UNIT 4 GENETICS
Mendelian Principles:
1. Introduction GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL
(1822-1884)
• Gregor Johann MENDEL was an Austrian
monk and biologist whose work on heredity
became the basis of the modern theory of
genetics. Mendel was born on July 22, 1822 in
Heizendorf, Austria, (now known as Hyncice
in Czechoslovakia) as Johann Mendel. He took
training as a priest and hence added Gregor to
his name. In 1853 he returned to his abbey as
Physics teacher. He became the abbot of the
monastery and started working on plant
breeding in Pea plants (Pisum sativum). He
also worked on bee breeding, Astronomy,
meteorology.
• He developed the monastery's 2 hectares
(4.9 acres) as experimental garden. Between
1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested
some 29,000 pea plants (i.e., Pisum sativum).
This study showed that one in four pea plants
had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four
were hybridand one out of four were
purebred dominant. His experiments led him
to make two generalizations, the Law of
Segregation and the Law of Independent
Assortment, which later became known as
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. Mendel’s Experiments
• Mendel did read his paper, Versuche über
Pflanzenhybriden (Experiments on Plant
Hybridization), at two meetings of the Natural
History Society of Brünn in Moravia in 1865. It
was received favorably and generated reports
in several local newspapers. When Mendel's
paper was published in 1866
in Verhandlungen des naturforschenden
Vereins Brünn, it was seen as essentially about
hybridization rather than inheritance and had
little impact and was cited about three times
S. No. Character Dominant
1 Stem height Tall
2 Flower colour Violet
3 Flower position Axial
4 Pod shape Inflated
5 Pod colour Green
6 Seed shape Round
7 Seed colour Yellow
 True breeding pea lines were obtained by
continuous self-pollination for several
generations. Monohybrid Cross
 Fourteen true breeding pea lines were selected
as pairs, which were similar except for one
character with contrasting traits.
 Artificial cross pollination (hybridisation) was
performed on such varieties to obtain first
hybrid generation known as the first filial
progeny or F1.
Inheritance of One Gene
 After hybridisation, the F1 generation so
obtained resembled only one of its parents
(say, all tall; no dwarf).
 When 2 plants from F1 generation were self
pollinated, the second filial progeny or
F2 generation was obtained.
 Revival of unexpressed trait (dwarf) was
observed in some F2 progeny. Both traits, tall
and dwarf, were expressed in F2 in ratio 3:1.
 Mendel proposed that something is being
passed unchanged from generation to
generation. He called these things as ‗factors‘
(presently called genes).
 Factors contain and carry hereditary
information.
 Alleles − Slightly different form of same factor
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
over the next thirty-five years. His paper was
criticized at the time, but is now considered a
seminal work.
• Rediscovery of Mendel's work
• It was not until the early 20th century that the
importance of his ideas was realized. By 1900,
research aimed at finding a successful theory
of discontinuous inheritance rather
than blending inheritance led to independent
duplication of his work by Hugo de
Vries and Carl Correns, and the rediscovery
of Mendel's writings and laws. Both
acknowledged Mendel's priority, and it is
thought probable that de Vries did not
understand the results he had found until after
reading Mendel. Though Erich von
Tschermak was originally also credited with
rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because
he did not understand Mendel's laws. Though
de Vries later lost interest in Mendelism, other
biologists started to establish genetics as a
science.
• Reginald Crundall Punnet: Punnet is
probably best remembered today as the
creator of the Punnett square.]
 Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of
genetics proposed the laws of inheritance.
 He used garden pea (Pisum sativum) as his
sample.
 Large sampling size gave credibility to his
collected data.
 Garden pea plant possessed certain completely
opposite traits. Example − tall and dwarf plants
 He worked on the following seven traits of
garden pea:
Recessive
Dwarf
White
Terminal
Constricted
Yellow
Wrinkled
Green
 Two alleles code for a pair of two contrasting
traits. (e.g., tall and dwarf)
 Cross that considers only a single character
(e.g., height of the part)

 Studying the cross:
o TT, tt, and Tt are genotypes while the
traits, tall and dwarf, are phenotypes.
o T stands for tall trait while t stands for
dwarf trait.
o Even if a single ‗T‘ is present in the
genotype, phenotype is ‗tall‘. When ‗T‘
and ‗t‘ are present together, ‗T‘
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 dominates and suppresses the
expression of ‗t‘. Therefore, T (for
tallness) is dominant trait while t (for
dwarfness) is recessive trait.
o TT and tt are homozygous while Tt is
heterozygous.
o From the cross, it can be found that
alleles of parental pair separate or
segregate from each other and only
one allele is transmitted to the gamete.
o Gametes of TT will have only T alleles;
gametes of tt will have only t alleles,
but gametes of Tt will have both T and
t alleles.
 Punnett square
o Graphical representation to calculate
the probability of all possible
genotypes of offsprings in a genetic
cross
o Possible gametes are written on two
sides, usually at top row and left
columns, and combinations are
represented in boxes.
o With the help of Punnet square,
genotypic ratio in F2 generation can be
found. From the above given Punnet
square, it is evident that genotypic
ratio TT: Tt: tt is 1:2:1.
o The ratio 1:2:1 or of TT: Tt: tt
can be derived from binomial
expression (ax + by)2.
o Gamete-bearing genes are in equal
frequency of .
o Hence, the expression can be
expanded as
Law of Dominance, Test Cross, Law of
Segregation & Incomplete Dominance
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
 Based on his experiments, Mendel proposed
three laws or principles of inheritance:
o Law of Dominance
o Law of Segregation
o Law of Independent Assortment
 Law of dominance and law of segregation are
based on monohybrid cross while law of
independent assortment is based on dihybrid
cross.
Law of Dominance
 According to this law, characters are
controlled by discrete units called factors,
which occur in pairs with one member of the
pair dominating over the other in a dissimilar
pair.
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
 This law explains expression of only one of the
parental character in F1 generation and
expression of both in F2 generation.
Test Cross
 Cross between F2 progeny and its homozygous
recessive parent
 This cross determines whether the dominant
character is coming from homozygous
dominant genotype or heterozygous genotype.
(e.g., tallness coming from TT or Tt)
 When TT is crossed with tt, we obtain all Tt
(tall) individuals in the progeny. Whereas
when Tt is crossed with tt, we obtain Tt (tall)
and tt (dwarf) individuals in the progeny.
 Therefore, if tallness is coming from TT, then
we obtain all tall progenies in test cross. We
obtain both tall and dwarf varieties in test
cross, if tallness is coming from Tt.
Law of Segregation
 This law states that the two alleles of a pair
segregate or separate during gamete formation
such that a gamete receives only one of the two
factors.
 In homozygous parents, all gametes produced
are similar; while in heterozygous parents, two
kinds of gametes are produced in equal
proportions.
Incomplete Dominance
 In incomplete dominance, F1 generation has a
phenotype that does not resemble either of the
two parents, but is a mixture of the two.
 Example − Flower colour in dog flower
(snapdragon), where:
o RR − Red flowers
o rr − White flowers
o Rr − Pink flowers
 Here, genotypic ratio remains same as in
Mendelian crosses, but phenotypic ratio
changes since complete dominance is not
shown by R (hence, incomplete dominance).
 Phenotypic Ratio − 1:2:1 that denotes Red:
Pink: White
 Genotypic Ratio − 1:2:1 that denotes RR: Rr: rr
What is Dominance?
 A diploid organism produces two copies of a
gene, which need not be identical and may
have minor alterations.
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  Suppose a normal gene produces a product P.
Then, the altered version of it must produce a
non-functional product P′ or no product at all.
 The altered version of the gene must not
perform the functions that a normal gene
performs. It must affect the phenotype.
 The original gene is said to be dominant while
the modified gene is recessive.
 Dominance typically occurs when one of the
two alleles is non-functional at the molecular
level, that is, it is not transcribed or else does
not produce a protein product. This can be the
result of a mutation that alters the DNA
sequence of the allele. An organism
homozygous for the non-functional allele will
generally show a distinctive phenotype, due
to the absence of the protein product. For
example, in humans and other organisms, the
unpigmented skin
the albino phenotype results when
individual is homozygous for an allele that
prevents synthesis of the skin pigment
protein melanin. It is important
understand that it is not the lack of function
that allows the allele to be described as
recessive: this is the interaction with the
alternative allele in the heterozygote
Inheritance of Two Genes (Dihybrid Cross) &
Law of Independent Assortment
 In dihybrid cross, we consider two characters.
(e.g., seed colour and seed shape)
 Yellow colour and round shape is dominant
over green colour and wrinkled shape.
Allele from Parent 1 Allele from Parent 2
IA IA
I A I B
IA i IAi
I B I A
IB IB
I B i IBi
i i
 Multiple alleles: When more than two alleles control a character, as in human blood groups Multiple
alleles are used in population studies.
 Table Two: Distribution and Characteristics of Human Blood Factors
Blood Antigen on Antibody in
Type Red Blood Cell Serum Plasma
O None Anti-A, Anti-B
 Phenotypic ratio − 9:3:3:1
Round yellow − 9
Round green − 3
Wrinkled yellow − 3
Wrinkled green −1
Law of independent Assortment
 When two pairs of traits are combined in a
hybrid, one pair of character segregates
independent of the other pair of character.
 In a dihybrid cross between two plants
having round yellow (RRYY) and wrinkled
green seeds (rryy), four types of gametes (RY,
Ry, rY, ry) are produced. Each of these
segregate independent of each other, each
having a frequency of 25% of the total gametes
produced.
Deviations from Mendelian Inheritance
of Sometimes during the crosses the ratio obtained does
an not obey Mendelian‘s law.
1. The first one is co-dominance. In human we
have 4 type of main blood group which is A, B,
to AB and O. In co-dominance, more than one
allele expresses the characteristics. In AB, A and
B both express it‘s characteristics. We can say
that a multiple alleles control the same
characteristic.
ii) Law of Segregation and Co-
dominance
Co-dominance
 In co-dominance, the F1 progeny resembles
both the parents.
 Example: ABO blood groups in human beings
 ABO blood groups are controlled by gene I.
Gene I has three alleles, I A, I B and i. A person
possesses any two of the three alleles.
 Normally as per Mendelian Laws, each
character is governed by two
expressing “alleles”. Due to various
forces of nature and mutation a third
allele either dominant or recessive may
also be produced. Hence, in the
population all the three alleles will be
seen whereas in any one individual
only two alleles will be present. This
because our genome is diploid (has
only two sets of DNA). In case of blood
groups in man three alleles are seen in
the human population.
 IA and I B dominate over i. But with each
other, IA and IB are co-dominant.
 IA and I B contain A and B types of sugar,
while i does not contain any sugar.
Genotype of offspring Blood type of offspring
IAIA A
IAIB AB
A
IAIB AB
IBIB B
B
ii O
Can Can
Will Clot with Blood
Receive Give
From These Donors
From to:
A, B, AB O All

