawaja Muin-
ud-din Chisti, Nizam-ud-din Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusro, Sarkar Sabir Pak, and Waris
Pak trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic
Empire firmly established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of color and beauty to
what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also
attracted followers from the artisan and untouchable communities; they played a crucial role
in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Evidence of fanatical
and violent conversions carried out by Sufi Muslims exists. Ahmed Sirhindi, Naqshbandi Sufi
passionately advocated peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.

Today Muslim on the way to forget the responsibility, their history and teachings of their
religion, if they follow like their predecessors, they can be in the position where their
ancestors were.

Page 9 of 10
Bibliography
Chand, Tara (1922), Influence of Islam on Indian culture, Allahabad: The Indian Press

Eaton, Richard M. (1993), The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier 1204- 1760, London:
University of California Press

Titus, Murray T. (1959), Islam in India and Pakistan, Calcutta: Y.M.C.A Publishing House

Singh, Y.P. (2015), Islam in India and Pakistan- a religious history, India: Alpha Edition

Schimmel, Annemarie (1990), Islam: An Introduction, New York: State University of New
York Press

Abul-Enein, H. Yousuf & Zuhur, Sherifa (N.D), Islamic Rulings on Warfare, Darby:
Strategic Studies Institute

Haila Abdurrahman Al-Sahli, (2013), International Academic Conference Proceedings,

“Turks in India: Their presence and contribution to Islam and civilization: an historical and
analytical study”, Istanbul: The West East Institute

Mamun, Abdullah al, (N.D), Advent of Islam in India with the Special Reference to the
Contribution of Turks, Dhaka: Department of Islamic History and Culture, University of
Dhaka.

Naqvi, Raazia Hassan & Mohmand, Muhammad Ibrar (N.D), Cultural History of Indian
subcontinent with special reference to Arts and Music

http://urduvilla.com/eng/history-of-pre-islamic-india/

https://sunketh.wordpress.com/2012/12/30/impact-of-islam-in-indian-subcontinent/

Page 10 of 10