A A Anti-B B, AB A&O A & AB

B B Anti-A A, AB B&O B & AB

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 3

 AB A&B None
 Type O Blood: Universal Donor as it contains
no A or B antigens, so the receivers' blood will
not clot when given the O blood.
 Type AB Blood: Universal Receiver, as it
contains no Anti-A or Anti-B antibodies in its
plasma. It can receive all blood types.
 Antigen: Protein on the surface of the blood
cell. (Allele A makes A antigen. Allele B makes
B antigen. Allele O makes no antigens.)
 Antibody: Protein in plasma that reacts with
specific antigens that enter the blood (usually
something that isn't supposed to be there!).
(Ex.: Anti-A is an antibody that recognizes A-
antigen, binds to it (lock & key), then causes
clumping together or clotting of similar A-
antigens.)
1. Incomplete Dominance:
a. According to the Law of Dominance the F1
generation of a cross shall possess one of
the traits of the parents, e.g., Tall crossed
with dwarf , F1 offspring all are tall though
their genotypes are heterozygous Tt. In
some cases this rule is deviated and one
such case is;
b. In snapdragon flower, the phenotypic ratio
and genotypic ratio for F2 generation is the
same which is 1:2:1. The snapdragon flower
color is either homozygous for red or white.
When the red homozygous flower is paired
with the white homozygous flower, the
result yields a pink snapdragon flower. The
pink snapdragon is the result of incomplete
dominance. A similar type of incomplete
dominance is found in the four o'clock
plant wherein pink color is produced when
true-bred parents of white and red flowers
are crossed.
c. When plants of the F1 generation are self-
pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic
ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1
(Red:Pink:White) for both generations
2. Then we‘ve come to another case which is
maternal effect. In this case we take the example
of shell shape in gastropod. There are two main
type of shape which is dexteral and sinistral
(clockwise and anti-clockwise). For the maternal
effect the progeny inherited the same trait as the
maternal. Here‘s an example:
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
None All AB
D: Dexteral DD(M) x dd(F)
d: Sinistral F1: All Dd (All sinistral)
Even though that D is dominant over d but due to
maternal effect the maternal characteristic express
itself in the progeny. Let‘s take a look at another
example:
DD(M,sinistral) x dd(F, dexteral)
All Dd (dexteral)
HEREDITY OF SOME HUMAN TRAITS
Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), also known
as phenylthiourea (PTU), is
an organosulfur thiourea containing a phenyl ring.
It has the unusual property that it either tastes very
bitter or is virtually tasteless, depending on
the genetic makeup of the taster. The ability to taste
PTC is a dominant genetic trait, and the test to
determine PTC sensitivity is one of the most commonly
usedgenetic tests on humans.
The genetic taste phenomenon of PTC was discovered
in 1931 when a DuPont chemist named Arthur Fox
accidentally released a cloud of a fine crystalline PTC.
A nearby colleague complained about the bitter taste,
while Dr. Fox, who was closer and should have
received a strong dose, tasted nothing. Fox then
continued to test the taste buds of assorted family and
friends, setting the groundwork for future genetic
studies. The genetic correlation was so strong that it
was used in paternity tests before the advent
of DNA matching. About 70% of people can taste PTC,
varying from a low of 58% for indigenous peoples of
Australia and New Guinea to 98% for indigenous
peoples of the Americas.One study has found that non-
smokers and those not habituated to coffee or tea have
a statistically higher percentage of tasting PTC than
the general population.PTC does not occur in food, but
related chemicals do, and food choice is related to a
person's ability to taste PTC.
There are three SNPs (single nucleotide
polymorphisms) along the gene that may render its
proteins unresponsive.There is conflicting evidence as
to whether the inheritance of this trait
is dominant or incomplete dominant. Any person with
a single functional copy of this gene can make the
protein and is sensitive to PTC Some studies have
shown that homozygous tasters experience a more
intense bitterness than people that are heterozygous;
other studies have indicated that another gene may
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determine taste sensitivity. The frequency of PTC
taster and non-taster alleles vary in different human
populations
Albinism
Albinism also called achromia, achromasia,
or achromatosisis a congenital
disordercharacterized by the complete or partial
absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes due to
absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing
enzyme involved in the production of melanin.
Albinism results from inheritance of recessive
gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates,
including humans. While an organism with complete
absence of melanin is called an albino an organism
with only a diminished amount of melanin is described
as albinoid.
Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects,
such as photophobia, nystagmus and astigmatism.
Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more
susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In humans,
there are two principal types of
albinism, oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and
hair, and ocular affecting the eyes only.
Most oculocutaenousalbinistic humans appear white
or very pale as the melanin pigments responsible for
brown, black, and some yellow colorations are not
present. Ocular albinism results in pale blue eyes, and
may require genetic testing to diagnose.
Because individuals with albinism have skin that
entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps
protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation,
their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.
The human eye normally produces enough pigment to
color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to
the eye. However, there are cases in which the eyes of
an albinistic person appear red, pink or purple,
depending on the amount of pigment present, due to
the red ofretina being visible through the iris. Lack of
pigment in the eyes also results in problems with
vision, both related and unrelated tophotosensitivity.
Those inflicted with albinism are generally as healthy
as the rest of the population (but see related disorders
below), with growth and development occurring as
normal, and albinism by itself does not cause
mortality, although the lack of pigment
blocking ultravioletradiation increases the risk of
Melanomas (skins cancers) and other problems.
Most forms of albinism are the result of the biological
inheritance of genetically recessive alleles (genes)
passed from both parents of an individual, though
some rare forms are inherited from only one parent.
There are other genetic mutations which are proven to
be associated with albinism. All alterations, however,
lead to changes in melanin production in the body.
The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from
the pairing of an organism with albinism and one
without albinism is low. However, because organisms
(including humans) can be carriers of genes for
albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic
offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic
parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency
in both sexes. An exception to this is ocular albinism,
which it is passed on to offspring through X-linked
inheritance. Thus, ocular albinism occurs more
frequently in males as they have a single X and Y
chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are
characterized by two X chromosomes.
There are two different forms of albinism: a partial
lack of the melanin is known as hypomelanism, or
hypomelanosis and the total absence of melanin is
known as amelanism or amelanosis.Albinism affects
people of all ethnic backgrounds; its frequency
worldwide is estimated to be approximately one in
17,000. Prevalence of the different forms of albinism
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
varies considerably by population, and
is highest overall in people of sub-
Saharan African descent.
Eye Colour
Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic
character determined by two distinct
factors: the pigmentation of the eye's irisand the
frequency-dependence of the scattering of light by
the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.
In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from
light brown to black, depending on the concentration
of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium(located on
the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris
stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular
density of the stroma.The appearance of blue, green, as
well as hazel eyes results from the Rayleigh
scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar
to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky.
Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in
the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an
instance of structural color and varies depending on
the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-colored
eyes.
Humans and other animals have
many phenotypic variations in eye color.The genetics
of eye color are complicated, and color is determined
by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have
been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the
eye-color genes include OCA2 and HERC2.The once-
held view that blue eye color is a simple recessive
trait has been shown to be incorrect.
Eye color is an inherited trait influenced by more than
one gene. These genes are sought using associations to
small changes in the genes themselves and in
neighboring genes. These
changes are known as single-
nucleotide polymorphisms or
SNPs. The actual number of
genes that contribute to eye color
is currently unknown. There is
evidence that as much as 16
different genes could be
responsible for eye color in
humans; however, the main two
genes associated with eye color
variation are OCA2 and HERC2,
and both are localized in
Chromosome 15. Blue eyes with a
brown spot, green eyes, and gray
eyes are caused by an entirely
different part of the genome. As Eiberg said: "The SNP
rs12913832 [of the Herc2 gene] is found to be
associated with the brown and blue eye color, but this
single DNA variation cannot explain all the brown eye
color variation from dark brown over hazel to blue eyes
with brown spots."
Hair Colour
Hair color is the pigmentation of hair follicles due to
two types of melanin: eumelanin and pheomelanin.
Generally, if more eumelanin is present, the color of
the hair is darker; if less eumelanin is present, the hair
is lighter. Levels of melanin can vary over time causing
a person's hair color to change, and it is possible to
have hair follicles of more than one color.
Particular hair colors are associated with ethnic
groups. The shades of human hair color are assessed
using the Fischer–Saller scale. The Fischer–Saller
scale, named after Eugen Fischer and Karl Saller, is
used in physical anthropology and medicine to
determine the shades of hair color. The scale uses the
following designations: A (light blond), B to E (blond),
F to L (blond), M to O (dark blond), P to T (brown), U
to Y (dark brown/black) andRoman numerals I to IV
(red) and V to VI (red blond)
Two types of pigment give hair its
color: eumelanin and pheomelanin.
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Pheomelanincolors hair orange and yellow. All types of eumelanin (black and brown),
humans have some pheomelanin in their hair. brown-haired people have brown eumelanin;
Eumelanin, which has two subtypes of black or brown, they also usually have medium-thick strands
determines the darkness of the hair color. A low of hair. Brown-haired people are often
concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond known as brunette.
hair, whereas a higher concentration of brown Blond (or blonde) hair ranges from nearly white
eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of (platinum blond, tow-haired) to a dark golden blond.
black eumelanin result in black hair, while low Strawberry blond, a mixture of blond
concentrations give gray hair. and red hair, is a much rarer type
The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly containing the most amounts of
established According to one theory, at least two gene pheomelanin.
pairs control human hair color. Albinism is a genetic abnormality in
One phenotype (brown/blond) has which little or no pigment is found in
a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A human hair, eyes, and skin. The hair is
person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a often white or pale blond. However, it
person with no brown alleles will be blond. This can be red, darker blond, light brown, or rarely, even
explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a dark brown.
blond-haired child. Malnutrition is also known to cause hair to become
The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the lighter, thinner, and more brittle. Dark hair may turn
non-red allele (which suppresses production of reddish or blondish due to the decreased production of
pheomelanin) is dominant and the allele for red hair is melanin. The condition is reversible with proper
recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired nutrition.
allele will have red hair.
The two-gene model does not account for all possible Earlobes
shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum Earlobes average about 2 centimeters long, and
blond versus dark blond/light brown), nor does it elongate slightly with age.Although the "free" vs.
explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person "attached" appearance of earlobes is often presented as
ages. Several gene pairs control the light versus dark an example of a simple "one gene - two alleles"
hair color in a cumulative effect. A person's genotype Mendelian trait in humans, several studies suggest
for a multifactorial trait can interact with environment that the story is not that simple.If one is to observe a
to produce varying phenotypes (see quantitative trait number of people, it indeed reveals that earlobes do
locus). not all fall neatly into either the "free" or the
Black hair is the darkest color. It has large amounts of "attached" categories; there is a continuous range from
eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors. It one extreme to the other, suggesting the influence of
can range from soft black to blue-black or jet-black. several genes.
Brown hair is characterized by higher levels of
eumelanin and lower levels of pheomelanin. Of the two
1. Shape of face (probably polygenic) Oval dominant, square recessive
2. Cleft in chin No cleft dominant, cleft recessive
Curly: homozygous
3. Hair curl (probably polygenic)
Wavy: heterozygous
Assume incomplete dominance
Straight: homozygous
4. Hairline Widow peak dominant, straight hairline recessive
5. Eyebrow size Broad dominant, slender recessive
6. Eyebrow shape Separated dominant, joined recessive
7. Eyelash length Long dominant, short recessive
8. Dimples Dimples dominant, no dimples recessive
9. Earlobes Free lobe dominant, attached recessive
10. Eye shape Almond dominant, round recessive
11. Freckles Freckles dominant, no freckles recessive
12. Tongue rolling Roller dominant, nonroller recessive
13. Tongue folding Inability dominant, ability recessive
14. Finger mid-digital hair Hair dominant, no hair recessive
Straight thumb dominant, hitch-hiker thumb
15. Hitch-hiker's thumb
recessive
16. Bent little finger Bent dominant, straight recessive
Left thumb over right dominant, right over left
17. Interlaced fingers
recessive
18. Hair on back of hand Hair dominant, no hair recessive
19. Tendons of Palmar Muscle Two tendons dominant, three tendons recessive

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS some variant phenotype back through the history of

The study of inheritance of human genes (traits), like, the family and draws up a family tree, or pedigree,
diseases the method of pedigree analysis is used. In using the standard symbols;
humans, controlled crosses cannot be made, so
geneticists must resort to scrutinizing family records in
the hope that informative matings have been made
that can be used to deduce dominance and distinguish
autosomal from X-linked inheritance. The clues in the
pedigree have to be interpreted differently depending
on whether one of the contrasting phenotypes is a rare
disorder or whether both phenotypes of a pair are
common morphs of a polymorphism. The genetic
disorders of human beings can be dominant or
recessive phenotypes and can be either autosomal or
X-linked. The investigator traces the history of

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 6

 grandmother of his mother Alexandra. Nowadays,
hemophilia can be treated, but it was formerly a
potentially fatal condition.

Once phenotypic data is collected from several
generations and the pedigree is drawn, careful analysis
will determine whether the trait is dominant or
recessive. Here are some rules to follow.
For those traits exhibiting dominant gene action:
 affected individuals have at least one affected
parent
 the phenotype generally appears every
generation
 two unaffected parents only have unaffected
offspring
The following is the pedigree of a trait controlled by
dominant gene action.
Concept of Gene
Gene:
A gene is the molecular unit of heredity of a
living organism. It is a name given to some stretches
of deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and ribonucleic
acids (RNA) that code for a polypeptide or for an RNA
chain that has a function in the organism. Genes
specify all the proteins and functional RNA chains.
Genes hold the information to build and maintain an
organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring. All
organisms have genes corresponding to various
biological traits, some of which are instantly visible,
such as eye color or number of limbs, and some of
which are not, such as blood type, increased risk for
specific diseases, or the thousands of basic
biochemical processes that comprise life. The
word gene is derived from
the Greek word genesis meaning "birth",
or genos meaning "origin".

And for those traits exhibiting recessive gene action:

 unaffected parents can have affected offspring
 affected progeny are both male and female
Albinism (Figure 4-19) is another rare condition that is
inherited in a Mendelian manner as an
autosomal recessive phenotype in many animals,
including humans. The striking ―white‖ phenotype is
caused by a defect in an enzymethat synthesizes
melanin, the pigment responsible for most black and
brown coloration of animals. In humans, such
The Human Genome Project estimated that human
coloration is most evident in hair, skin, and retina, and
genome would carry as many as 80,000 to 1,20,000
its absence in albinos (who have the homozygous
genes, but against this the final result is that Human
recessivegenotype a/a) leads to white hair, white skin,
Genome has not more than 25,000 to 30,000 genes.
and eye pupils that are pink because of the unmasking
The rest of the DNA is stated to be junk and has no
of the red hemoglobin pigment in blood vessels in the
role in expressing traits. However, these portions of
retina.
DNA have major role in chromosome dynamics, and
In pedigrees, an autosomal recessive disorder
evolution. These non-expressing portions are called as
is revealed by the appearance of
heterochromatin and have been put to use in DNA
the phenotype in the male and female progeny
fingerprinting. Therefore to refer to the definition of a
of unaffected individuals.
gene needs to be revisited to understand its function.
The Pedigree analysis for the x - linked inheritance of
Nowadays, the DNA portion transcribing an mRNA is
gene for Hemophilia;
called as CISTRON, similarly, if the other names
Perhaps the best-known example is hemophilia, a
coined are;
malady in which a person‘s blood fails to clot. Many
a) If the gene is undergoing replication –
proteins must interact in sequence to make blood clot.
The most common type of hemophilia is caused by the REPLICON
absence or malfunction of one of these proteins, b) If the gene is undergoing recombination –
called factor VIII. The most famous cases of RECON
hemophilia are found in the pedigree of the c) If the gene is undergoing or have undergone
interrelated royal families of Europe. The original mutation - MUTON
hemophilia allele in the pedigree arose spontaneously In prokaryotes, the functional genes are all lined up
(as a mutation) in the reproductive cells of Queen and hence it is Polycistronic and in Eukaryotes it is
Victoria‘s parents or of Queen Victoria herself. Alexis, Monocistronic. The Monocistronic gene of eukaryotes
the son of the last czar of Russia, inherited the allele has at times unwanted sequences not needed in the
ultimately from Queen Victoria, who was the final product Protein and hence need to be removed.

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 7

The process involved is splicing. It is this attribute
which makes the eukaryotic gene Monocistronic and
split gene.
Multiple Alleles (ABO blood groups in human)
An allele, is one of a number of alternative forms of
the same gene or same genetic locus.
Most multicellular organisms have two sets
of chromosomes; that is, they are diploid. These
chromosomes are referred to as homologous
chromosomes. Diploid organisms have one copy of
each gene (and, therefore, one allele) on each
chromosome. If both alleles are the same, they and the
organism are homozygous with respect to that gene. If
the alleles are different, they and the organism
are heterozygous with respect to that gene. In many
cases, genotypic interactions between the two alleles at
a locus can be described as dominant or recessive,
according to which of the two homozygous phenotypes
the heterozygote most resembles. Where the
heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of the
homozygotes, the allele involved is said to
be dominant to the other, which is said to
be recessive to the former.[3] The degree and pattern of
dominance varies among loci.
A population or species of organisms typically includes
multiple alleles at each locus among various
individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as
the number of alleles (polymorphism) present, or the
proportion of heterozygotes in the population.
PAPER – 2
UNIT – 1:
 Structural Organization of cell.
 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.
 Introduction to Cell Organelles and Cell Inclusions.
1. Introduction:
a) Robert C. Hooke (1635-1703) looked at
everything from fabric, leaves, mica, glass,
flint, and even frozen urine. Hooke let a louse
suck from his hand to observe how his blood
travelled through its inner system. He also
stung himself with nettles to see where and
how the poison was pumped into his hands.
When Hooke viewed a thin cutting of cork he
discovered empty spaces contained by walls,
and termed them pores, or cells. The
term cells stuck and Hooke gained credit for
discovering the building blocks of all life.
b) In 17th century, with the development of
optical lenses and compound microscopes, the
fact that the cell is the basic unit of life was
established and became the foundation of the
cell theory. The botanist M.J.
Schleiden (1838) and the zoologist Theoder
Schwann (1839) formulated that that all
animals and plants are made of cells.
c) The combined views put forth by Schleiden
and Schwann ultimately came in the form
of cell theory which states that
i) 1. All living organisms are made up of cells
which are the unit of structure and
function;
ii) 2. The activities of an organism are
dependent on the activities of cells,
individually and collectively;
iii) 3. New cells are formed by a process
similar to crystal formation.
d) Robert Brown discovered the Nucleus in
cells in the year 1833.
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
For example, at the gene locus for the ABO blood
type carbohydrate antigens in humans,[4] classical
genetics recognizes three alleles, IA, IB, and i, that
determine compatibility of blood transfusions. Any
individual has one of six possible genotypes (IAIA, IAi,
IBIB, IBi, IAIB, and ii) that produce one of four
possible phenotypes: "Type A" (produced by
IAIA homozygous and IAi heterozygous genotypes),
"Type B" (produced by IBIB homozygous and IBi
heterozygous genotypes), "Type AB" produced by
IAIBheterozygous genotype, and "Type O" produced by
ii homozygous genotype. It is now known that each of
the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of multiple
alleles with different DNA sequences that produce
proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles
are known at the ABO locus.[5] An individual with
"Type A" blood may be an AO heterozygote, an AA
homozygote, or an AA heterozygote with two different
"A" alleles.
Pseudoalleles
one of two or more closely linked genes on a
chromosome that appear to function as a single allelic
pair but occupy distinct, nearly corresponding loci on
homologous chromosomes. Such gene pairs produce a
mutant effect in the diploid state when located on
homologous chromosomes but are capable of being
separated by crossing over during meiosis to produce a
wild-type effect when recombined on either of the
homologues.
e) 20 years later, Rudolf Virchow (1855), a
great German physician made another
generalisation and stated that all cells arise
from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula e
cellula).
f) The discovery of mitosis (Flemming, 1880),
chromosomes (Waldeyer, 1890) and
fertilisation (Hertwing, 1875) etc., provided
additional strength to the generalisation of the
cell theory.
g) The modern version of the cell theory states
that
i) Cells are the morphological and
physiological units of all living organisms;
ii) The properties of a given organism depend
on those of' its individual cells;
iii) Cells originate only from pre-existing cells,
and continuity of cells is maintained
through the genetic material;
iv) The smallest unit of life is the cell.
2. Ultra Structure of Animal Cell
a) Shape: Animal Cell generally is round but it
can show different shapes as per the functional
needs. Some are Columnar, cuboidal, disc
shaped, fusiform, oval, polygonal, spherical,
squamous, thread-like, stellate etc.
b) Size:Most plant and animal cells are between
1 and 100 µm and therefore are visible only
under the microscope. On the other hand
Ostrich eggs are 15 cm (5.9 in) long, 13 cm
(5.1 in) wide, and weigh 1.4 kilograms.
3. Protoplasm:
a. Protoplasm includes both the substance within
and the cell membrane and is the ―living
Page 8
 substance" of the cell. It is a transparent and
jelly-like material, the consistency varying
from the more liquid, slightly gelatinous white
of a fresh egg to that of semi-solidified gelatin
of jelly. If the protoplasm is more liquid it is
termed a sol, if more gelatinous, a gel.
b. The protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is
known as the cytoplasm and that inside the
nucleus as the nucleoplasm.
i. cell membrane - the thin layer of
protein and lipid (two layers) that
surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is
semipermeable, allowing some
substances to pass into the cell and
blocking others. the cell membrane
separates the cell from its external
environment, and is selectively
permeable (controls what gets in and
out). It protects the cell and provides
stability. It functions as semi-permeable
membrane. It maintains contact with
nucleus through endoplasmic
reticulum.The plasma membrane forms
rounded vesicles of liquid or solid
particles and pushes them inside the
cells, and there these vesicles dissolve in
the cytoplasm.
ii. Ingestion of solid particles is known as
Phagocytosis and that of liquid
droplets is Pinocytosis.
4. Cytoplasm:
a. The jelly-like substance composed of mainly
water and found between the cell membrane
and nucleus. The cytoplasm makes up most of
the "body" of a cell and is constantly
streaming. Substances like salts may be
dissolved in the cytoplasm and Organelles like,
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER),
Mitochondria, Lysosomes, Ribosomes,
Golgi Complex (GC), Centrioles, are
found here. Cytoplasm also contains digested
food particles, excretory materials, hormones,
enzymes, etc.
b. Cytoplasm has small vesicular vacuoles with
non-living liquid which help in osmoregulation
of the cell.
c. Endoplasmic Reticulum is also called as RER
with Ribosomes on the outer surface and SER
without ribosomes.
d. Ribosomes are the protein factories of cell;
they carry out the production of proteins
reading the mRNA sent by the DNA present in
the nucleus.
e. Lysosomes are vesicles that contain protease
enzymes.
f. Mitochondria: The mitochondria are round
"tube-like" organelles that are surrounded by a
double membrane, with the inner membrane
being highly folded. the mitochondria are
often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the
cell. the mitochondria releases food energy
from food molecules to be used by the
cell. This process is called respiration. Some
cells( muscle cells) require more energy than
other cells and so would have many more
mitochondria.
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
g. GOLGI BODY / APPARATUS: Golgi bodies
are stacks of flattened membranous stacks.
The Golgi body temporarily stores protein
which can then leave the cell via vesicles
pinching off from the Golgi.
h. CENTRIOLES: centrosome - (also called
the "microtubule organizing centre") a small
body located near the nucleus - it has a dense
centre and radiating tubules. The centrosome
is where microtubules are made. During cell
division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and
the two parts move to opposite sides of the
dividing cell. The centriole is the dense centre
of the centrosome.
i. NUCLEUS: Structure - The largest organelle
in the cell. It is dark and round, and is
surrounded by a double membrane called
the nuclear envelope/membrane. In
spots the nuclear envelope fuses to form pores
which are selectively permeable. The nucleus
contains genetic information (DNA) on special
strands called chromosomes. The number of
chromosomes for any given species is fixed.
Nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus -
it is where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some
cells have more than one nucleolus. Function -
The nucleus is the "control center" of the cell,
for cell metabolism and reproduction.
 A chromosome is an organized structure
of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single
piece of coiled DNA containing
many genes, regulatory elements and
other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also
contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to
package the DNA and control its
functions.Chromosomes vary widely between
different organisms. chromosomes are packaged
by proteins into a condensed structure
called chromatin. Each chromosome has one
centromere, with one or two arms projecting from
the centromere,
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic
acid containing the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known
living organisms (with the exception of RNA
viruses). The DNA segments carrying this
genetic information are called genes. Likewise,
other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or
are involved in regulating the use of this genetic
information. Along with RNA and proteins, DNA is
one of the three major macromolecules that are
essential for all known forms of life.
 DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units
called nucleotides, with backbones made
of sugars and phosphate groups joined
by ester bonds. These two strands run in opposite
directions to each other and are therefore anti-
parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types
of molecules
called nucleobases (informally, bases). It is
the sequence of these four nucleobases along the
backbone that encodes information. This
information is read using the genetic code, which
specifies the sequence of the amino acids within
proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of
DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA in a process
called transcription.
PROKARYOTE CELL
Page 9
 The prokaryote cell is simpler, and therefore
smaller, than a eukaryote cell, lacking
a nucleus and most of the otherorganelles of
eukaryotes. There are two kinds of
prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea; these share a
similar structure.
 The nuclear material of a prokaryotic cell consists
of a single chromosome that is in direct contact
with the cytoplasm. Here, the undefined nuclear
region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid.
 A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:
 On the outside, flagella and pili project
from the cell's surface. These are structures
(not present in all prokaryotes) made of
proteins that facilitate movement and
communication between cells;
 Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope –
generally consisting of a cell wall covering
a plasma membrane though some bacteria
also have a further covering layer called
a capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the
cell and separates the interior of the cell
from its environment, serving as a
protective filter. Though most prokaryotes
have a cell wall, there are exceptions such
as Mycoplasma (bacteria)
and Thermoplasma (archaea). The cell wall
consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and
acts as an additional barrier against
exterior forces. It also prevents the cell
from expanding and finally bursting
(cytolysis) from osmotic pressure against
a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryote
cells (cells and fungal cells) also have a cell
wall;
 Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic
region that contains the cell genome (DNA)
and ribosomes and various sorts of
inclusions. A prokaryotic chromosome is
usually a circular molecule Though not
forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in
a nucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extra
chromosomal DNA elements
called plasmids, which are usually circular.
Plasmids enable additional functions, such
as antibiotic resistance.
EUKARYOTE CELL
Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and
algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about 15 times
wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as
1000 times greater in volume. The major difference
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic
cells contain membrane-bound compartments in
which specific metabolic activities take place. Most
important among these is a cell nucleus, a membrane-
delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic
cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name,
which means "true nucleus." Other differences include:
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
 The plasma membrane resembles that of
prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in
the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
 The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more
linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are
associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal
DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from
the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some
eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also
contain some DNA.
 Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary
cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in
chemosensation, mechanosensation, and
thermosensation. Cilia may thus be "viewed as
sensory cellular antennae that coordinate a large
number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes
coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or
alternatively to cell division and differentiation."[6]
 Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella.
The flagella are more complex than those of
prokaryotes.
 Unlike animal cells, plant cells have cell walls,
vacuoles, & chloroplasts.
 cell wall - rigid surrounding of plant cells
 vacuoles – large bodies in plant cells that hold
water, waste, etc.
 chloroplasts - contain chlorophyll in plants;
this is where the plant‘s food is produced
 They also have colouring pigments.
Cell Organelles and Cell Inclusions
a. Cell Membrane:
The outermost envelope or the covering of the cell
is called Cell membrane / plasma membrane,
plasma lemma. After invent of electronic
microscope in 1950 the ultrastructure of cell
membrane is very clearly understood. It is
composed of lipid and protein. The lipid
molecules have two ends – one hydrophobic
(saturated & non-polar) and other end polar
phospholipid. Lipid molecules are arranged in
two layers; surface portions are made up of polar
hydrophilic phospholipid and the inner ends are
hydrophobic. In between, the protein particles are
seen. Some proteins are peripheral (surface) and
others are integrated. The protein classification is
based on the ease of separation. Easily removable
protein is peripheral and difficult pat being
integrated. This model of plasma membrane was
proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972 – ―Fluid
Mosaic Model‖. The fluidity refers to dynamic
movement of integral proteins laterally within
membrane and other features like, growth,
endocytosis etc.
b. Endomembrane system
Eukaryote cells include a variety of membrane-
bound structures, collectively referred to as
the endomembrane system.[10] Simple
compartments, called vesicles or vacuoles, can
form by budding off other membranes. Many
cells ingest food and other materials through a
process of endocytosis, where the outer
membrane invaginates and then pinches off to
form a vesicle. It is probable that most other
membrane-bound organelles are ultimately
derived from such vesicles. Nucleus, Endoplasmic
Page 10
 reticulum, lysosomes, Golgo Complex is part of
endomembrane system
The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane
(commonly referred to as a nuclear envelope),
with pores that allow material to move in and out.
Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the
nuclear membrane form what is called
the endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which is
involved in protein transport and maturation. It
includes the rough ER where ribosomes are
attached to synthesize proteins, which enter the
interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they
generally enter vesicles, which bud off from the
smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, these protein-
carrying vesicles are released and further
modified in stacks of flattened vesicles,
called Golgi bodies or dictyosomes.
c. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type
of organelle in the cells of eukaryotic
organisms that forms an interconnected network
of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tubes
known as cisternae. The membranes of the ER are
continuous with the outer membrane of
the nuclear envelope. Endoplasmic reticulum
occurs in most types of eukaryotic cells, including
the most primitive Giardia,[1] but is absent
from red blood cells andspermatozoa. There are
two types of endoplasmic reticulum, rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The outer
(cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum is studded withribosomes that are the
sites of protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum is especially prominent in cells such
as hepatocytes where active protein synthesis
occurs. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks
ribosomes and functions
in lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism,
and detoxification and is especially abundant in
mammalian liver and gonad cells. The lacey
membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were
first seen in 1945 by Keith R. Porter, Albert
Claude, Brody Meskers and Ernest F. Fullam,
using electron microscopy.
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
d. Golgi Complex:
The Golgi apparatus also known as the Golgi
complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is
an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was
identified in 1897 by the Italian physician Camillo
Golgi and named after him in 1898.
Part of the cellular endomembrane system, the
Golgi apparatus packages proteins inside the cell
before they are sent to their destination; it is
particularly important in the processing of
proteins for secretion. Cells synthesize a large
number of different macromolecules. The Golgi
apparatus is integral in modifying, sorting, and
packaging these macromolecules for cell
secretion[10] (exocytosis) or use within the
cell.[11] It primarily modifies proteins delivered
from the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but is also
involved in the transport of lipids around the cell,
and the creation of lysosomes. Proteins destined
for areas of the cell other than either
the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus are
moved towards the trans face, to a complex
network of membranes and associated vesicles
known as the trans-Golgi network (TGN). This
area of the Golgi is the point at which proteins are
sorted and shipped to their intended destinations
by their placement into one of at least three
different types of vesicles, depending upon the
molecular marker they carry. Golgi complex is the
site for synthesis of glycoprotein and glycolipids.
e. LYSOSOME
Lysosome is a membrane-bound cell
organelle found in animal cells (they are absent
in red blood cells). They are structurally and
chemically spherical vesicles containing
hydrolytic enzymes, which are capable
of breaking down virtually all kinds
of biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic
acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and cellular debris.
They are known to contain more than fifty
different enzymes which are all active at an acidic
environment of about pH 5. Thus they act as
waste disposal system of the cell by digesting
unwanted materials in the cytoplasm, both from
outside of the cell and obsolete components
inside the cell. For this function they are
popularly referred to as "suicide bags" or "suicide
sacs" of the cell. Further, lysosomes are
responsible for cellular homeostasis for their
involvements in secretion, plasma
membrane repair, cell signalling and energy
metabolism, which are related to health and
diseases.[1] Depending on their functional activity
their sizes can be very different, as the biggest
ones can be more than 10 times bigger than the
smallest ones.[2] They were discovered and named
by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who
eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine in 1974.
Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesised in
the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The enzymes
are released from Golgi apparatus in small
vesicles which ultimately fuse with acidic vesicles
called endosomes, thus becoming full lysosomes.
Extracellular materials such
as microorganisms taken up by
phagocytosis, macromolecules by endocytosis,
and unwanted cell organelles are fused with
lysosomes in which they are broken down to their
basic molecules. Thus lysosomes are the recycling
units of a cell
Page 11

f. Mitochondrion:
The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is
a membrane-bound organelle found in
most eukaryotic cells (the cells that make
up plants, animals, fungi, and many other forms
of life). Mitochondria range from 0.5 to
1.0 micrometer (μm) in diameter. These
structures are sometimes described as "cellular
power plants" because they generate most of the
cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate(ATP),
used as a source of chemical energy.[3] In addition
to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are
involved in other tasks such as signaling, cellular
differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of
the cell cycle and cell growth.
A mitochondrion contains outer and inner
membranes composed of phospholipid
bilayers and proteins.[8] The two membranes have
different properties. Because of this double-
membraned organization, there are five distinct
parts to a mitochondrion. They are:
1. The outer mitochondrial membrane,:
The outer mitochondrial membrane, which
encloses the entire organelle, has a protein-to- g.
phospholipid ratio similar to that of the
eukaryotic plasma membrane (about 1:1 by
weight). It contains large numbers of integral
proteins called porins.
2. The intermembrane space (the space
between the outer and inner membranes):
The intermembrane space is the space between
the outer membrane and the inner membrane. It
is also known as perimitochondrial space.
Because the outer membrane is freely permeable
to small molecules, the concentrations of small
molecules such as ions and sugars in the
intermembrane space is the same as
the cytosol.[8] However, large proteins must have
a specific signaling sequence to be transported
across the outer membrane, so the protein
composition of this space is different from the
protein composition of the cytosol. One protein
that is localized to the intermembrane space in
this way is cytochrome c.
3. the inner mitochondrial membrane: The inner
mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with
five types of functions:[8]
a) Those that perform the redox reactions
of oxidative phosphorylation
b) ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix
c) Specific transport proteins that
regulate metabolite passage into and out of the
matrix
d) Protein import machinery.
e) Mitochondria fusion and fission protein.
4. The cristae space (formed by infoldings of the
inner membrane), and the matrix (space within
the inner membrane).
5. Cristae: The inner mitochondrial membrane is
compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which
expand the surface area of the inner
mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to
produce ATP. For typical liver mitochondria, the
area of the inner membrane is about five times as
large as the outer membrane. This ratio is
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
variable and mitochondria from cells that have a
greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells,
contain even more cristae. These folds are
studded with small round bodies known
as F1 particles or oxysomes. These are not simple
random folds but rather invaginations of the
inner membrane, which can affect
overall chemiosmotic function.[2
Mitochondria stripped of their outer membrane
are called mitoplasts.
RIBOSOMES:
The ribosome is a large and complex molecular
machine, found within all living cells, that serves
as the primary site of biological protein
synthesis (translation). Ribosomes link amino
acids together in the order specified by messenger
RNA (mRNA) molecules. Ribosomes consist of
two major components — the small ribosomal
subunit which reads the RNA, and the large
subunit which joins amino acids to form
a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of
one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules
and a variety of proteins. A ribosome is made
from complexes of RNAs and proteins and is
therefore a ribonucleoprotein. Each ribosome is
divided into two subunits: a smaller subunit
which binds to the mRNA pattern, and a larger
subunit which binds to the tRNA and the amino
acids. When a ribosome finishes reading an
mRNA molecule, these two subunits split apart.
Ribosomes are ribozymes, because
the catalytic peptidyl transferase activity that
links amino acids together is performed by
the ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes were first
observed in the mid-1950s by Romanian cell
biologist George Emil Palade using an electron
microscope as dense particles or granules[3] for
which, in 1974, he would win a Nobel Prize. The
term "ribosome" was proposed by scientist
Richard B. Roberts in 1958:
The unit of measurement is the Svedberg unit, a
measure of the rate
of sedimentation in centrifugation rather than
size, and this accounts for why fragment names
do not add up (70S is made of 50S and 30S).
Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes, each consisting
of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit. Their
small subunit has a 16S RNA subunit (consisting
of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The
large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA subunit
(120 nucleotides), a 23S RNA subunit (2900
nucleotides) and 31 proteins.
Page 12
 Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes, each consisting
of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. Their
40S subunit has an 18S RNA (1900 nucleotides)
and 33 proteins.[12][13] The large subunit is
composed of a 5S RNA(120 nucleotides), 28S
RNA (4700 nucleotides), a 5.8S RNA (160
nucleotides) subunits and 46 proteins.
The ribosomes found
in chloroplasts and mitochondria of eukaryotes
also consist of large and small subunits bound
together with proteins into one 70S
particle.[8] These organelles are believed to be
descendants of bacteria (Endosymbiotic theory)
and as such their ribosomes are similar to those
of bacteria.
Ribosomes are the workhorses of protein
biosynthesis, the process of translating mRNA
into protein. The mRNA comprises a series
of codons that dictate to the ribosome the
sequence of the amino acids needed to make the
protein. Using the mRNA as a template, the
ribosome traverses each codon (3 nucleotides) of
the mRNA, pairing it with the appropriate amino
acid provided by an aminoacyl-tRNA. aminoacyl-
tRNA contains a complementary anticodon on
one end and the appropriate amino acid on the
other. For fast and accurate recognition of the
appropriate tRNA, the ribosome utilizes large
conformational changes (conformational
proofreading). Since theircatalytic core is made of
RNA, ribosomes are classified as
"ribozymes,"[28] and it is thought that they might
be remnants of the RNA world.
Ribosomes are classified as being either "free" or
"membrane-bound".
Free ribosomes can move about anywhere in
the cytosol, but are excluded from the cell
nucleus and other organelles. Proteins that are
formed from free ribosomes are released into the
cytosol and used within the cell.
When a ribosome begins to synthesize proteins
that are needed in some organelles, the ribosome
making this protein can become "membrane-
bound". In eukaryotic cells this happens in a
region of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) called
the "rough ER". The newly produced polypeptide
chains are inserted directly into the ER by the
ribosome undertaking vectorial synthesis and are
then transported to their destinations, through
the secretory pathway. Bound ribosomes usually
produce proteins that are used within the plasma
membrane or are expelled from the cell
via exocytosis.
h. CYTOSKELETON:
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers
composed of proteins contained within
a cell's cytoplasm. Although the name implies the
cytoskeleton to be stable, it is a dynamic
structure, parts of which are constantly
destroyed, renewed or newly constructed. In most
cells of all pepe domains of life
(archaea, bacteria, eukaryotes) a cytoskeleton is
found (notably in all eukaryotic cells which
includes human, animal and plant cells). The
cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are
composed by similar proteins. However,
structure, function and dynamic behaviour of the
cytoskeleton can be very different, depending on
organism and cell type.
The cytoskeleton of eukaryotes (including human
and all animals cells) has three major
components: microfilaments composed of the
protein actin and microtubules composed of the
protein tubulin are present in all eukaryotic
cells.[2] By contrast intermediate filaments, which
have more that 60 different building block
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
proteins have so far only been found in animal
cells (apart from one non-eukaryotic bacterial
intermediate filament crescentin).[4] The
complexity of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton
emerges from the interaction with hundreds of
associated proteins like molecular
motors, crosslinkers, capping proteins and
nucleation promoting factors.
There is a multitude of functions the cytoskeleton
can perform: It gives the cell shape and
mechanical resistance to deformation;[1] through
association with extracellular connective
tissue and other cells it stabilizes entire
tissues;[1][4] it can actively contract, thereby
deforming the cell and the cell's environment and
allowing cells to migrate;[3] it is involved in
many cell signaling pathways; it is involved in the
uptake of extracellular material (endocytosis);[5] it
segregates chromosomes during cellular
division;[1] it is involved in cytokinesis - the
division of a mother cell into two daughter
cells;[2] it provides a scaffold to organize the
contents of the cell in space [3] and
for intracellular transport (for example, the
movement of vesicles and organelles within the
cell);[1] it can be a template for the construction of
a cell wall. Furthermore, it forms specialized
structures such as flagella, cilia, lamellipodia and
podosomes A large scale example of an action
performed by the cytoskeleton is muscle
contraction. During contraction of a muscle,
within each muscle cell, myosin molecular motors
collectively exert forces on parallel actin
filaments. This action contracts the muscle cell,
and through the synchronous process in many
muscle cells, the entire muscle.
i. Cilia and Flagella
Many eukaryotes have long slender motile
cytoplasmic projections, called flagella, or similar
structures called cilia. Flagella and cilia are
sometimes referred to as undulipodia,[12] and are
variously involved in movement, feeding, and
sensation. They are composed mainly of tubulin.
These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic
flagellae. They are supported by a bundle of
microtubules arising from a basal body, also
called a kinetosome or centriole, characteristically
arranged as nine doublets surrounding two
singlets. Flagella also may have hairs,
or mastigonemes, and scales connecting
membranes and internal rods. Their interior is
continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.
Inside cilia and flagella is a microtubule-
based cytoskeleton called the axoneme. The
axoneme of primary cilia typically has a ring of
nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9+0
axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium
has two central microtubule singlets in addition
to the nine outer doublets (called a 9+2
axoneme). The axonemal cytoskeleton acts as a
scaffolding for various protein complexes and
provides binding sites for molecular
motor proteins such as kinesin II, that help carry
proteins up and down the microtubules.
Page 13

j. Centrosome or Centriole
centriole is a cylindrical cell
structure[1] composed mainly of a protein
called tubulin that is found in
most eukaryotic cells. An associated pair of
centrioles, surrounded by an amorphous mass of
dense material, called the pericentriolar material,
or PCM, makes up a compound structure called
a centrosome.[1]
Centrioles are present in the cells of most
eukaryotes, for example those of animals. Most
centrioles are made up of nine sets
of microtubule triplets, arranged in a cylinder.
Deviations from this structure
include crabs and Drosophila
melanogaster embryos, with nine doublets,
and Caenorhabditis elegans sperm cells and early
embryos, with nine singlets.[4][5]Edouard van
Beneden and Theodor Boveri made the first
observation and identification of centrioles in
1883 and 1888 respectively,[6][7] while the pattern
of centriole duplication was first worked out
independently by Etienne de Harven and Joseph
G. Gall circa 1950
Centrioles are involved in the organization of
the mitotic spindle and in the completion
of cytokinesis. Centrioles are a very important
part of centrosomes, which are involved in
organizing microtubules in
the cytoplasm.[13][14] The position of the centriole
determines the position of the nucleus and plays a
crucial role in the spatial arrangement of the cell.
In organisms with flagella and cilia, the position
of these organelles is determined by the mother
centriole, which becomes the basal body.
k. NUCLEUS:
the nucleus (pl. nuclei;
from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel)
is a membrane-enclosed organelle found
in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the
cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long
linear DNA molecules in complex with a large
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
variety of proteins, such as histones, to
form chromosomes. The genes within these
chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome. The
function of the nucleus is to maintain the
integrity of these genes and to control the
activities of the cell by regulating gene
expression—the nucleus is, therefore, the control
center of the cell. The main structures making up
the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double
membrane that encloses the entire organelle and
isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm,
and the nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear
lamina). Because the nuclear membrane is
impermeable to large molecules, nuclear
pores are required that regulate nuclear
transport of molecules across the envelope. The
pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a
channel through which larger molecules must be
actively transported by carrier proteins while
allowing free movement of small molecules
and ions. Movement of large molecules such as
proteins and RNA through the pores is required
for both gene expression and the maintenance of
chromosomes.
The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in
1804[2] and in more detail in 1831 by
Scottish botanist Robert Brown. The nucleus is
the largest cellular organelle in animal
cells.[5] In mammalian cells, the average diameter
of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometers
(μm), which occupies about 10% of the total cell
volume.[6] The viscous liquid within it is
called nucleoplasm, and is similar in composition
to the cytosol found outside the nucleus.[7] It
appears as a dense, roughly spherical organelle.
Nuclear Envelope:
The nuclear envelope, otherwise known as
nuclear membrane, consists of two cellular
membranes, an inner and an outer membrane,
arranged parallel to one another and separated by
10 to 50 nanometers (nm). The nuclear envelope
completely encloses the nucleus and separates the
cell's genetic material from the surrounding
cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to
prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely
between the nucleoplasm and the
cytoplasm.[8] The outer nuclear membrane is
continuous with the membrane of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and is similarly
studded with ribosomes.[8] The space between the
membranes is called the perinuclear space and is
continuous with the RER lumen.
Nuclear pores, which provide aqueous
channels through the envelope, are composed of
multiple proteins, collectively referred to as
nucleoporins.
Chromosomes:
The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell's
genetic material in the form of multiple
linear DNA molecules organized into structures
called chromosomes. Each human cell contains
roughly two meters of DNA. During most of
thecell cycle these are organized in a DNA-protein
complex known as chromatin, and during cell
division the chromatin can be seen to form the
well-defined chromosomes familiar from
a karyotype.
The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained
structure found in the nucleus. It is not
surrounded by a membrane, and is sometimes
called a suborganelle. It forms
around tandem repeats of rDNA, DNA coding
for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions are
called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR). The
main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize
rRNA and assemble ribosomes.
Page 14
 The nucleus provides a site for
genetic transcription that is segregated from the
location of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing
levels of gene regulation that are not available
to prokaryotes. The main function of the cell
nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate
the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
l. Microbodies
microbody is a type of organelle that is found in
the cells of plants, protozoa, and animals.
UNIT 2 IMMUNOLOGY
Human immune system  Immunity is of two types − innate immunity
 Lymphoid organs are of two types − primary
lymphoid organs and secondary lymphoid  Innate immunity − It is present from the
organs.
 Primary lymphoid organs consist of bone
marrow and thymus. Here, immature
lymphocytes are differentiated to form
antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
o Bone marrow − Here, all blood cells
including lymphocytes are produced.
o Thymus − It is responsible for
maturation of T-lymphocytes. This
lobed organ is situated near the heart
and keeps on reducing in size as the
age increases.
 Secondary lymphoid organs − Lymphocytes
migrate here after attaining maturity. It
includes spleen, lymph nodes tonsils, Peyer‘s
patches, and appendix.
o Spleen − Large bean-shaped organ
containing lymphocytes and
 Acquired immunity − It is acquired, which
phagocytes, which acts as a filter for
blood
o Lymph nodes − Located at different
points throughout the immune
system, they trap the antigens present
in lymph or tissue fluid, and these
antigens cause activation of
lymphocytes and generation of
immune response.
 MALT (Mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue) −
Lines major tracts (respiratory, digestive,
urogenital, etc); constitutes 50% of lymphoid
tissue in body
Immunity
What is immunity?
 The ability of body to fight the disease-causing
organisms is called immunity.
Types of immunity
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
Organelles in the microbody family include
peroxisomes, glyoxysomes, glycosomes
and hydrogenosomes. In vertebrates, microbodies
are especially prevalent in the liver and kidney
organs. A microbody is usually a vesicle with a
spherical shape, ranging from 0.2-1.5
micrometers in diameter.[1] Microbodies are
found in the cytoplasm of a cell, but they are only
visible with the use of an electron
microscope. Microbodies contain enzymes that
participate in the preparatory or intermediate
stages of biochemical reactions within the cell.
This facilitates the breakdown of fats, alcohols
and amino acids. Different types of microbodies
have different functions:
A peroxisome is a type of microbody that
functions to help the body break down large
molecules and detoxify hazardous substances. It
contains enzymes like oxidase, which can create
hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct of its
enzymatic reactions. Within the peroxisome,
hydrogen peroxide can then be converted to water
by enzymes like catalase and peroxidase.
Glyoxysomes are specialized peroxisomes
found in plants and mold, which help to convert
stored lipids into carbohydrates so they can be
used for plant growth. In glyoxysomes the fatty
acids are hydrolyzed to acetyl-CoA by
peroxisomal β-oxidation enzymes. Besides
peroxisomal functions, glyoxysomes also possess
the key enzymes of the Glyoxylate cycle.
and acquired immunity.
time of birth. It is non-specific. It consists of 4
kinds of barriers.
o Physical barriers − Skin and
mucus coating of respiratory,
gastrointestinal, and urogenital tract
prevent entry of microbes into body.
o Physiological barriers − Acid in
stomach, saliva in mouth, tears from
eyes
o Cellular barriers − Blood has
leukocytes such as polymorpho
nuclear leukocytes, monocytes, etc.
and tissue has macrophages which
phagocytose the microbes.
o Cytokine barriers − Special proteins
called interferons are secreted by
virus-infected cells that prevent the
further spread of viral infection.
means that it is produced in response to an
encounter with a pathogen based on memory.
It is pathogen specific.
o When a pathogen for the first time
infects a person, low intensity immune
response is generated (primary
response).
o When the same pathogen attacks
again, intensified immune response in
generated, thereby preventing the
occurrence of disease (secondary
response).
o Acquired immunity involves two types
of cells − B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes.
o B-lymphocytes − Secrete proteins
called antibodies in response to
pathogens Antibodies are specialized
proteins with 4 peptide chains (2 light
Page 15
 and 2 heavy), hence denoted as H2L2.
IgA IgM, IgE, etc. are examples of
some of the antibodies. They
generate humoral immune
response (found in blood).
o T-lymphocytes − They help B-cells to
produce antibodies. They
generate cell -mediated immune
response. This response helps the
body to differentiate between ‗self‘ and
‗non-self‘ as occurs in case of graft
rejection.
The immune system was separated into two
branches: humoral immunity, for which the protective
function of immunization could be found in the humor
(cell-free bodily fluid or serum) and cellular
immunity, for which the protective function of
immunization was associated with cells. CD4 cells or
helper T cells provide protection against different
pathogens. Cytotoxic T cells cause death
by apoptosis without using cytokines, therefore in cell
mediated immunity cytokines are not always present.
Cellular immunity protects the body by:
1. activating antigen-specific cytotoxic T-
lymphocytes that are able to
induce apoptosis in body cells
displaying epitopes of foreign antigen on their
surface, such as virus-infected cells, cells with
intracellular bacteria, and cancer cells
displaying tumor antigens;
2. activating macrophages and natural killer
cells, enabling them to destroy pathogens;
and
3. Stimulating cells to secrete a variety of
cytokines that influence the function of other
cells involved in adaptive immune responses
and innate immune responses.
Cell-mediated immunity is directed primarily at
microbes that survive in phagocytes and microbes that
infect non-phagocytic cells. It is most effective in
removing virus-infected cells, but also participates in
defending against fungi, protozoans, cancers, and
intracellular bacteria. It also plays a major role
in transplant rejection.]
Antibody:
An antibody (Ab), also known as
an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large Y-
shaped protein produced by B-cells that is used by
the immune systemto identify and neutralize foreign
objects such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody
recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, called
anantigen.Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains
Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody-
producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble
antibody or memory cells that survive in the body for
years afterward in order to allow the immune system
to remember an antigen and respond faster upon
future exposures.
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
a paratope (a structure analogous to a lock) that is
specific for one particular epitope(similarly analogous
to a key) on an antigen, allowing these two structures
to bind together with precision. Using this binding
mechanism, an antibody can tag a microbe or an
infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune
system, or can neutralize its target directly (for
example, by blocking a part of a microbe that is
essential for its invasion and survival). The production
of antibodies is the main function of the humoral
immune system. Antibodies are secreted by a type
of white blood cell called a plasma cell. Antibodies
are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin
superfamily; the
terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often used
interchangeably.
Antibodies are typically made of basic structural
units—each with two large heavy chains and two
small light chains. There are five types of mammalian
Ig heavy chain denoted by the Greek letters: α, δ, ε, γ,
and μ.The type of heavy chain present defines
the class of antibody; these chains are found in IgA,
IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM antibodies, respectively. Each
heavy chain has two regions, the constant region and
the variable region. A light chain has two successive
domains: one constant domain and one variable
domain.
The five subclasses of antibodies are:
1. Immunoglobulin A (IgA), which is found in
high concentrations in the mucous membranes,
particularly those lining the respiratory passages
and gastrointestinal tract, as well as in saliva and
tears.
2. Immunoglobulin G (IgG), the most abundant
type of antibody, is found in all body fluids and
protects against bacterial and viral infections.
3. Immunoglobulin M (IgM), which is found
mainly in the blood and lymph fluid, is the first to
be made by the body to fight a new infection.
4. Immunoglobulin E (IgE), which is associated
mainly with allergic reactions (when the immune
system overreacts to environmental antigens such
as pollen or pet dander). It is found in the lungs,
skin, and mucous membranes.
5. Immunoglobulin D (IgD), which exists in
minute amounts in the blood, is the least
understood antibody.
IgA, IgG, and IgM are frequently measured
simultaneously. Evaluated together, they can give
doctors important information about immune
system functioning, especially relating to infection
or autoimmune disease.
Difference between active immunity and
passive immunity
 Active Immunity
o This is the naturally acquired
immunity produced in the host body
in response to an antigen.
o Immunization and body naturally
getting immune to a microbe that had
caused infection previously are
examples of active immunity.
 Passive immunity
o When ready-made antibodies are
provided to an individual to protect
against foreign agents
o Colostrums present in mother‘s
milk contain IgA. Also, the foetus gets
antibodies from mother through
placenta.
How does vaccination help?
 Vaccines are nothing but inactivated
pathogens.
Page 16
  These inactivated pathogens when introduced
in the body produce a primary immune
response and antibodies are produced against
the pathogen.
 Memory B and T-cells are produced.
 Now when the pathogen again attacks the
person, memory B and T-cells generate a
massive immune response and the pathogen is
killed.
Problems of immune system
 Allergies
o Exaggerated immune response to
certain antigens present
environment
o Allergens − Substances in response to
which allergy is produced
E.g., dust, pollen, etc.
o Antibodies involved − IgE type
o During allergic reactions, chemicals
such as histamines and serotonins are
released.
o Symptoms − Sneezing, watery eyes,
difficulty in breathing, etc.
o Allergy test − Patient is injected with
small doses of allergens to monitor his
response.
o Antihistamines, adrenalins, and
steroids may be given so that the
symptoms of allergy subside.
 Autoimmunity
o In autoimmunity, body generates
in immune response against its own
cells.
o Reasons − Genetic and other unknown
reasons
o Example − Rheumatoid arthritis is an
autoimmune disease.

UNIT 3
PARASITOLOGY
Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts,  Gyrodactylus salaris, a monogenean parasite
and the relationship between them. As a biological of salmon, which can wipe out populations which
discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined are not resistant.
by the organism or environment in question, but by This is the study of structures of proteins from
their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of parasites. Determination of parasitic protein
other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields structures may help to better understand how these
such as cell proteins function differently from homologous
biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular proteins in humans. In addition, protein structures
biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology. may inform the process of drug discovery.
Parasitology may include various different fields such Parasites exhibit an aggregated distribution among
as;Medical parasitology Veterinary parasitology host individuals, thus the majority of parasites live in
Structural parasitology Quantitative parasitology the minority of hosts. This feature forces
Parasite ecology. parasitologists to use advanced biostatistical
"Humans are hosts to nearly 300 species of parasitic methodologies.
worms and over 70 species of protozoa, some derived Parasites can provide information about host
from our primate ancestors and some acquired from population ecology. In fisheries biology, for example,
the animals we have domesticated or come in contact parasite communities can be used to distinguish
with during our relatively short history on Earth". distinct populations of the same fish species co-
inhabiting a region. Additionally, parasites possess a
medical parasitology is the subject which deals with
variety of specialized traits and life-history strategies
the parasites that infect humans, the diseases caused
that enable them to colonize hosts. Understanding
by them, clinical picture and the response generated by
these aspects of parasite ecology, of interest in their
humans against them. It is also concerned with the
own right, can illuminate parasite-avoidance strategies
various methods of their diagnosis, treatment and
employed by hosts.
finally their prevention & control. A parasite is an
Parasitism
organism that live on or within another organism
Parasitism is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship
called the host . These include organisms such as:
between species, where one species, the parasite,
 Plasmodium spp., the protozoan parasite which benefits at the expense of the other, the host.
causes malaria. The four species of malaria Traditionally parasite referred primarily to organisms
parasites infective to humans are Plasmodium visible to the naked eye, or macroparasites (such
falciparum,Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium as helminths). Parasite now includes microparasites,
vivax & Plasmodium ovale. which are typically smaller, such
 Leishmania donovani, the unicellular organism as protozoans,[1][2] viruses and bacteria.[3] Some
which causes leishmaniasis examples of parasites include the
 Entamoeba and Giardia, which cause intestinal plants mistletoe and cuscuta, and animals such
infections (dysentery and diarrhoea) as hookworms.
 Multicellular organisms and worms such Unlike predators, parasites do not kill their host, are
as Schistosoma spp., Wuchereria generally much smaller than their host, and will often
bancrofti, Necator americanus (hookworm) live in or on their host for an extended period. Both are
and Taenia spp. (tapeworm) special cases of consumer-resource
 Ectoparasites such as ticks, scabies and lice interactions. [4] Parasites show a high degree
The study of parasites that cause economic losses of specialization, and reproduce at a faster rate than
in agriculture or aquaculture operations, or which their hosts. Classic examples of parasitism include
infect companion animals. Examples of species studied interactions between vertebrate hosts
are: and tapeworms, flukes, the Plasmodium species,
and fleas. Parasitism differs from
 Lucilia sericata, a blowfly, which lays eggs on the
the parasitoid relationship because parasitoids
skins of farm animals. The maggots hatch and
generally kill their hosts
burrow into the flesh, distressing the animal and
Parasites reduce host biological fitness by general or
causing economic loss to the farmer
specialized pathology, such as parasitic castration and
 Otodectes cynotis, the cat ear mite, responsible for
impairment of secondary sex characteristics, to the
Canker.
modification of host behavior. Parasites increase their
fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for
their survival, e.g. food, water, heat, habitat,
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 17
and transmission. Although parasitism applies
unambiguously to many cases, it is part of a
continuum of types of interactions between species,
rather than an exclusive category. In many cases, it is
difficult to demonstrate that the host is harmed. In
others, there may be no apparent specialization on the
part of the parasite, or the interaction between the
organisms may be short-lived.
TYPE and LIFE HISTORY OF Ascaris
Ascaris is a genus
of parasitic nematode worms known as the "small
intestinal roundworms". One species, A. lumbricoides,
affects humans and causes the disease ascariasis.
Another species, A. suum, typically infects pigs. Their
eggs are deposited in feces and soil. Plants with the
eggs on them infect any organism that consumes
them. [1] A. lumbricoides is the largest intestinal
roundworm and is the most
common helminth infection of humans worldwide. 1. Adult worms live in the lumen of
Infestation can cause morbidity by compromising the small intestine. A female may
nutritional status,[2] affecting cognitive produce up to 240,000 eggs per day,
processes,[citation needed] inducing tissue reactions such as which are passed with the feces .
granuloma to larval stages, and by causing intestinal 2. Fertile eggs embryonate and become
obstruction, which can be fatal. infective after 18 days to several
Ascaris lumbricoides is the giant weeks ,
roundworm of humans, growing to a length of up to 3. Depending on the environmental
35 cm.[1] An ascarid nematode of the conditions (optimum: moist, warm,
phylum Nematoda, it is the largest and most shaded soil).
common parasitic worm in humans, responsible for 4. After infective eggs are swallowed ,
the disease ascariasis. One-sixth of the human 5. the larvae hatch ,
population is estimated to be infected by A. 6. Invade the intestinal mucosa, and are
lumbricoides or another roundworm.[2] Ascariasis is carried via the portal, then systemic
prevalent worldwide, especially
circulation to the lungs .
in tropical and subtropical countries.
7. The larvae mature further in the lungs
(10-14 days), penetrate the alveolar
Life cycle
walls, ascend the bronchial tree to the
Ascaris lumbricoides, a roundworm, infects humans throat, and are swallowed .
when an ingested fertilised egg becomes a larval
worm that penetrates the wall of the duodenum and 8. Upon reaching the small intestine,
enters the blood stream. From there, it is carried to they develop into adult worms .
the liver and heart, and enters pulmonary Between 2 and 3 months are required
circulation to break free in the alveoli, where it grows from ingestion of the infective eggs to
and molts. In three weeks, the larvae pass from oviposition by the adult female. Adult
the respiratory system to be coughed up, swallowed, worms can live 1 to 2 years.
and thus returned to the small intestine, where they
Symptoms/Pathology
mature to adult male and female
Infection with Ascaris lumbricoides often causes no
worms. Fertilization can now occur and the female
symptoms. Infections with a large number of worms
produces as many as 200,000 eggs per day for a year.
may cause abdominal pain or intestinal
These fertilized eggs become infectious after two weeks
obstruction. Adults feed on the contents of the small
in soil; they can persist in soil for 10 years or more.[3]
intestine and in heavy infections this may compound
The eggs have a lipid layer which makes them resistant
problems in malnourished individuals (especially
to the effects of acids and alkalis, as well as other
children).
chemicals. This resilience helps to explain why
Migration of larvae may cause localized reactions in
this nematode is such a ubiquitous parasite.
various organs. Penetration of the larvae from
A. lumbricoides is characterized by its great size. Males
capillaries into the lungs can lead to Loeffler's
are 2–4 mm in diameter and 15–31 cm long. The
pneumonia, in which pools of blood and dead
male's posterior end is curved ventrally and has a
epithelial cells clog air spaces in the lungs. Resulting
bluntly pointed tail. Females are 3–6 mm wide and
bacterial infections can be fatal.
20–49 cm long. The vulva is located in the anterior
Diagnosis: The standard method for diagnosing
end and accounts for about one-third of its body
ascariasis is by identifying Ascaris eggs in a stool
length. Uteri may contain up to 27 million eggs at a
sample using a microscope. Because eggs may be
time, with 200,000 being laid per day. Fertilized eggs
difficult to find in light infections, a concentration
are oval to round in shape and are 45-75 μms long and
procedure is recommended.
35-50 μm wide with a thick outer shell. Unfertilized
TREATMENT: Anthelminthic medications (drugs
eggs measure 88-94 μm long and 44 μm wide.
that rid the body of parasitic worms), such as
albendazole and mebendazole, are the drugs of choice
for treatment of Ascaris infections. Infections are
generally treated for 1-3 days. The drugs are effective
and appear to have few side effects.
The best way to prevent ascariasis is to always:
 Avoid ingesting soil that may be contaminated with
human feces, including where human fecal matter
("night soil") or wastewater is used to fertilize crops.
 Wash your hands with soap and warm water before
handling food.

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 18

 Teach children the importance of washing hands to 
prevent infection.
UNIT – IV
A. Evolution: Evidence of evolution from
comparative functional anatomy-
Homologous, Analogous and vestigial
organs, connecting link, Atavism
(Reversion)
Evolution: Evolution is the change in the
inherited characteristics of biological
populations over successive generations.
Evidences of Evolution
1. Fossils – Archaeological Evidences rely
mostly upon fossils as they represent plants
and animals that lived millions of years ago
and are now extinct. Different aged rock
sediments contain fossils of different life-
forms, which probably died during the
formation of the particular sediment.
2. Comparative functional anatomy
Comparative anatomy is the study of
similarities and differences in the anatomy of
different species. it indicates that various
organisms share a common ancestor. Also, it
assists in classifying organisms based on
similar characteristics of their anatomical
structures. Comparative anatomy supports
Darwin's theory of descent with modification,
also known as evolution. A common example
of comparative anatomy is the similar bone
structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats,
and humans. All of these appendages consist
of the same basic parts; yet, they serve
completely different functions. The skeletal
parts which form a structure used for
swimming, such as a fin, would not be ideal to
form a wing, which is better-suited for flight.
One explanation for the forelimbs' similar
composition is descent with modification.
Through random mutations and natural
selection, each organism's anatomical
structures gradually adapted to suit their
respective habitats. Two major concepts of
comparative anatomy are:
1. Homologous structures - structures (body
parts/anatomy) which are similar in
different species because the species
have common descent. They may or may
not perform the same function. An
example is the forelimb structure shared
by cats and whales.
2. Analogous structures - structures similar
in different organisms because they
evolved in a similar environment, rather
than were inherited from a recent
common ancestor. They usually serve the
same or similar purposes. An example is
the streamlined torpedo body shape
of porpoises and sharks. So even though
they evolved from different ancestors,
porpoises and sharks developed analogous
structures as a result of their evolution in
the same aquatic environment.
Occurrence of homologous structure in
biological worlds is also referred as
Homology, which is the existence of shared
ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes,
in different species.[1] A common example of
homologous structures in evolutionary
biology are the wings of bats and the arms
of primates. Evolutionary theory explains the
existence of homologous structures adapted to
different purposes as the result of descent with
modification from a common ancestor. The
opposite of homologous organs
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
Wash, peel, or cook all raw vegetables and fruits
before eating, particularly those that have been
grown in soil that has been fertilized with manure.
are analogous organs which do similar jobs in
two taxa that were not present in the last
common ancestor but rather evolved
separately. An example of an analogous trait
would be the wings of bats and birds, which
evolved independently in each lineage
separately after diverging from ancestors with
forelimbs not used as wings (terrestrial
mammals and theropod dinosaurs,
respectively).
The homology is seen in the divergent
evolution taking place in the bones of limbs of
vertebrate animals. The general structure of
bones is known as pentadactyle plan.
Pentadactyle plan:
The pentadactyle limb has 5 digits on the hand and
foot. It also has a specific pattern of bones.
The structure of a human arm includes a bone between
the shoulder and the elbow called the humerus.
Below the elbow are 2 other bones, the radius and the
ulna, followed by a set of wrist bones, Carpals &
Metacarpals and then the 5-digit fingers
(phalanges) and toes. This is an example of a
pentadactyle limb.
The pentadactyle limb is common to humans, other
mammals (although whales and dolphins have lost
their hind limbs), birds, dinosaurs, and other reptiles
and amphibians.
Darwin noted how widespread it was when he wrote
On the Origin of Species:
'What could be more curious than that the
hand of man formed for grasping, that of a
mole, for digging, the leg of a horse, the
paddle of a porpoise and the wing of a bat,
should all be constructed on the same pattern
and should include similar bones and in the
same relative positions?'
There are a few mammals that appear to have different
numbers of digits from us. One of these is the panda,
which looks like it has 6 digits.
However, close examination has shown that the extra
thumb is actually an outgrowth of one of the wrist
bones and not an extra digit at all. The same is true of
moles.
The pentadactyle limb is common to most tetrapods
(4-limbed creatures). It is evidence of humans'
common ancestry with amphibians, reptiles and other
mammals.
However, the basic pattern has been modified in
different groups. For example, frogs have 4 fingers
and birds have only 3 fingers in their wing skeleton.
Among extinct tetrapods, many dinosaurs had only 3
toes, and some marine reptiles had more than 5 digits
in their paddles. But no animals living today have
more than 5 digits that all developed in the same way.
Page 19
Another example is the development of testes and
ovary in the reproductive system. In male, testes
develop during 7th week and in female ovaries develop
by the 8th week. Other examples are vertebrate hearts
or brains.
 Analogy or Analogous organs:
The pair of organs is not anatomically similar,
but performs the same function (e.g., the
wings of butterflies and birds). This is
called convergent evolution. Convergent
evolution describes the
independent evolution of similar features in
species of different lineages. Convergent
evolution creates analogous structures that
have similar form or function, but that were
not present in the last common ancestor of
those groups. Flyinginsects, birds,
and bats have all evolved the capacity of flight
independently. They have "converged" on this
useful trait.
Functionally similar features arising through
convergent evolution are termed analogous, in
contrast to homologous structures or traits,
which have a common origin, but not
necessarily similar
function.[1] The British anatomistRichard
Owen was the first scientist to recognise the
fundamental difference between analogies and
homologies.[3] Bat and pterosaur wings
constitute an example of analogous structures,
while the bat wing is homologous
tohuman and other mammal forearms,
sharing an ancestral state despite serving
different functions.
In morphology, analogous traits will often
arise where different species live in similar
ways and/or similar environment, and so face
the same environmental factors. When
occupying similar ecological niches (that is, a
distinctive way of life) similar problems lead to
similar solutions. convergence is a dominant
force in evolution, and given that the same
environmental and physical constraints are at
work, life will inevitably evolve toward an
"optimum" body plan, and at some point,
evolution is bound to stumble upon
intelligence, a trait presently identified with at
least primates, corvids, and cetaceans.
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
Astrophytum asterias E obese symmetrica
 Vestigial organs
Vestigiality refers to genetically determined
structures or attributes that have apparently
lost most or all of their ancestral function in a
given species, but have been retained
through evolution.[1] Assessment of the
vestigiality must generally rely on comparison
with homologous features in related species.
The emergence of vestigiality occurs by normal
evolutionary processes, typically by loss of
function of a feature that is no longer subject
to positive selection pressures when it loses its
value in a changing environment. More
urgently the feature may be selected
against when its function becomes definitely
harmful. Typical examples of both types occur
in the loss of flying capability in island-
dwelling species.
Vestigial features may take various forms; for
example they may be patterns of behavior,
anatomical structures, or biochemical
processes.
A classic example at the level of gross anatomy
is the human vermiform appendix — though
vestigial in the sense of retaining no
significant digestive function, the appendix
still has immunological roles and is useful in
maintaining gut flora.
Vestigial structures are often
called vestigial organs, although many of
them are not actually organs. Such vestigial
structures typically are degenerate, atrophied,
or rudimentary,[2] and tend to be much
more variable than homologous non-vestigial
parts. Although structures commonly regarded
"vestigial" may have lost some or all of the
functional roles that they had played in
ancestral organisms, such structures may
retain lesser functions or may have become
adapted to new roles in extant populations.
It is important to avoid confusion of the
concept of vestigiality with that of exaptation.
Both may occur together in the same example,
depending on the relevant point of view. In
exaptation a structure originally used for one
purpose is modified for a new one. For
example, the wings of penguins would be
Page 20
 exaptational in the sense of serving a
substantial new purpose (underwater
locomotion), but might still be regarded as
vestigial in the sense of having lost the
function of flight. In contrast Darwin argued
that the wings of emus would be definitely
vestigial, as they appear to have no major
extant function; however, function is a matter
of degree, so judgements on what is a "major"
function are arbitrary; the emu does seem to
use its wings as organs of balance in running.
Similarly, the ostrich uses its wings in displays
and temperature control, though they are
undoubtedly vestigial as structures for flight.
Examples in Human Body:
a. The human caecum is vestigial, as often is the
case in omnivores, being reduced to a single
chamber receiving the content of
the ileum into the colon. The ancestral
caecum would have been a large, blind
diverticulum in which resistant plant material
such as cellulose would have been fermented
in preparation for absorption in the
colon.[19] [20][21] Analogous organs in other
animals similar to humans continue to
perform similar functions. An alternative
explanation would be the possibility that
natural selection selects for larger appendices
because smaller and thinner appendices
would be more susceptible to inflammation
and disease.[22]
b. Thecoccyx,[23] or tailbone, though a vestige of Atavism
the tail of some primate ancestors, is Atavism is the tendency to revert to ancestral
functional as an anchor for certain pelvic type. In biology, an atavism is
muscles. an evolutionary throwback, such as traits
c. plica semilunaris on the inside corner of reappearing which had disappeared
the eye (a remnant of the nictitating generations before.
membrane) Atavisms can occur in several ways. One way is
d. muscles in the ear[25] and other parts of the when genes for previously
body. existing phenotypical features are preserved
e. occipitofrontalis muscles have lost their in DNA, and these become expressed through
original functions (keep the head from a mutation that either knock out the
falling) but are still useful for other purposes overriding genes for the new traits or make the
(facial expression). old traits override the new one. A number of
f. The formation of goose bumps in humans traits can vary as a result of shortening of
under stress is a vestigial reflex;[27] its the fetal development of a trait (neoteny) or by
function in human ancestors was to raise the prolongation of the same. In such a case, a
body's hair, making the ancestor appear shift in the time a trait is allowed to develop
larger and scaring off predators. before it is fixed can bring forth an ancestral
phenotype.
Evolutionarily, traits that have disappeared
phenotypically do not necessarily disappear
from an organism's DNA. The gene sequence
 often remains, but is inactive. Such an unused
gene may remain in the genome for many
generations. As long as the gene remains
intact, a fault in the genetic control
suppressing the gene can lead to it being
expressed again. Sometimes, the expression of
dormant genes can be induced by artificial
stimulation.
Atavisms have been observed in humans as
well. Babies have been born with a vestigial
tail, called "coccygeal process", "coccygeal
projection", and "caudal appendage". Atavism
can also be seen in humans who possess large
teeth, like those of other primates. In addition,
a case of "Snake Heart", the presence of
"coronary circulation and myocardial
architecture [which resemble] those of the
reptilian heart", has also been reported in
medical literature.
Examples of observed atavisms in animals
include:
o Hind legs on whales or snakes
o Hind fins on dolphins

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 21

 o Extra toes on horses, as in archaic
horses
o Re-emergence of sexual
reproduction in the flowering
plant Hieracium pilosella and
the Crotoniidae family of mites.
o Teeth in chickens
B. Ethology Introduction, Scope and patterns of
behavior. Nesting behavior (Weaver bird,
Horn bill) and social behavior (honey bees).
Behavioural Disorders.
Definition:
Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal
behavior, usually with a focus on behaviour under
natural conditions.
Introduction:
The modern discipline of ethology is generally
considered to have begun during the 1930s with the
work of Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergenand by
Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von
Frisch, joint winners of the 1973 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine.[2] Ethology is a combination of
laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to
some other disciplines such as neuroanatomy, ecology,
and evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a
behavioural process rather than in a particular animal
group, and often study one type of behaviour, such
as aggression, in a number of unrelated animals.
The desire to understand animals has made ethology a
rapidly growing field. Since the turn of the 21st
The different branches under ethology are;
1) Abnormal behaviour of birds in 10) Behavioral ecology
captivity 11) Cognitive ethology
2) Adjunctive behaviour 12) Darwinian puzzle
3) Altruism in animals 13) Deception in animals
4) Animal cognition 14) Displacement activity
5) Animal communication 15) Emotion in animals
6) Animal ethics 16) Ethnic nepotism
7) Animal welfare science 17) Etoecology
8) Animals in Translation (book) 18) Human ethology
9) Anthrozoology
century, many aspects of animal
communication, animal emotions, animal
culture, learning, and even sexual conduct that experts
long thought they understood, have been re-examined,
and new conclusions reached. New fields have
developed, such as neuroethology.
Understanding ethology or animal behaviour can be
important in animal training. Considering the natural
behaviours of different species or breeds enables the
trainer to select the individuals best suited to perform
the required task. It also enables the trainer to
encourage the performance of naturally occurring
behaviours and also the discontinuance of undesirable
behaviours.
Scope
Due to the work of Lorenz and Tinbergen, ethology
developed strongly in continental Europe during the
years prior to World War II.[4] After the war, Tinbergen
moved to the University of Oxford, and ethology
became stronger in the UK, with the additional
influence ofWilliam Thorpe, Robert Hinde, and Patrick
Bateson at the Sub-department of Animal Behaviour of
the University of Cambridge, located in the village
of Madingley.[37] In this period, too, ethology began to
develop strongly in North America. Lorenz, Tinbergen,
and von Frisch were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1973 for their work of
developing ethology.[38]
Ethology is now a well-recognised scientific discipline,
and has a number of journals covering developments
in the subject, such as Animal Behaviour, Animal
Welfare, Applied Animal Behaviour
Science, Behaviour, Behavioral Ecology and Journal
of Ethology. In 1972, the International Society for
Human Ethology was founded to promote exchange of
knowledge and opinions concerning human behaviour
gained by applying ethological principles and methods
and published their journal, The Human Ethology
Bulletin. In 2008, in a paper published in the
journal Behaviour, ethologist Peter Verbeek
introduced the term "Peace Ethology" as a sub-
discipline of Human Ethology that is concerned with
issues of human conflict, conflict resolution,
reconciliation, war, peacemaking, and peacekeeping
behaviour.[39]
Today, along with ethologists, many biologists,
zoologists, primatologists, anthropologists,
veterinarians, and physicians study ethology and other
related fields such as animal psychology, the study of
animal social groups, animal cognition and animal
welfare science.
19) Intrinsic value (animal ethics)
20) List of abnormal behaviours in
animals
21) Marine ethology
22) Neuroethology
23) Non-human animal sexuality
24) Phylogenetic comparative
methods
25) Sleep (non-human)
26) Sociophysiology
27) Supernormal stimuli
28) Vacuum activity

The ethology can be well understood by studying the iii. Social Transmission
various aspects such as; iv. Teaching
1. Instinct
2. Learning Nesting Behaviour in Birds
a. Habituation Nest building requires demanding activity of birds, as
b. Associative learning well it should be. Nest provide birds with support and
c. Imprinting insulation, concealment from predators, and shelter
d. Observational Learning from rain. Building a nest takes time, time that might
i. Imitation be spent feeding or hiding from predators. The nesting
ii. Stimulus enhancement habits of each species have evolved over the ages and

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 22

are matched to the climate, habitat, size, amount of
threat by predators, clutch size, longevity, physiology,
and chick development patterns. Nest can be on bare
ground, in trees, in marshes, or on cliffs, and may hold
from only a single egg to more than a dozen.
Nesting in dense cover, especially off the ground,
provides safety from predators. For the same reason,
many species nest in cavities in trees or in birdhouses.
Woodpeckers excavate their own holes in
trees; Bluebirds, House Wrens, starlings, Tree
Swallows, and screech-owls use abandoned
woodpecker holes or existing tree cavities. The hornbill
of Africa takes the protection aspect a step further: The
male seals the cavity opening with mud after the
female sits on the nest. The male passes food to its
mate, and later to the chicks, through a small opening Hornbill
in the wall.
Not all bird species build nests. Some species lay their
eggs directly on the ground or rocky ledges,
while brood parasites lay theirs in the nests of other
birds, letting unwitting "foster parents" do all the work
of rearing the young. Although nests are primarily
used for breeding, they may also be reused in the non-
breeding season for roosting and some species build
special dormitory nests or roost nests (or winter-nest)
that are used only for roosting.[3] Most birds build a
new nest each year, though some refurbish their old
nests.
In most species, the female does most or all of the nest
construction, though the male often helps.[4] In
some polygynous species, however, the male does most
or all of the nest building. The nest may also form a
part of the courtship display such as in weaver birds.
The ability to choose and maintain good nest sites and
build high quality nests may be selected for by females
in these species. Hornbill nesting and feeding
Among various types of nests built by birds, weaver Indian Grey Hornbills and Malabar Grey Hornbills are
bird and others build pendant type of nests. the common type of Hornbills seen in India. There are
The pendant nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable nearly ten types of hornbills seen in India but the
materials such as grasses and plant fibers and Indian grey hornbill,Malabar grey horn bill, Malabar
suspended from a branch. Oropendolas, caciques, pied hornbills, Great Hornbills are the common types
orioles, weavers and sunbirds are among the species seen. They are wide spread in the western Ghats, and
that weave pendant nests. also eastern Indian forests. Hornbills are charecterised
The Ploceidae, or weavers, are by their horn like beak and pied hornbills have a
small passerine birds related to the finches. These are casque on their upper mandible. The beak is coloured
seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills, most of and the bird is blackish grey .
which are from Sub-Saharan Africa, with fewer species Hornbills Have a unique breeding pattern. They are
in tropical Asia. A few species have monogamous, and select a cavity in a tall tree for
been introduced outside their native range.[1] The nesting.They make their nest and then seal the cavity
weaver group is divided into the buffalo, sparrow, with mud,fruit pulp,its droppings etc and when
typical, and widow weavers. The males of many species complete has an opening for the female bird to just
are brightly coloured, usually in red or yellow and squeeze inside. After the female enters the nest, the
black, some species show variation in colour only in male completely seals the nest and there is one small
the breeding season. opening for feeding the inmate bird. Now the male
Weaver birds, also known as weaver finches, get their feeds the female and female lays 4-6 eggs. Once inside
name because of their elaborately woven nests (the the nest ,the female undergoes complete moult by
most elaborate of any birds'), though some are notable shedding all its feathers and it incubates the eggs and
for their selective parasitic nesting habits. The nests then the chicks. At this stage it is totally dependent on
vary in size, shape, material used, and construction the male bird. If something happens to the male
techniques from species to species. Materials used for bird and if it dies, then the entire family dies.
building nests include fine leaf-fibers, grass, and twigs. This female bird cannot fly and cannot feed the chicks
Many species weave very fine nests using thin strands also. When the chicks are sufficiently grown the female
of leaf fiber, though some, like the buffalo-weavers, breaks open the nest and comes out and both feed the
form massive untidy stick nests in their colonies, young. Some opine that the female cannot break open
which may have spherical woven nests within. The the nest on its own and when it is time to come out the
sparrow weavers of Africa build apartment-house male bird breaks the nest from outside. The cycle lasts
nests, in which 100 to 300 pairs have separate flask- for 60 days. In this period they fight several adversities
shaped chambers entered by tubes at the bottom. Most including predator attacks, snakes, poaching humans
species weave nests that have narrow entrances, facing (and Photographers of course).
downward. During the nesting the male bird feeds the female and
Many weaver species are gregarious and the chicks with a variety of fruits, estimated to be
breed colonially.[1] The birds build their nests together more than 30 different types and also small
for protection, often several to a branch. Usually the insects,lizards etc. It travels long distances in search of
male birds weave the nests and use them as a form of food. The fruits are held in its throat and when it
display to lure prospective females. The weaver bird reaches nest it regurgitates the fruit one by one from
colonies may be found close to water bodies. its pharynx to its beak and feeds the inmates. The
Weaver Bird female do not come out except putting its beak out .

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 23

These birds use the same tree and nest for the future
breeding also and come back to same point in their
next breeding cycle.
Social Behaviour in Honey Bees
Honey bees (or honeybees) are bees of the
genus Apis, primarily distinguished by the production
and storage of honey and the construction
of perennial, colonial nests from wax. Honey bees are
the only extant members of the tribe Apini, all in the
genus Apis. Currently, only seven species of honey bee
are recognized, with a total of 44 subspecies,[1] though
historically, from six to 11 species have been
recognised. Honey bees represent only a small fraction
of the roughly 20,000 known species of bees. Some
other types of related bees produce and store honey,
but only members of the genus Apis are true honey
bees. The study of honey bees is known as apiology.
Honeybees are known for their social behavior.
Honeybees are eusocial. Eusociality, the highest
level of organization of animal sociality, is defined by
the following characteristics: cooperative brood care
(including brood care of offspring from other
individuals), overlapping generations within a colony
of adults, and a division of labor into reproductive and
non-reproductive groups.[1][2] The division of labor
creates specialized behavioral groups within an animal
society which are sometimes called castes. Eusociality
is distinguished from all other social systems because
individuals of at least one caste usually lose the ability
to perform at least one behavior characteristic of
individuals in another caste.[2][3]
Eusociality is mostly observed and studied
in Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps)
and Isoptera (termites).[1] For example, a colony has
caste differences; queens and reproductive males take
the roles as the sole reproducers while the soldiers and
workers work together to create a living situation
favorable for the brood.
One such activity is winter survival.
In cold climates, honey bees stop flying when the
temperature drops below about 10 °C (50 °F) and
crowd into the central area of the hive to form a
"winter cluster". The worker bees huddle around the
queen bee at the center of the cluster, shivering to keep
the center between 27 °C (81 °F) at the start of winter
(during the broodless period) and 34 °C (93 °F) once
the queen resumes laying. The worker bees rotate
through the cluster from the outside to the inside so
that no bee gets too cold. The outside edges of the
cluster stay at about 8–9 °C (46–48 °F). The colder the
weather is outside, the more compact the cluster
becomes. During winter, they consume their stored
honey to produce body heat. The amount of honey
consumed during the winter is a function of winter
length and severity, but ranges in temperate climates
from 15 to 50 kg (30 to 100 pounds).
Bee architecture: bees cooperate to make
elaborate nests
Honey bees nest in large cavities such as hollowed-out
trees. They take well to other enclosed spaces, whether
these occur in nature or are made by
humans. Humans have taken advantage of this habit
by creating bee hives-- boxes that have an appropriate
entrance and are the right size and shape to house a
colony of honey bees. From wax secreted by glands in
their abdomens, honey bees build vertical sheets of
hexagonal honey comb, in which they store honey and
pollen. An individual honey comb hexagon (called
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
a cell) can instead serve as home for a single
developing bee larva, which is fed secretions from the
heads of adult bees, and eventually undergoes
metamorphosis to become an adult bee.
Work of Honeybee workers
The life of a worker bee is short, but
complicated. Worker bees have their own division of
labor, where each bee specializes on a specific type of
work that helps the hive. In honey bees, age has a lot
to do with the job that each bee does for the colony. In
general, young bees (0-3 weeks of age) are homebodies
that work in the nest and older bees (3-7 weeks of age)
spend much of their time outside of the hive. The
diagram below shows the jobs that an individual honey
bee worker might do over the course of her lifetime.
Defense:
All honey bees live in colonies where the
workers sting intruders as a form of defense, and
alarmed bees release a pheromone that stimulates the
attack response in other bees. The different species of
honey bees are distinguished from all other bee species
(and virtually all other Hymenoptera) by the
possession of small barbs on the sting, but these barbs
are found only in the worker bees. The sting and
associated venom sac of honey bees are also modified
so as to pull free of the body once lodged (autotomy),
and the sting apparatus has its own musculature
and ganglion, which allow it to keep delivering venom
once detached. The worker dies after the sting
becomes lodged and is subsequently torn loose from
the bee's abdomen. The honey bee's venom, known
as apitoxin, carries several active components, the
most abundant of which is melittin, and the most
destructivePhospholipase A2.
Communication
Honey bees are known to communicate through many
different chemicals and odors, as is common in insects,
but also using specific behaviours that convey
information about the quality and type of resources in
the environment, and where these resources are
located. The details of the signalling being used vary
from species to species; for example, the two smallest
species, Apis andreniformis and A. florea, dance on the
upper surface of the comb, which is horizontal (not
vertical, as in other species), and worker bees orient
the dance in the actual compass direction of the
resource to which they are recruiting.
Apis mellifera carnica honey bees use their antennae
asymmetrically for social interactions with a strong
lateral preference to use their right antennae
Waggle dance in Honeybees
Behavioral Disorders
By definition, Behavioral disorders, also known
as disruptive behavioral disorders are the most
common reasons that parents are told to take their
kids for mental health assessments and
treatment. Behavioral disorders are also common
in adults. Behavioral disorders may be broken down
into a few types, which include:
 Anxiety disorders
 Disruptive behavioral disorders
 Dissociative disorders
 Emotional disorders
 Pervasive developmental disorders
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
According to Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, ADHD is a condition that impairs an
individual‘s ability to properly focus and to control
Page 24
impulsive behaviors, or it may make the person
overactive.
ADHD is more common in boys than it is in girls.
According to the Wexner Medical Center at Ohio State
University, males are two to three times more likely
than females to get ADHD.
Emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) is a
broad category which is used commonly in educational
settings, to group a range of more specific perceived
difficulties of children and adolescents. Both general
definitions as well as concrete diagnosis of EBD may
be controversial as the observed behavior may depend
on many factors.
An emotional behavioral disorder affects a person‘s
ability to be happy, control their emotions and pay
attention in school. According to Gallaudet University,
symptoms of an emotional behavioral disorder
include:
 Inappropriate actions or emotions under normal
circumstances
 Learning difficulties that are not caused by another
health factor
 Difficulty with interpersonal relationships,
including relationships with teachers and peers
 A general feeling of unhappiness or depression
 Feelings of fear and anxiety related to personal or
school matters
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
ODD is a behavioral disorder characterized by hostile,
irritable and uncooperative attitudes in children,
according to Children‘s Mental Health Ontario.
Children with ODD may be spiteful or annoying on
purpose, and they generally direct their negative
actions at authority figures.
Anxiety
Anxiety is a normal emotion, and all people feel
anxiety at some point in their lives. However, for some
people, anxiety may get to a point where it interferes
with their daily lives, causing insomnia and negatively
affecting performance at work or school. Anxiety
disorders involve more than regular anxiety. They are
serious mental health conditions that require
treatment. Examples of these types of mental
conditions include:
 Post-traumatic stress disorder
 Obsessive-compulsive disorder
 Generalized anxiety disorder
 Panic disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
OCD is characterized by fears and irrational thoughts
that lead to obsessions, which, in turn, cause
compulsions. In OCD, the patients engage in
compulsive, repetitive behavior despite realizing the
negative consequences of — or even the unreasonable
nature of actions. Performing these repetitive acts
relieves stress temporarily.
What Causes a Behavioral Disorder?
A behavioral disorder can have a variety of causes. The
abnormal behavior that is usually associated with
these disorders can be traced back to biological, family
and school-related factors.
Some biological causes may include:
 Physical illness or disability
 Malnutrition
 Brain damage
 Hereditary factors
Other factors related to an individual‘s home life may
contribute to behaviors associated with a behavioral
disorder:
 Divorce or other emotional upset at home
 Coercion from parents
 Unhealthy or inconsistent discipline style
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman
 Poor attitude toward education or schooling
What Are the Signs of a Behavioral Disorder?
Someone who has a behavioral disorder may act out or
display emotional upset in different ways, which will
also vary from person to person.
Emotional Symptoms of Behavioral Disorders
Some of the emotional symptoms of behavioral
disorders include:
 Easily getting annoyed or nervous
 Often appearing angry
 Putting blame on others
 Refusing to follow rules or questioning authority
 Arguing and throwing temper tantrums
 Having difficulty in handling frustration
Physical Symptoms of Behavioral Disorders
Unlike other types of health issues, a behavioral
disorder will have mostly emotional symptoms, with
physical symptoms such as a fever, rash, or headache
being absent. However, sometimes people suffering
from a behavioral disorder will develop a substance
abuse problem, which could show physical symptoms
such as burnt fingertips, shaking or bloodshot eyes.
Short-Term and Long-Term Effects of a
Behavioral Disorder
If left untreated, a behavioral disorder may have
negative short-term and long-term effects on an
individual‘s personal and professional life. People may
get into trouble for acting out, such as face suspension
or expulsion for fighting, bullying or arguing with
authority figures. Adults may eventually lose their
jobs. Marriages can fall apart due to prolonged
strained relationships, while children may have to
switch schools and then eventually run out of options.
According to HealthyChildren.org, the most serious
actions a person with a behavioral disorder may
engage in include starting fights, abusing animals and
threatening to use a weapon on others.
The earlier a behavioral disorder is diagnosed and
properly treated, the more likely it is that a child or
adult suffering from it will be able to control their
behavior.
Self assessment
Mental health professionals and treatment centers can
evaluate people to determine if they a behavioral
disorder. Tests called functional behavioral
assessments offer problem-solving help to address
behavioral problems in students. These assessments
are based on many techniques and strategies for
identifying problem behaviors. Individualized
educational program teams use these assessments to
choose interventions that address specific behavioral
problems. These teams are involved in the education of
students, and they may include parents and teachers.
Medication: Behavior-Modifying Drug Options
A person may receive prescription medications to help
manage a behavioral disorder. Though medication will
not cure the disorder, it is effective in assisting with
treatment to control and modify behaviors.
Behavioral Drugs: Possible Options
Many drugs are available for behavioral problems, and
the type of drug that will be prescribed depends on the
specific condition being treated. The Positive
Environments Network of Trainers of the California
Department of Education lists Ritalin and Dexedrine
as short-acting medications for the treatment of
ADHD. They may help a child focus better, reduce
impulsive behavior and reduce motor restlessness.
Ritalin is also included in a group of medications
known as long-acting stimulants. Other types of
medications in this group include Concerta, Methylin
ER, Methylin CD, Focalin, and Metadate ER. These
medications may also be effective against ADHD.
Concerta may prevent drug abuse, as can Vyanase and
Daytrana. Some professionals recommend Wellbutrin
as a primary ADHD treatment.
People with an anxiety disorder, OCD or ADHD may
benefit from antidepressants, including Paxil, Tofranil,
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 Anafranil, Prozac, Luvox, Celexa, Zoloft and
Norpramin. Other medications that may help include
Daytrana, Biphetamine, Dexedrine, Adderall XR and
Strattera. These medications are aimed at decreasing
impulsivity, reducing hyperactivity, decreasing
obsessive-compulsive actions and reducing feelings of
depression.
Medication Side Effects
Medications for behavioral disorders may have side
effects. They can increase emotional issues, increase
suicidal thoughts and aggravate seizure conditions.
Some of the possible side effects include:
 Insomnia
 Appetite reduction
 Tremors
 Depression
 Abnormal heart rhythms
Behavior Drug Addiction, Dependence and
Withdrawal
An individual may become addicted to the medication
taken to treat a behavioral disorder. As a result, the
person may need professional help with weaning off
that medication. You may experience withdrawal
symptoms if you abuse certain medications.
Medication Overdose
Children are more likely than adults to accidentally
overdose on medication, including behavioral
medications. A person who is depressed because of a
behavioral disorder may attempt an overdose on
purpose. People who are depressed or have suicidal
thoughts have a high risk for overdose, according to
the National Coalition Against Prescription Drug
Abuse.
Depression and Behavioral Disorders
A behavioral disorder may trigger depression. The
opposite is also possible, with depression being a
trigger for a behavioral disorder, which can also lead to
substance abuse.
Dual Diagnosis: Addiction and Behavioral
Disorders
It is not uncommon for people with a behavioral
disorder to also have an addiction to drugs or alcohol.
According to Psychology Today, an individual who has
a panic disorder may also be addicted to alcohol.
Children with ADHD may be at a higher risk for
developing a substance abuse or alcohol dependence
issue if the condition carries over into adulthood.

Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 26